i 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/amongtheruinsOOIaya 


Mm yj!m 


Sylplp 


•-.  A T~  • .- 


'^£S¥J, 


Jfcw  York 


north-easter n facade  and  grand  entrance  of  Sennacherib's  falace  (KouruNJiicJ  t 

Restored  From  a *#  J- Ferflwsnn.  Esqr.e 

. Harper  & Briers, NewYoFk, 1853. 


( 


DISCOVERIES 

AMONG  THE  RUINS  OF 

NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON; 


WITH 

TRAVELS  IN  ARMENIA,  KURDISTAN,  AND  THE  DESERT: 

BEING  THE  RESULT  OF  A SECOND  EXPEDITION 


UNDERTAKEN  FOR 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM. 


BY  AUSTEN  H.  LAYARD,  M.P., 

AUTHOR  OF  “NINEVEH  AND  ITS  REMAINS.” 


“ For  thou  hast  made  of  a city  an 
heap  ; of  a defenced  city  a ruin : a 


palace  of  strangers  to  be  no  city ; it 
shall  never  be  built.”— Is.,  xxv.  2. 


£©tti)  ittaps,  $lans,  an*  XUustrattons. 


NEW  YORK: 

HARPER  & BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 
329  & 331  PEARL  STREET, 

FRANKLIN  SQUARE. 

1859. 


TUT  QtJVi 


TO 


THE  RIGHT  HONORABLE 

THE  EARL  GRANVILLE 


Cjlis  Imlume  is  Srttiratelt, 

IN  ADMIRATION  OF  HIS  PUBLIC  CHARACTER, 

AND  AS  A GRATEFUL  ACKNOWLEDGMENT  OF  MANY  ACTS  OF 


PERSONAL  FRIENDSHIP. 


PREFACE. 


Many  unavoidable  delays  have  prevented  the  earlier 
publication  of  this  volume.  I can  no  longer  appeal,  as  in 
the  preface  of  my  former  work,  to  the  indulgence  of  my 
readers  on  the  score  of  complete  literary  inexperience; 
but  I can  express  heartfelt  gratitude  for  the  kind  and 
generous  reception  given,  both  by  the  press  and  the  pub- 
lic, to  my  first  labors.  I will  merely  add,  that  the  follow- 
ing pages  were  written  at  different  periods,  and  amid  nu- 
merous interruptions  but  little  favorable  to  literary  occu- 
pations. This  must  be  my  apology,  to  a certain  extent, 
for  the  many  defects  they  contain. 

Since  the  publication  of  my  first  work  on  the  discover- 
ies at  Nineveh  much  progress  has  been  made  in  decipher- 
ing the  cuneiform  character,  and  the  contents  of  many 
highly  interesting  and  important  inscriptions  have  been 
given  to  the  public.  For  these  additions  to  our  knowl- 
edge we  are  mainly  indebted  to  the  sagacity  and  learn- 
ing of  the  two  English  scholars,  Col.  Rawlinson  and  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Hincks.  In  making  use  of  the  results  of  their 
researches,  I have  not  omitted  to  own  the  sources  from 
which  my  information  has  been  derived.  I trust,  also, 
that  I have  in  no  instance  availed  myself  of  the  labors 
of  other  writers,  or  of  the  help  of  friends,  without  due 
acknowledgments.  I have  endeavored  to  assign  to  every 
one  his  proper  share  in  the  discoveries  recorded  in  these 
pages. 


VI 


PREFACE. 


I am  aware  that  several  distinguished  F rench  scholars, 
amongst  whom  I may  mention  my  friends,  M.  Botta  and 
M.  de  Saulcy,  have  contributed  to  the  successful  decipher- 
ing of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions.  Unfortunately  I have 
been  unable  to  consult  the  published  results  of  their  in- 
vestigations. If,  therefore,  I should  have  overlooked  in 
any  instance  their  claims  to  prior  discovery,  I have  to  ex- 
press my  regret  for  an  error  arising  from  ignorance,  and 
not  from  any  unworthy  national  prejudice. 

Doubts  appear  to  he  still  entertained  by  many  eminent 
critics  as  to  the  progress  actually  made  in  deciphering  the 
cuneiform  writing.  These  doubts  may  have  been  con- 
firmed by  too  hasty  theories  and  conclusions,  which,  on 
subsequent  investigation,  their  authors  have  been  the  first 
to  withdraw.  But  the  unbiassed  inquirer  can  scarcely 
now  reject  the  evidence  which  can  he  brought  forward  to 
confirm  the  general  accuracy  of  the  interpretations  of  the 
inscriptions.  Had  they  rested  upon  a single  word,  or  an 
isolated  paragraph,  their  soundness  might  reasonably  have 
been  questioned  ; when,  however,  several  independent  in- 
vestigators have  arrived  at  the  same  results,  and  have  not 
only  detected  numerous  names  of  persons,  nations,  and 
cities  in  historical  and  geographical  series,  hut  have  found 
them  mentioned  in  proper  connection  with  events  recorded 
by  sacred  and  profane  writers,  scarcely  any  stronger  evi- 
dence could  he  desired.  The  reader,  I would  fain  hope, 
will  come  to  this  conclusion  when  I treat  of  the  contents 
of  the  various  records  discovered  in  the  Assyrian  palaces. 

I have  endeavored  to  introduce  into  these  pages  as  many 
illustrations  from  the  sculptures  as  my  limits  would  admit. 
I have  been  obliged  to  include  the  larger  and  more  elab- 
orate drawings  of  the  bas-reliefs  in  a folio  volume,  which 
will  form  a second  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh, 


PREFACE. 


vn 


and  will  be  published  at  the  same  time  as  the  present 
work. 

I trust  it  may  not  be  inferred  from  any  remark  I have 
been  induced  to  make  in  .the  following  pages,  that  I have 
any  grounds  of  personal  complaint  against  the  Trustees 
of  the  British  Museum.  From  them  I have  experienced 
uniform  courtesy  and  kindness,  which  I take  this  oppor- 
tunity of  acknowledging  with  gratitude ; but  I can  not  at 
the  same  time  forbear  expressing  a wish,  felt  in  common 
with  myself  by  many  who  have  the  advancement  of  na- 
tional education,  knowledge,  and  taste  sincerely  at  heart, 
that  that  great  establishment,  so  eminently  calculated  to 
promote  this  important  end,  should  be  speedily  placed 
upon  a new  and  more  efficient  basis. 

To  Mr.  Thomas  Ellis,  who  has  added  so  much  to  the 
value  of  my  work  by  his  translations  of  inscriptions  on 
Babylonian  bowls,  now  for  the  first  time,  through  his  sa- 
gacity, deciphered ; to  those  who  have  assisted  me  in  my 
labors,  and  especially  to  my  friend  and  companion,  Mr. 
Hormuzd  Rassam,  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hincks,  to  the  Rev. 
S.  C.  Malan,  who  has  kindly  allowed  me  the  use  of  his 
masterly  sketches,  to  Mr.  Fergusson,  Mr.  Scharf,  and  to 
Mr.  Hawkins,  Mr.  Birch,  Mr.  Yaux,  and  the  other  officers 
of  the  British  Museum,  I beg  to  express  my  grateful 
thanks  and  acknowledgments. 

London,  January,  1853. 


Ivory  Ornament  from  Nimroud. 


■ 

. 


■ 


■ 


■ 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  resume  Excavations  at  Nineveh. — Departure 
from  Constantinople.  — Description  of  our  Party,  -r-  Cawal  Yusuf. — Roads  from 
Trebizond  to  Erzeroom. — Description  of  the  Country. — Varzahan  and  Armenian 
Churches. — Erzeroom. — Reshid  Pasha. — The  Dudjook  Tribes. — Shahan  Bey. — 
Turkish  Reform. — Journey  through  Armenia. — An  Armenian  Bishop. — The  Lakes 
of  Shailu  and  Nazik. — The  Lake  of  Wan Page  1 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Lake  of  Wan. — Akhlat. — Tatar  Tombs. — Ancient  Remains. — A Dervish — A 
Friend. — The  Mudir. — Armenian  Remains. — An  Armenian  Convent  and  Bishop. — 
Journey  to  Bitlis. — Nimroud  Dagh. — Bitlis. — Journey  to  Kherzan. — Yezidi  Vil- 
lage   19 

CHAPTER  III. 

Reception  by  the  Yezidis. — Village  of  Guzelder. — Triumphal  March  to  Redwan. — 
Redwan. — Armenian  Church. — Mirza  Agha. — The  Melek  Taous,  or  Brazen  Bird. — 
Tilleh. — Valley  of  the  Tigris. — Bas-reliefs. — Journey  to  Dereboun — to  Semil. — 
Abde  Agha. — Journey  to  Mosul. — The  Yezidi  Chiefs. — Arrival  at  Mosul. — Xeno- 
phon’s March  from  the  Zab  to  the  Black  Sea 35 

CHAPTER  IV. 

State  of  the  Excavations  on  my  Return  to  Mosul. — Discoveries  at  Kouyunjik. — Tun- 
nels in  the  Mound. — Bas-reliefs  representing  Assyrian  Conquests. — A Well. — Siege 
of  a City. — Nature  of  Sculptures  at  Kouyunjik. — Arrangements  for  Renewal  of  Ex- 
cavations.— Description  of  the  Mound. — Kiamil  Pasha. — Visit  to  Sheikh  Adi. — Yez- 
idi Ceremonies. — Sheikh  Jindi. — Yezidi  Meeting. — Dress  of  the  Women. — Bavian. 
— Ceremony  of  the  Kaidi.— Sacred  Poem  of  the  Yezidi. — Their  Doctrines. — Jer- 
raiyah  — Return  to  Mosul 55 


CHAPTER  V. 

Renewal  of  Excavations  at  Kouyunjik. — First  Visit  to  Nimroud. — State  of  Ruins. — 
Renew  Excavations  in  Mound. — The  Abou  Salman  Arabs. — Visit  of  Colonel  Raw- 
linson. — LatifF  Agha. — Mr.  H.  Rassam. — The  Jebour  Workmen  at  Kouyunjik. — 
Discoveries  at  Kouyunjik. — Sculptures  representing  moving  of  great  Stones  and 
Winged  Bulls. — Methods  adopted.  — Similar  Subject  on  Egyptian  Monument. — 
Epigraphs  on  Bas-reliefs  of  moving  Bulls. — Sculptures  representing  Invasion  of 
Mountainous  Country,  and  Sack  of  City. — Discovery  of  Gateway. — Excavation  in 
high  Conical  Mound  at  Nimroud. — Discovery  of  Wall  of  Stone. — Feast  to  the  Yez- 
idis at  Mosul. — Visit  to  Khorsabad. — Discovery  of  Slab. — State  of  the  Ruins. — 
Futhliyah. — Baazani. — Baasheikhah 80 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Discovery  of  Grand  Entrance  to  the  Palace  of  Kouyunjik — of  the  name  of  Senna- 
cherib in  the  Inscriptions. — The  Records  of  that  King  in  the  Inscriptions  on  the 
Bulls. — An  abridged  Translation  of  them. — Name  of  Hezekiah. — Account  of  Sen- 
nacherib’s Wars  with  the  Jews. — Dr.  Hincks  and  Col.  Rawlinson. — The  Names  of 
Sargon  and  Shalmaneser. — Discovery  of  Sculptures  at  Kouyunjik,  representing  the 
Siege  of  Lachish. — Description  of  the  Sculptures. — Discovery  of  Clay  Seals — of 
Signets  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  Kings. — Cartouche  of  Sabaco. — Name  of  Essar- 
haddon. — Confirmation  of  Historical  Records  of  the  Bible. — Royal  Cylinder  of  Sen- 
nacherib   114 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Road  opened  for  Removal  of  Winged  Lions. — Discovery  of  Vaulted  Drain — of  other 
Arches — of  Painted  Bricks. — Attack  of  the  Tai  on  the  Village  of  Nimroud. — Visit 
to  the  Howar. — Description  of  the  Encampment  of  the  Tai. — The  Plain  of  Shoma- 
mok. — Sheikh  Faras. — Wali  Bey. — Return  to  Nimroud Page  137 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Contents  of  newly-discovered  Chamber. — A Well. — Large  Copper  Caldrons. — Bells, 
Rings,  and  other  Objects  in  Metal. — Tripods. — Caldrons  and  large  Vessels. — Bronze 
Bowls,  Cups,  and  Dishes. — Description  of  the  Embossings  upon  them. — Arms  and 
Armour.  — Shields.  — Iron  Instruments.  — Ivory  Remains.  — Bronze  Cubes  inlaid 
with  Gold. — Glass  Bowls. — Lens. — The  Royal  Throne 149 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Visit  to  the  Winged  Lions  by  Night.  — The  Bitumen  Springs. — Removal  of  the 
Winged  Lions  to  the  River. — Floods  at  Nimroud. — Loss  and  Recovery  of  Lion. — 
Yezidi  Marriage  Festival. — Baazani. — Visit  to  Bavian. — Site  of  the  Battle  of  Ar- 
bela. — Description  of  Rock-Sculptures. — Inscriptions. — The  Shabbaks 171 

CHAPTER  X. 

Visit  to  Kalah  Sherghat  prevented. — Visit  to  Shomamok. — Keshaf. — The  Howar. — 
A Bedouin. — His  Mission. — Descent  of  Arab  Horses. — Their  Pedigree. — Ruins  of 
Mokhamour. — The  Mound  of  the  Kasr. — Plain  of  Shomamok. — The  Gla  or  Kalah. 
— Xenophon  and  the  Ten  Thousand. — A Wolf. — Return  to  Nimroud  and  Mosul. — 
Discoveries  at  Kouyunjik. — Description  of  the  Bas-Reliefs 185 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Preparations  for  a Journey  to  the  Khabour. — Sculptures  discovered  there. — Sheikh 
Suttum. — His  Rediff. — Departure  from  Mosul. — First  Encampment. — Abou  Kha- 
meera. — A Storm. — Tel  Ermah. — A Stranger. — Tel  Jemal. — The  Chief  of  Tel 
Afer. — A Sunset  in  the  Desert. — A Jebour  Encampment. — The  Belled  Sinjar. — 
The  Sinjar  Hill. — Mirkan. — Bukra. — The  Dress  of  the  Yezidis. — The  Shomal. — 
Ossofa. — Aldina. — Return  to  the  Belled. — A Snake-Charmer. — Journey  continued 
in  the  Desert. — Rishwan. — Encampment  of  the  Boraij. — Dress  of  Arab  Women. — 
Rathaiyah. — Hawking. — A Deputation  from  the  Yezidis. — Arab  Encampments. — 
The  Khabour. — Mohammed  Emin. — Arrival  at  Arban 199 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Arban. — Our  Encampment. — Suttum  and  Mohammed  Emin. — Winged  Bulls  discov- 
ered.— Excavations  commenced. — Their  Results. — Discovery  of  Small  Objects — 
of  Second  Pair  of  Winged  Bulls — of  Lion — of  Chinese  Bottle — of  Vase — of  Egyp- 
tian Scarabs — of  Tombs. — The  Scene  of  the  Captivitv 230 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Residence  at  ArDan. — Mohammed  Emin’s  Tent. — The  Agaydat. — Our  Tei.ts. — Bread- 
baking.— Food  of  the  Bedouins. — Thin  Bread. — The  Produce  of  their  Flocks. — Dis- 
eases amongst  them. — Their  Remedies. — The  Deloul  or  Dromedary. — Bedouin 
Warfare. — Suttum’s  First  Wife. — A Storm. — Turtles. — Lions. — A Bedouin  Rob- 
ber.— Beavers. — Ride  to  Ledjmiyat. — A plundering  Expedition. — Loss  of  a Hawk. 
— Ruins  of  Shemshani. — A Tradition. — Jebours  strike  their  Tents. — Return  to  Ar- 
ban.— Visit  to  Moghamis 243 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Leave  Arban. — The  Banks  of  the  Khabour. — Artificial  Mounds. — Mijwell. — The  Cadi 
of  the  Bedouins. — The  Thar  or  Blood-Revenge. — Caution  of  Arabs. — A natural 
Cavern. — An  extinct  Volcano. — The  Confluents  of  the  Khabour. — Bedouin  Marks. 
— Suleiman  Agha. — Encampment  at  Um-Jerjeh.  The  Turkish  Irregular  Cavalry. 
— Mound  of  Mijdel. — Ruins  on  the  Khabour. — Mohammed  Emin  leaves  us. — Visit 
to  Kurdish  Tents  and  Harem. — The  Milli  Kurds. — The  Family  of  Rishwan. — Arab 
Love-Making.  — The  Dakheel.  — Bedouin  Poets  and  Poetry. — Turkish  Cavalry 
Horses 258 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Departure  from  the  Khabour. — Arab  Sagacity. — The  Hoi. — The  Lake  of  Khatouni- 
yah. — Return  of  Suttum. — Encampment  of  the  Shammar. — Arab  Horses — theii 
Breeds — their  Value— their  Speed.— Sheikh  Ferhan. — Yezidi  Villages. — Falcons. 
— An  Alarm. — Abou  Maria. — Eski  Mosul. — Arrival  at  Mosul. — Return  of  Suttum 
to  the  Desert Page  274 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Discoveries  at  Kouyunjik. — Procession  of  Figures  bearing  Fruit  and  Game. — Lo- 
custs.— Led  Horses. — An  Assyrian  Campaign. — Dagon,  or  the  Fish-God. — The 
Chambers  of  Records. — Inscribed  Clay  Tablets. — Return  to  Nimroud. — Effects  of 
the  Flood. — Discoveries. — Small  Temple  under  high  Mound. — The  Evil  Spirit. — 
Fish-God. — Fine  Bas-relief  of  the  King. — Extracts  from  the  Inscription. — Great 
inscribed  Monolith. — Extracts  from  the  Inscription. — Cedar  Beams. — Small  Ob- 
jects.—Second  Temple. — Marble  Figure  and  other  Objects 287 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

The  Summer. — Encampment  at  Kouyunjik. — Visitors. — Mode  of  Life. — Departure 
for  the  Mountains.— Akra. — Rock-Tablets  at  Gunduk. — District  of  Zibari. — Namet 
Agha. — District  of  Shirwan — of  Baradost — of  Gherdi — of  Shemdina. — Mousa  Bey. 
— Nestorian  Bishop. — Convent  of  Mar  Hananisho. — District  and  Plain  of  Ghaour. 
— Dizza. — An  Albanian  Friend. — Bash-Kalah. — Izzet  Pasha. — A Jewish  Encamp- 
ment.— High  Mountain  Pass. — Mahmoudiyah. — First  View  of  Wan 314 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Mehemet  Pasha. — Description  of  Wan. — Its  History. — Improvement  in  its  Condition. 
— The  Armenian  Bishop. — The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. — The  Caves  of  Khorkhor. 
— The  Meher  Kapousi. — A Tradition. — Observations  on  the  Inscriptions. — Table 
of  Kings  mentioned  in  them. — The  Bairam. — An  Armenian  School. — The  Ameri- 
can Missions. — Protestant  Movement  in  Turkey. — Amikh. — The  Convent  of  Yedi 
Klissia 335 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Leave  Wan. — The  Armenian  Patriarch. — The  Island  of  Akhtamar. — An  Armenian 
Church. — History  of  the  Convent. — Pass  into  Mukus. — The  District  of  Mukus — 
of  Shattak — of  Nourdooz. — A Nestorian  Village. — Encampments. — Mount  Ararat. 
— Mar  Shamoun. — Julamerik. — Valley  of  Diz. — Pass  into  Jelu. — Nestorian  District 
of  Jelu. — An  ancient  Church. — The  Bishop. — District  of  Baz — of  Tkhoma. — Return 
to  Mosul 353 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Discoveries  at  Kouyunjik  during  the  Summer. — Description  of  the  Sculptures. — Cap- 
ture of  Cities  on  a great  River. — Pomp  of  Assyrian  King. — Passage  of  a River. — 
Alabaster  Pavement. — Conquest  of  Tribes  inhabiting  a Marsh. — Their  Wealth. — 
Chambers  with  Sculptures  belonging  to  a new  King. — Description  of  the  Sculp- 
tures.— Conquest  of  the  People  of  Susiana. — Portrait  of  the  King. — His  Guards 
and  Attendants. — The  City  of  Shushan. — Captive  Prince. — Musicians. — Captives 
put  to  the  Torture. — Artistic  Character  of  the  Sculptures. — An  inclined  Passage. 
— Two  small  Chambers. — Colossal  Figures. — More  Sculptures 374 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Preparations  for  leaving  Nineveh. — Departure  for  Babylon. — The  Awai. — Descent 
of  the  River. — Tekrit. — The  State  of  the  Rivers  of  Mesopotamia. — Commerce  upon 
them. — Turkish  Roads. — The  Plain  of  Dura. — The  Naharwan. — Samarrah. — Ka- 
desia. — Palm  Groves. — Kathimain. — Approach  to  Baghdad. — The  City. — Arrival. 
— Dr.  Ross. — A British  Steamer. — Modem  Baghdad. — Tel  Mohammed. — Depart- 
ure for  Babylon. — A Persian  Prince. — Abde  Pasha’s  Camp. — Eastern  Falconry. — 
Hawking  the  Gazelle. — Approach  to  Babylon. — The  Ruins — Arrival  at  Hillah.  397 


CONTENTS. 


xii 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Chiefs  of  Hillah. — Present  of  Lions. — The  Son  of  the  Governor. — Description  ol 
the  Town.  — Zaid.  — The  Ruins  of  Babylon.  — Changes  in  the  Course  of  the  Eu- 
phrates.— The  Walls. — Visit  to  the  Sirs  Nimroud.  — Description  of  the  Ruin. — 
View  from  it. — Excavations  and  Discoveries  in  the  Mound  of  Babel — in  the  Muje- 
libe  or  Kasr. — The  Tree  Athele.  — Excavations  in  the  Ruin  of  Amran.  — Bowls, 
with  Inscriptions  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac  Characters. — Translations  of  the  Inscrip- 
tions.— The  Jews  of  Babylonia Page  415 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

State  of  the  Ruins  of  Babylon. — Cause  of  the  Disappearance  of  Buildings. — Nature 
of  original  Edifices. — Babylonian  Bricks. — The  History  of  Babylon. — Its  Fall. — Its 
remarkable  Position. — Commerce. — Canals  and  Roads. — Skill  of  Babylonians  in 
the  Arts.— Engraved  Gems. — Corruption  of  Manners,  and  consequent  Fall  of  the 
City. — The  Mecca  Pilgrimage. — Sheikh  Ibn  Reshid. — The  Gebel  Shammar. — 
Tribes  of  Southern  Mesopotamia. — The  Mounds  of  El  Hymer — of  Anana 449 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Ruins  in  Southern  Mesopotamia. — Departure  from  Hillah. — Sand-Hills. — Villages  in 
the  Jezireh. — Sheikh  Karboul. — Ruins. — First  View  of  Niffer. — The  Marshes. — 
Arab  Boats. — Arrive  at  Souk-el-Afaij. — Sheikh  Agab. — Town  of  the  Afaij. — De- 
scription of  the  Ruins  of  NifFer. — Excavations  in  the  Mounds. — Discovery  of  Cof- 
fins— of  various  Relics. — Mr.  Loftus’  Discoveries  at  Wurka. — The  Arab  Tribes. — 
Wild  Beasts. — Lions. — Customs  of  the  Afaij. — Leave  the  Marshes.  — Return  to 
Baghdad. — A Mirage 463 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

Preparations  for  Departure. — Sahiman. — Plunder  of  his  Camels. — Leave  Baghdad. — 
Journey  through  Mesopotamia. — Early  Arab  Remains. — The  Median  Wall. — Tek- 
rit. — Horses  stolen. — Instances  of  Bedouin  Honesty. — Excavations  at  Kalah  Sher- 
ghat. — Reach  Mosul. — Discoveries  during  Absence. — New  Chambers  at  Kouyun- 
jik. — Description  of  Bas-reliefs. — Extent  of  the  Ruins  explored. — Bases  of  Pillars. 
— Small  Objects. — Roman  Coins  struck  at  Nineveh. — Hoard  of  Denarii. — Greek 
Relics. — Absence  of  Assyrian  Tombs.  — Fragment  with  Egyptian  Characters. — 
Assyrian  Relics. — Remains  beneath  the  Tomb  of  Jonah. — Discoveries  at  Shereef- 
Khan — at  Nimroud. — Names  of  new  Kings. — Assyrian  Weights. — Engraved  Cyl- 
inders   488 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Results  of  the  Discoveries  to  Chronology  and  History. — Names  of  Assyrian  Kings  m 
the  Inscriptions. — A Date  fixed. — The  Name  of  Jehu. — The  Obelisk  King. — The 
earlier  Kings. — Sardanapalus. — His  Successors. — Pul,  or  Tiglath-Pileser.  — Sar- 
gon. — Sennacherib. — Essarhaddon. — The  last  Assyrian  Kings. — Tables  of  proper 
Names  in  the  Cuneiform  Character. — Antiquity  of  Nineveh. — Of  the  Name  of  As- 
syria.— Illustrations  of  Scripture. — State  of  Judaea  and  Assyria  compared. — Polit- 
ical Condition  of  the  Empire. — Assyrian  Colonies. — Prosperity  of  the  Country. — 
Religion. — Extent  of  Nineveh. — Assyrian  Architecture — compared  wfith  Jewish. 
— Palace  of  Kouyunjik  restored. — Platform  at  Nimroud  restored. — The  Assyrian 
fortified  Inclosures. — Description  of  Kouyunjik. — Conclusion... 521 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PLACING  THE  PLATES  AND  MAPS. 


N.  E.  Fafade  and  Entrance  to  Sennacherib’s  Palace,  restored. 

Plan  I.  of  excavated  Chambers,  Kouyunjik 

Egyptians  moving  a Colossus  from  the  Quarries 

Plan  II.  of  Square  Tower  and  Small  Temple 

Plan  III.  Platform  and  Palaces,  Nimroud  

Map  of  Assyria,  &c.  > 

General  Map  of  Mesopotamia  J 


. . . Frontispiece, 
to  face  page  56 
“ 97 

“ 105 

“ 556 

at  the  end 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS 


Ruined  Mosque  and  Minarets  (Erzeroom).  In  page  ! 

Ancient  Armenian  Church  at  Varzahan.  In  page  6 

Threshing  the  Corn  in  Armenia.  In  page  15 

Section  of  Wheel  of  Armenian  Cart.  In  page  18 

Armenian  Plough,  near  Akhlat.  In  page  18 

Early  Mussulman  Tomb  at  Akhlat.  In  page  19 

Turbeh,  or  Tomb,  of  Sultan  Baiandour,  at  Akhlat.  Facing  page  20 

Yezidi  Women.  In  page  34 

Kurdish  Women  at  a Spring.  In  page  35 

The  Melek  Taous,  or  Copper  Bird  of  the  Yezidis,  In  page  40 

Sculptured  Tablet  at  Fynyk.  In  page  45 

Rock  Sculptures  near  Jezireh.  In  page  45 

Mosul,  from  the  North.  In  page  54 

Subterranean  Excavations  at  Kouyunjik.  In  page  55 

Castle  near  a River  or  Marsh  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  56 

Valley  and  Tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi.  Facing  page  67 

Sheikh  Nasr,  High  Priest  of  the  Yezidis.  In  page  68 

Yezidi  Dance  at  Sheikh  Adi.  Facing  page  70 

Yezidi  Cawals.  In  page  79 

Mound  of  Nimroud.  In  page  80 

Head-dress  of  Captives  employed  by  Assyrians  in  moving  Bull  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  87 

Excavations  at  Kouyunjik  Facing  page  89 

Workmen  carrying  Ropes,  Saws,  and  other  Implements  for  moving  Buli  (Kouyun- 
jik). In  page  91 

Stag  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  91 

Wild  Sow  and  Young,  amongst  Reeds  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  91 

King  superintending  Removal  of  Colossal  Bull  (Kouyunjik;.  Facing  page  92 

Village  with  conical  Roofs,  near  Aleppo.  In  page  94 

Assyrians  placing  a human-headed  Bull  (partly  restored  from  a Bas-relief  at  Kou- 
yunjik). Facing  page  96 

Plan  of  Northern  Entrance  to  Inclosure  of  Kouyunjik.  In  page  103 

Tunnel  along  Eastern  Basement  Wall  (Nimroud).  Facing  page  105 

Tunnel  along  Western  Basement  Wall  (Nimroud).  Facing  page  105 

Western  Face  of  Basement  of  Tower  (Nimroud).  Facing  page  106 

Northern  Face  of  Basement  of  Tower  (Nimroud).  Facing  page  106 

Elevation  of  Stylobate  of  Temple.  In  page  110 

Section  of  Stylobate  of  Temple.  In  page  110 

Cart  with  Ropes,  and  Workmen  carrying  Saws,  Picks,  and  Shovels,  for  moving  Co- 
lossal Bull  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  113 

Bulls,  with  Historical  Inscriptions  of  Sennacherib  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  114 

Remains  of  Grand  Entrance  of  the  Palace  of  Sennacherib  (Kouyunjik). 

Facing  page  117 

Existing  Remains  at  Khorsabad,  showing  original  State  of  Grand  Entrance  at  Kou- 
yunjik. Facing  page  117 

Sennacherib  on  his  Throne  before  Lachish.  In  page  127 

Jewish  Captives  from  Lachish  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  129 

Impression  of  a Seal  on  Clay.  In  page  130 

Back  of  the  same  Seal,  showing  the  Marks  of  the  String  and  the  Fingers.  In  page  130 

Assyrian  Seals.  In  page  131 

Phoenician  Seals.  In  page  131 

Egyptian  Seals.  . In  page  132 

Impressions  of  the  Signets  of  the  Kings  of  Assyria  and  Egypt.  (Original  Size.) 

In  page  132 

Part  of  Cartouche  of  Sabaco,  enlarged  from  the  Impression  of  his  Signet.  In  page  132 

Royal  Cylinder  of  Sennacherib.  In  page  135 

Piece  of  Clay  with  Impressions  of  Seals.  In  page  136 


xiv 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


Vaulted  Drain  beneath  the  North-west  Palace  at  Nimroud.  In  page  137 

Bronze  Socket  of  the  Palace  Gate  (Nimroud).  In  page  138 

Vaulted  Drain  beneath  South-east  Palace  (Nimroud).  In  page  138 

Perfect  Arch  beneath  South-east  Edifice  (Nimroud).  In  page  139 

Arab  Tent.  In  page  148 

Excavated  Chamber  in  which  the  Bronzes  were  discovered  (Nimroud).  In  page  149 
Bronze  Bells  found  in  a Caldron  (Nimroud).  In  page  150 

Horse  Trappings  from  a Bas-relief  at  Kouyunjik,  showing  probable  Use  of  Ivory 


Studs  and  Metal  Rosettes. 

Bronze  Ornaments. 

Bronze  Object. 

Bronze  Hook. 

Ivory  and  Mother  of  Pearl  Studs  (Nimroud). 

Feet  of  Tripods  in  Bronze  and  Iron 
Feet  of  Tripods  in  Bronze  and  Iron. 

Bronze  Vessels,  taken  from  the  Interior  of  a Caldron. 
Bronze  Vessel,  taken  from  the  Interior  of  a Caldron. 
Bronze  Head  of  a Mace. 

Bronze  Handle  of  a Dish  or  Vase. 

Bronze  Wine  Strainer. 

Bronze  Dish,  from  Nimroud. 

Bronze  Dish,  from  Nimroud. 

Handles  of  Bronze  Dishes,  from  Nimroud. 

Bronze  Cup,  6Un.  diameter,  and  lfin.  deep. 

Engraved  Scarab  in  Centre  of  same  Cup. 


In  page  150 
Facing  page  150 
Facing  page  150 
Facing  page  150 
Facing  page  150 
Facing  page  150 
In  page  152 
Facing  page  152 
Facing  page  152 
Facing  page  152 
Facing  page  152 
Facing  page  152 
In  page  155 
In  page  156 
In  page  157 
In  page  157 
In  page  157 


Embossed  Figures  on  the  Bronze  Pedestal  of  a Figure  from  Polledrara,  in  the  British 
Museum.  In  page  160 

Embossed  Figure  on  the  Bronze  Pedestal  of  a Figure  from  Polledrara.  In  page  160 
Bronze  Pedestal  of  Figure  from  Polledrara.  In  page  161 

Bronze  Cup,  from  Nimroud.  In  page  161 

Bronze  Shields,  from  Nimroud.  In  page  163 

An  Iron  Pick,  from  Nimroud.  In  page  165 

Half  of  a double-handled  Saw,  from  Nimroud.  In  page  165 

Part  of  Ivory  Sceptre.  In  page  165 

Bronze  Cubes  inlaid  with  Gold.  (Original  Size.)  In  page  166 

Glass  and  Alabaster  Vases  bearing  the  Name  of  Sargon,  from  Nimroud.  In  page  167 
Fragments  of  Bronze  Ornaments  of  the  Throne  (Nimroud).  In  page  168 

Bronze  Bull’s  Head  from  Throne.  In  page  168 

Bronze  Head,  part  of  Throne,  showing  bitumen  inside.  In  page  168 

Bronze  Binding  of  Joints  of  Throne.  In  page  169 

Bronze  Casing,  from  the  Throne  (Nimroud).  In  page  169 

A Group  of  Yezidis.  In  page  171 

Rock-Sculpture  (Bavian).  In  page  178 

Sacred  Symbols  or  Royal  Tablets  (Bavian).  In  page  179 

Fallen  Rock-Sculptures  (Bavian).  In  page  182 

Assyrian  Fountain  (Bavian).  In  page  183 

Hussein  Bey,  the  Chief  of  the  Yezidis,  and  his  Brother.  In  page  184 

The  Author’s  House  at  Nimroud.  In  page  185 

Awad,  Sheikh  of  the  Jehesh.  In  page  191 

A Captive  (of  the  Tokkaril)  Kouyunjik.  In  page  195 

Bas-relief  from  Kouyunjik,  representing  a fortified  City,  a River  with  a Boat  and 
Raft,  and  a Canal.  In  page  196 

Bas-relief  representing  a River,  and  Gardens  watered  by  Canals  (Kouyunjik). 


Our  first  Encampment  in  the  Desert. 

Sheikh  Suttum. 

Roman  Coin  of  Gordian  and  Tranquillina,  struck  at 

Interior  of  a Yezidi  House  at  Bukra,  in  the  Sinjar. 
Arab  Nose  Ring  and  Bracelet  of  Silver. 

Suttum,  with  his  Wife,  on  his  Dromedary. 

Sheikh  Mohammed  Emin. 

Encampment  on  the  Khabour. 

Mound  of  Arban,  on  the  Khabour. 

Front  View  of  Winged  Bull  at  Arban. 


Facing  page  196 
In  page  199 
In  page  203 

Singara  (British  Museum). 

In  page  212 
In  page  214 
In  page  222 
In  page  229 
In  page  230 
Facing  page  230 
Facing  page  233 
In  page  235 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


XV 


Lion  discovered  at  Arban — Bas-relief  discovered  at  Arban.  In  page  237 

Chinese  Bottle  discovered  at  Arban — Figure  in  Pottery,  from  Mosul.  In  page  238 
Egyptian  Scarab,  from  Arban — Scarabs  discovered  at  Arban.  In  page  239,  240 
Scarabs  discovered  at  Arban.  In  page  240 

Winged  Bull  discovered  at  Arban.  In  page  242 

Arab  Women  grinding  Corn  with  a Handmill,  rolling  out  the  Dough,  and  baking  the 
Bread.  In  page  243 

Saddling  a Deloul,  or  Dromedary.  In  page  257 

Kurdish  Women.  In  page  258 

The  Tent  of  the  Milli  Chief.  In  page  273 

Volcanic  Cone  of  Koukab.  In  page  274 

Lake  and  Island  of  Khatouniyah  Facing  page  277 

Arab  Camels.  In  page  286 

An  Entrance  to  the  Great  Hall  of  the  North-west  Palace  (Nimroud).  In  page  287 
Attendants  carrying  Pomegranates  and  Locusts  (Kouyunjik).  Facing  page  289 

The  King  in  his  Chariot  passing  through  a Stream  in  a Valley  (Kotiyunjik). 

Facing  page  290 

Assyrian  Cylinder,  with  Dagon,  or  the  Fish-God.  In  page  292 

Entrance  Passage,  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  292 

Fish-God,  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  295 

Fish-God  on  Gems  in  the  British  Museum.  In  page  295 

Archive  Chamber,  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  296 

Inscribed  Tablet  impressed  with  Seals.  In  page  298 

Inscribed  Tablet,  with  Inscription  at  one  End  in  cursive  Characters.  In  page  298 
Entrance  to  small  Temple  (Nimroud).  Facing  page  301 

Fish-God  at  Entrance  to  small  Temple  (Nimroud).  In  page  301 

Entrance  to  Temple,  High  Mound  (Nimroud)  Facing  page  302 

Fragment  in  blue  Clay  (Nimroud).  In  page  308 

Eye  in  black  Marble  and  Ivory  (Nimroud).  In  page  308 

Box  in  Chalcedony  (Nimroud) — Box  in  Porcelain  1 (Nimroud).  In  page  309 

Fragment  in  Porcelain  1 (Nimroud).  In  page  309 

Entrance  to  a small  Temple  (Nimroud).  Facing  page  31 1 

Statue  of  King,  from  Temple  (Nimroud).  In  page  311 

Head  in  Gypsum,  from  small  Temple  (Nimroud).  In  page  312 

Ivory  Head  from  small  Temple  (Nimroud).  In  page  312 

Landing  Place  with  Ferry-boats  on  the  Tigris,  at  Mosul.  In  page  314 

Rock-Sculptures  near  the  Village  of  Gunduk.  In  page  319 

The  Castle  of  Mahmoudiyah.  In  page  334 

Kurds  of  Wan.  In  page  335 

The  Town  and  Rock  of  Wan.  Facing  page  338 

Interior  of  a Tomb  in  the  Rock  (Wan).  In  page  340 

Ground  Plan  of  the  same  Tomb  (on  the  same  Scale).  In  page  341 

Kurd  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Wan.  In  page  352 

A Nestorian  Family  employed  in  the  Excavations  at  Kouyunjik.  In  page  353 

Summer  Sleeping-Place  in  the  Hills.  In  page  373 

Arabs  and  Nestorians  moving  a Slab  at  Kouyunjik.  In  page  374 

Metal  Vessel  or  Casket  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  380 

Assyrian  Warriors  in  a Cart,  captured  from  the  Elamites  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  382 
Musicians  and  Singers  coming  out  to  meet  the  Conquerors  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  389 
Assyrians  torturing  their  Captives  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  390 

Assyrians  flaying  their  Prisoners  alive,  and  carrying  away  Heads  of  the  Slain  (Kou- 
yunjik). Facing  page  390 

Wall  of  ascending  Passage  in  the  Palace  of  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  395 

Colossal  Figures  at  an  Entrance  (Kouyunjik).  In  page  395 

Tunic  of  colossal  Figures  on  opposite  Sculpture.  In  page  395 

Cases  containing  Sculptures  ready  for  Embarkation.  In  page  396 

A Kellek  or  Raft  on  the  Tigris.  In  page  397 

Bronze  Ball  from  Tel  Mohammed — Figures  of  Assyr.  Venus  in  baked  Clay.  In  page  408 


A Hooded  Falcon  (Chark)  on  its  Stand. 

The  Mujelibe  or  Kasr  (from  Rich). 

Plan  of  Part  of  Ruins  of  Babylon  on  Eastern  Bank  of  the  Euphrates. 
Eastern  Face  of  the  Birs  Nimroud,  with  proposed  Restoration. 

Bottle  of  ribbed  Glass,  from  the  Mound  of  Babel. 

Glass  Bottles,  from  the  Mound  of  Babel. 

Glazed  Earthenware  Vessel,  from  the  Mound  of  Babel. 


In  page  414 
In  page  415 
In  page  418 
In  page  424 
In  page  429 
In  page  429 
In  page  429 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


Jug  of  Soapstone,  from  the  Mound  of  Babel. 

Fragment  from  the  Mujelibe  (Babylon). 

Earthen  Jars  found  in  Babylonian  Ruins. 

No.  1.  An  Earthen  inscribed  Bowl,  from  Babylon, 
inches. 

No.  3.  An  Earthen  inscribed  Bowl,  from  Babylon, 
inch. 

Bowl  No.  5.  Diameter  4f  inches,  depth  2£  inches. 

Bowl  No.  6.  Diameter  5 inches,  depth  3 inches. 

Inscribed  Earthen  Bowls,  from  Babylon. 

Terracotta  Tablet  from  Babylon,  representing  an  Indian  Dog. 
Babylonian  Cylinder  in  Sienite  (Size  of  the  Original). 

Engraved  Gem  from  Babylon — Cylinder  in  the  British  Museum. 
Heads  of  Arab  Delouls. 

Arab  Man  and  Woman. 

Lid  of  glazed  Coffin. 

Glazed  Coffins  from  Babylonia. 

Terracotta  Model  of  a Body  in  a Coffin. 

Ram  in  baked  Clay,  from  Niffer — Engraved  Pebble. 

Fragments  of  engraved  Shells,  from  Wurka. 

Inscribed  Object  in  Clay,  from  Wurka. 

Arab  Sheep. 

Nestorian  and  Arab  Workmen,  with  Jar  discovered  at  Nimroud. 
Loading  a Camel  (Kouyunjik)— Captives  resting  (Kouyunjik). 
Captives  in  a Cart  (Kouyunjik). 

A Battle  in  a Marsh  in  Southern  Mesopotamia  (Kouyunjik). 
Chariot,  with  circular  Shield  attached  (Kouyunjik). 


In  page  430 
In  page  433 
In  page  434 
Diameter  6 inches,  depth  3 
In  page  437 
Diameter  6 inches,  depth  H 
In  page  440 
In  page  442 
In  page  444 
In  page  448 
In  page  449 
In  page  458 
In  pago  458 
In  page  462 
In  page  463 
In  page  474 
In  page  475 
In  page  476 
In  page  478 
In  pages  478,  479 
In  page  479 
In  page  487 
In  page  488 
In  page  495 
In  page  496 
In  page  497 
In  page  499 

Assyrians  cutting  down  the  Palm  Trees  belonging  to  a captured  City  (Kouyunjik). 

In  page  500 

Assyrian  Pedestal,  from  Kouyunjik.  In  page  501 

Coin  of  Trajan,  struck  at  Nineveh — Coin  of  Maximinus  struck  at  Nineveh.  In  ppge  502 
Fragment  of  stamped  Pottery,  from  Kouyunjik,  probably  of  the  Persian  Period. 

In  page  502 

Greek  or  Roman  Relics,  from  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  505 

Fragment  of  Dish,  with  Inscriptions  in  Hieroglyphs,  from  Kouyunjik.  In  page  505 
Stone  Vessel,  from  Kouyunjik.  In  page  506 

Handle  of  Marble  Dish,  from  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  506 

Copper  Instrument,  from  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  506 

Fragments  of  hollow  Tubes  in  Glass,  from  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  506 

Gold  Ear-ring  with  Pearls,  from  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  506 

Terracotta  Vessel,  from  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  506 

Moulds  for  Gold  and  Silver  Ear-rings,  from  Nimroud.  Facing  page  506 

Moulds  for  Gold  and  Silver  Ear-rings,  from  Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud.  Facing  page  506 
Inscriptions  on  Bronze  Lion-Weights  in  the  British  Museum.  Facing  page  513 
Egyptian  weighing  Rings  of  Metal,  with  Weights  in  form  of  a seated  Lion.  In  page  513 
Cylinders  in  green  Jasper.  In  page  514 

Ancient  Assyrian  Cylinder,  in  Serpentine.  In  page  515 

Assyrian  Cylinders,  in  Serpentine.  In  page  515 

Assyrian  Cylinder,  in  Agate — Assyrian  Cylinder,  in  Porcelain  or  Quartz.  In  page  516 
Babylonian  Cylinders,  in  Iron  Haematite  and  Jasper.  In  page  516 

Babylonian  Cylinder,  in  green  Jasper.  In  page  516 

Babylonian  Cylinder,  in  Jasper — Cylinders,  with  Semetic  Characters.  In  page  517 
Persian  Cylinders,  in  red  Cornelian,  in  Chalcedony,  in  Rock  Crystal,  and  in  Onyx. 

In  page  518 

Clay  Tablet  with  Cylinder,  impressed,  from  Kouyunjik.  In  page  519 

Part  of  colossal  Head,  from  Kouyunjik.  In  page  520 

Tomb  of  the  Prophet  Jonah,  and  the  River  Khauser.  In  page  521 

Bas-relief  representing  Pul,  or  Tiglath-Pileser  (Nimroud).  In  page  527 

Captives  from  Padan-Aram,  Assyria,  and  Carchemish,  of  the  Time  of  Amenophis  III. 

In  page  538 

Exterior  of  a Palace,  from  a Bas-relief  at  Kouyunjik.  In  page  552 

Throne  Room,  Teheran.  In  page  553 

Plan  of  the  Inclosure  Walls  and  Ditches  at  Kouyunjik.  In  page  561 

Double  Ditch  and  Walls  of  Inclosure  of  Kouyunjik.  Facing  page  562 

Last  View  of  Mosul.  In  page  566 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM  RESUME  EXCAVATIONS  AT  NINEVEH. DEPART- 
URE FROM  CONSTANTINOPLE. DESCRIPTION  OF  OUR  PARTY. CAWAL  YUSUF. ROADS 

FROM  TREBIZOND  TO  ERZEROOM. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY. VARZAHAN  AND 

ARMENIAN  CHURCHES. ERZEROOM. RESHID  PASHA. THE  DUDJOOK  TRIBES. SHAHAN 

BEY. TURKISH  REFORM. JOURNEY  THROUGH  ARMENIA. AN  ARMENIAN  BISHOP. 

THE  LAKES  OF  SHAILU  AND  NAZIK. THE  LAKE  OF  WAN. 


After  a few  months’  residence  in  England  during  the  year  1848,  to 
recruit  a constitution  worn  by  long  exposure  to  the  extremes  of  an  Eastern 

A 


Ruined  Mosque  and  Minarets  (Erzeroom). 


2 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  I. 


climate,  I received  orders  to  proceed  to  my  post  at  Her  Majesty’s  Embassy 
in  Turkey.  The  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  did  not,  at  that  time, 
contemplate  further  excavations  on  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh.  Ill  health 
and  limited  time  had  prevented  me  from  placing  before  the  public,  pre- 
vious to  my  return  to  the  East,  the  results  of  my  first  researches  with  the 
illustrations  of  the  monuments  and  copies  of  the  inscriptions  recovered  from 
the  ruins  of  Assyria.  They  were  not  published  until  some  time  after  my 
departure,  and  did  not  consequently  receive  that  careful  superintendence 
and  revision  necessary  to  works  of  this  nature.  It  was  at  Constantinople 
that  I first  learnt  the  general  interest  felt  in  England  in  the  discoveries, 
and  that  they  had  been  universally  received  as  fresh  illustrations  of  Scrip- 
ture and  prophecy,  as  well  as  of  ancient  history  sacred  and  profane. 

And  let  me  here,  at  the  very  outset,  gratefully  acknowledge  that  gener- 
ous spirit  of  English  criticism  which  overlooks  the  incapacity  and  short- 
comings of  the  laborer  when  his  object  is  worthy  of  praise,  and  that  object 
is  sought  with  sincerity  and  singleness  of  purpose.  The  gratitude,  which 
I deeply  felt  for  encouragement  rarely  equalled,  could  be  best  shown  by 
cheerfully  consenting,  without  hesitation,  to  the  request  made  to  me  by 
the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  urged  by  public  opinion,  to  undertake 
the  superintendence  of  a second  expedition  into  Assyria.  Being  asked  to 
furnish  a plan  of  operations,  I stated  what  appeared  to  me  to  be  the  course 
best  calculated  to  produce  interesting  and  important  results,  and  to  enable 
us  to  obtain  the  most  accurate  information  on  the  ancient  history,  language, 
and  arts,  not  only  of  Assyria,  but  of  its  sister  kingdom,  Babylonia.  Per- 
haps my  plan  was  too  vast  and  general  to  admit  of  performance  or  war- 
rant adoption.  I was  merely  directed  to  return  to  the  site  of  Nineveh, 
and  to  continue  the  researches  commenced  amongst  its  ruins. 

Arrangements  were  hastily,  and  of  course  inadequately,  made  in  En- 
gland. The  assistance  of  a competent  artist  was  most  desirable,  to  por- 
tray with  fidelity  those  monuments  which  injury  and  decay  had  rendered 
unfit  for  removal.  Mr.  F.  Cooper  was  selected  by  the  Trustees  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  to  accompany  the  expedition  in  this  capacity.  Mr.  Hormuzd 
Rassam,  already  well  known  to  many  of  my  readers  for  the  share  he  had 
taken  in  my  first  discoveries,  quitted  England  with  him.  They  both  joined 
me  at  Constantinople.  Dr.  Sandwith,  an  English  physician  on  a visit  to 
the  East,  was  induced  to  form  one  of  our  party.  One  Abd-el-Messiah,  a 
Catholic  Syrian  of  Mardin,  an  active  and  trustworthy  servant  during  my 
former  residence  in  Assyria,  was  fortunately  at  this  time  in  the  capital,  and 
again  entered  my  service  : my  other  attendants  were  Mohammed  Agha,  a 
cawass,  and  an  Armenian  named  Serkis.  The  faithful  Bairakdar,  who 
had  so  well  served  me  during  my  previous  journey,  had  accompanied  the 
English  commission  for  the  settlement  of  the  boundaries  between  Turkey 
and  Persia  ; with  the  understanding,  however,  that  he  was  to  meet  me  at 
Mosul,  in  case  I should  return.  Cawal  Yusuf,  the  head  of  the  Preachers 
of  the  Yezidis,  with  four  chiefs  of  the  districts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Diar- 


CAWAL  YUSUF. 


3 


Chap.  I.] 

bckir,  who  had  been  for  some  months  in  Constantinople,  completed  my 
party. 

After  my  departure  from  Mosul,  in  1847,  the  military  conscription,  en- 
forced amongst  the  Mussulman  inhabitants  of  the  Pashalic,  was  extended 
to  the  Yezidis,  who,  with  the  Christians,  had  been  previously  exempted 
from  its  operation  on  the  general  law  sanctioned  by  the  Koran,  and  hith- 
erto acted  upon  by  most  Mohammedan  nations,  that  none  but  true  believ- 
ers can  serve  in  the  armies  of  the  state.  On  the  ground  that  being  of  no 
recognised  infidel  sect,  they  must  necessarily  be  included,  like  the  Druses 
and  Ansyri  of  Mount  Lebanon,  amongst  Mussulmans,  the  Government  had 
recently  endeavored  to  raise  recruits  for  the  regular  troops  amongst  the 
Yezidis.  The  new  regulations  had  been  carried  out  with  great  severity, 
and  had  given  rise  to  many  acts  of  cruelty  and  oppression  on  the  part  of 
the  local  authorities.  Besides  the  feeling  common  to  all  Easterns  against 
compulsory  service  in  the  army,  the  Yezidis  had  other  reasons  for  opposing 
the  orders  of  the  Government.  They  could  not  become  nizam , or  disci- 
plined soldiers,  without  openly  violating  the  rites  and  observances  enjoined 
by  their  faith.  The  bath,  to  which  Turkish  soldiers  are  compelled  weekly 
to  resort,  is  a pollution  to  them,  when  taken  in  common  with  Mussulmans  ; 
the  blue  color,  and  certain  portions  of  the  Turkish  uniform  are  absolutely 
prohibited  by  their  law ; and  they  cannot  eat  several  articles  of  food  in- 
cluded in  the  rations  distributed  to  the  troops.  The  recruiting  officers  re- 
fused to  listen  to  these  objections,  enforcing  their  orders  with  extreme  and 
unnecessary  severity.  The  Yezidis,  always  ready  to  suffer  for  their  faith, 
resisted,  and  many  died  under  the  tortures  inflicted  upon  them.  They 
were,  moreover,  still  exposed  to  the  oppression  and  illegal  exactions  of  the 
local  governors.  Their  children  were  still  lawful  objects  of  public  sale, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  introduction  of  the  reformed  system  of  government 
into  the  provinces,  the  parents  were  subject  to  persecution,  and  even  to 
death,  on  account  of  their  religion.  In  this  state  of  things,  Hussein  Bey 
and  Sheikh  Nasr,  the  chiefs  of  the  whole  community,  hearing  that  I was 
at  Constantinople,  determined  to  send  a deputation  to  lay  their  grievances 
before  the  Sultan,  hoping  that  through  my  assistance  they  could  obtain  ac- 
cess to  some  of  the  Ministers  of  State.  Cawal  Yusuf  and  his  companions 
were  selected  for  the  mission  ; and  money  was  raised  by  subscriptions  from 
the  sect  to  meet  the  expenses  of  their  journey. 

After  encountering  many  difficulties  and  dangers,  they  reached  the  cap- 
ital and  found  out  my  abode.  I lost  no  time  in  presenting  them  to  Sir 
Stratford  Canning,  who,  ever  ready  to  exert  his  powerful  influence  in  the 
cause  of  humanity,  at  once  brought  their  wrongs  to  the  notice  of  the  Porte. 
Through  his  kindly  intercession  a firman,  or  imperial  order,  was  granted  to 
the  Yezidis,  which  freed  them  from  all  illegal  impositions,  forbade  the  sale 
of  their  children  as  slaves,  secured  to  them  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  re- 
ligion, and  placed  them  on  the  same  footing  as  other  sects  of  the  empire. 
It  was  further  promised  that  arrangements  should  be  made  to  release  them 


4 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  I. 


from  such  military  regulations  as  rendered  their  service  in  the  army  in- 
compatible with  the  strict  observance  of  their  religious  duties.  So  often 
can  influence,  well  acquired  and  well  directed,  be  exercised  in  the  great 
cause  of  humanity,  without  distinction  of  persons  or  of  creeds  ! This  is  but 
one  of  the  many  instances  in  which  Sir  Stratford  Canning  has  added  to 
the  best  renown  of  the  British  name. 

Cawal  Yusuf,  having  fulfilled  his  mission,  eagerly  accepted  my  proposal 
to  return  with  me  to  Mosul.  His  companions  had  yet  to  obtain  certain 
documents  from  the  Porte,  and  were  to  remain  at  Constantinople  until 
their  business  should  he  completed.  The  Cawal  still  retained  the  dress 
of  his  sect  and  office.  His  dark  face  and  regular  and  expressive  features 
were  shaded  by  a black  turban,  and  a striped  aha  of  coarse  texture  was 
thrown  loosely  over  a robe  of  red  silk. 

Our  arrangements- were  complete  by  the  28th  of  August  (1849),  and  on 
that  day  we  left  the  Bosphorus  by  an  English  steamer  bound  for  Trebi- 
zond.  The  size  of  my  party  and  its  consequent  incumbrances  rendering  a 
caravan  journey  absolutely  necessary,  I determined  to  avoid  the  usual 
tracks,  and  to  cross  eastern  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  both  on  account  of  the 
novelty  of  part  of  the  country  in  a geographical  point  of  view,  and  its  po- 
litical interest  as  having  only  recently  been  brought  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  Turkish  government. 

We  disembarked  at  Trebizond  on  the  31st,  and  on  the  following  day 
commenced  our  land  journey.  The  country  between  this  port  and  Erze- 
room  has  been  frequently  traversed  and  described.  Through  it  pass  the 
caravan  routes  connecting  Persia  with  the  Black  Sea,  the  great  lines  of 
intercourse  and  commerce  between  Europe  and  central  Asia.  The  roads 
usually  frequented  are  three  in  number.  The  summer,  or  upper,  road  is 
the  shortest,  but  is  most  precipitous,  and,  crossing  very  lofty  mountains,  is 
closed  after  the  snows  commence  ; it  is  called  Tchairler , from  its  fine  up- 
land pastures,  on  which  the  horses  are  usually  fed  when  caravans  take  this 
route.  The  middle  road  has  few  advantages  over  the  upper,  and  is  rarely 
followed  by  merchants,  who  prefer  the  lower,  although  making  a consider- 
able detour  by  Gumish  Khaneh,  or  the  Silver  Mines.  The  three  unite  at 
the  town  of  Baiburt,  midway  between  the  sea  and  Erzeroom.  Although 
an  active  and  daily  increasing  trade  is  carried  on  by  these  roads,  no  means 
whatever  have  until  recently  been  taken  to  improve  them.  They  consist 
of  mere  mountain  tracks,  deep  in  mud  or  dust  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year.  The  bridges,  built  when  the  erection  and  repair  of  public  works 
were  imposed  upon  the  local  governors,  and  deemed  a sacred  duty  by  the 
semi-independent  hereditary  families,  who  ruled  in  the  provinces  as  Pashas 
or  Dereh-Beys,  have  been  long  permitted  to  fall  into  decay,  and  commerce 
is  frequently  stopped  for  days  by  the  swollen  torrent  or  fordless  stream. 
This  has  been  one  of  the  many  evil  results  of  the  system  of  centralisation 
so  vigorously  commenced  by  Sultan  Mahmoud,  and  so  steadily  carried  out 
during  the  present  reign.  The  local  governors,  receiving  a fixed  salary, 


TURKISH  ROADS. 


U 


Chap.  I.] 

and  rarely  permitted  to  remain  above  a few  months  in  one  office,  take  no 
interest  whatever  in  the  prosperity  of  the  districts  placed  under  their  care. 
The  funds  assigned  by  the  Porte  for  public  works,  small  and  totally  inade- 
quate, are  squandered  away  or  purloined  long  before  any  part  can  be  ap- 
plied to  the  objects  in  view. 

Since  my  visit  to  Trebizond,  a road  for  carts  has  been  commenced,  which 
is  to  lead  from  that  port  to  the  Persian  frontiers ; but  it  will,  probably, 
like  other  undertakings  of  the  kind,  be  abandoned  long  before  completed, 
or,  if  ever  completed,  will  be  permitted  at  once  to  fall  to  ruin  from  the  want 
of  common  repair.  And  yet  the  Persian  trade  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of 
revenue  of  the  Turkish  empire,  and  unless  conveniences  are  afforded  for  its 
prosecution,  will  speedily  pass  into  other  hands.  The  southern  shores  of 
the  Black  Sea,  twelve  years  ago  rarely  visited  by  a foreign  vessel,  are  now 
coasted  by  steamers  belonging  to  three  companies,  which  touch  nearly 
weekly  at  the  principal  ports ; and  there  is  commerce  and  traffic  enough 
for  more.  The  establishment  of  steam  communication  between  the  ports 
and  the  capital  has  given  an  activity  previously  unknown  to  internal 
trade,  and  has  brought  the  inhabitants  of  distant  provinces  of  the  empire 
into  a contact  with  the  capital  highly  favorable  to  the  extension  of  civil- 
ization and  to  the  enforcement  of  the  legitimate  authority  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  want  of  proper  harbors  is  a considerable  drawback  in  the 
navigation  of  a sea  so  unstable  and  dangerous  as  the  Euxine.  Trebizond 
has  a mere  roadstead,  and  from  its  position  is  otherwise  little  calculated 
for  a great  commercial  port,  which,  like  many  other  places,  it  has  become, 
rather  from  its  hereditary  claims  as  the  representative  of  a city  once  fa- 
mous, than  from  any  locd.1  advantages. 

The  only  harbor  on  the  southern  coast  is  that  of  Batoun,  nor  is  there 
any  retreat  for  vessels  on  the  Circassian  shores.  This  place  is  therefore 
probably  destined  to  become  the  emporium  of  trade,  both  from  its  safe  and 
spacious  port,  and  from  the  facility  it  affords  of  internal  communication 
with  Persia,  Georgia,  and  Armenia.  From  it  the  Turkish  government 
might  have  been  induced  to  construct  the  road  since  commenced  at  Trebi- 
zond, had  not  a political  influence,  always  hostile  to  any  real  improve- 
ment in  the  Ottoman  empire,  opposed  it  with  that  pertinacity  which  is 
generally  sure  to  command  success. 

At  the  back  of  Trebizond,  as  indeed  along  the  whole  of  this  singularly 
bold  and  beautiful  coast,  the  mountains  rise  in  lofty  peaks,  and  are  wood- 
ed with  trees  of  enormous  growth  and  admirable  quality,  furnishing  an 
unlimited  supply  of  timber  for  commerce  or  war.  Innumerable  streams 
force  their  way  to  the  sea  through  deep  and  rocky  ravines.  The  more 
sheltered  spots  are  occupied  by  villages  and  hamlets,  chiefly  inhabited  by 
a hardy  and  industrious  race  of  Greeks.  In  spring,  the  choicest  flowers 
perfume  the  air,  and  luxuriant  creepers  clothe  the  limbs  of  gigantic  trees. 
In  summer,  the  richest  pastures  enamel  the  uplands,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  coasts  drive  their  flocks  and  herds  to  the  higher  regions  of  the  hills. 


6 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  I. 


The  forests,  nourished  by  the  exhalations  and  rains  engendered  by  a large 
expanse  of  water,  form  a belt,  from  thirty  to  fifty  miles  in  breadth,  along 
the  Black  Sea.  Beyond,  the  dense  woods  cease,  as  do  also  the  rugged 
ravine  and  rocky  peak.  They  are  succeeded  by  still  higher  mountains, 
mostly  rounded  in  their  forms,  some  topped  with  eternal  snow,  barren  of 
wood  and  even  of  vegetation,  except  during  the  summer,  when  they  are 
covered  with  Alpine  flowers  and  herbs.  The  villages  in  the  valleys  are 
inhabited  by  Turks,  Lazes  (Mussulmans),  and  Armenians ; the  soil  is  fer- 
tile, and  produces  much  corn. 

Our  journey  to  Erzeroom  was  performed  without  incident.  A heavy 
and  uninterrupted  rain  for  two  days  tried  the  patience  and  temper  of 
those  who  for  the  first  time  encountered  the  difficulties  and  incidents  of 
Eastern  travel.  The  only  place  of  any  interest,  passed  during  our  ride, 
was  a small  Armenian  village,  the  remains  of  a larger,  with  the  ruins  of 
three  early  Christian  churches,  or  baptisteries.  These  remarkable  build- 


Ancient  Armenian  Church  at  Varzahan. 


ings,  of  which  many  examples  exist,  belong  to  an  order  of  architecture 
peculiar  to  the  most  eastern  districts  of  Asia  Minor  and  to  the  ruins  of 


ARMENIAN  CHURCHES. 


7 


Chap.  I.] 

ancient  Armenian  cities,*  on  the  borders  of  Turkey  and  Persia.  The  one, 
of  which  I have  given  a sketch,  is  an  octagon,  and  may  have  been  a bap- 
tistery. The  interior  walls  are  still  covered  with  the  remains  of  elaborate 
frescoes  representing  scripture  events  and  national  saints.  The  colors  are 
vivid,  and  the  forms,  though  rude,  not  inelegant  or  incorrect,  resembling 
those  of  the  frescoes  of  the  Lower  Empire  still  seen  in  the  celebrated  By- 
zantine church  at  Trebizond,  and  in  the  chapels  of  the  convents  of  Mount 
Athos.  The  knotted  capitals  of  the  thin  tapering  columns  grouped  togeth- 
er, the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  stones  over  the  doorway,  supporting 
each  other  by  a zigzag,  and  the  decorations  in  general,  call  to  mind  the 
European  Gothic  of  the  middle  ages.  These  churches  date  probably  be- 
fore the  twelfth  century : but  there  are  no  inscriptions,  or  other  clue,  to 
fix  their  precise  epoch,  and  the  various  styles  and  modifications  of  the 
architecture  have  not  been  hitherto  sufficiently  studied  to  enable  us  to  de- 
termine with  accuracy  the  time  to  which  any  peculiar  ornaments  or  forms 
may  belong.  Yet  there  are  many  interesting  questions  connected  with 
this  Armenian  architecture  which  well  deserve  elucidation.  From  it  was 
probably  derived  much  that  passed  into  the  Gothic,  whilst  the  Tatar  con- 
querors of  Asia  Minor  adopted  it,  as  will  be  hereafter  seen,  for  their  mau- 
soleums and  places  of  worship.  It  is  peculiarly  elegant  both  in  its  deco- 
rations, its  proportions,  and  the  general  arrangement  of  the  masses,  and 
might  with  advantage  be  studied  by  the  modern  architect.  Indeed,  Asia 
Minor  contains  a mine  of  similar  materials  unexplored  and  almost  un- 
known. 

The  churches  of  Yarzahan,  according  to  the  information  I received  from 
an  aged  inhabitant  of  the  village,  had  been  destroyed  some  fifty  years  be- 
fore by  the  Lazes.  The  oldest  people  of  the  place  remembered  the  time 
when  divine  worship  was  still  performed  within  their  walls. 

We  reached  Erzeroom  on  the  8th,  and  were  most  hospitably  received 
by  the  British  consul,  Mr.  Brant,  a gentleman  who  has  long,  well,  and 
honorably  sustained  our  influence  in  this  part  of  Turkey,  and  who  was  the 
first  to  open  an  important  field  for  our  commerce  in  Asia  Minor.  With 
him  I visited  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Turkish  forces  in  Anatolia, 
who  had  recently  returned  from  a successful  expedition  against  the  wild 
•mountain  tribes  of  central  Armenia,  fteshid  Pasha,  known  as  the  “ GuZ' 
lu,”  or  “ the  Wearer  of  Spectacles,”  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  an  Euro- 
pean education,  and  had  already  distinguished  himself  in  the  military  ca- 
reer. With  a knowledge  of  the  French  language  he  united  a taste  for  Eu- 
ropean literature,  which,  during  his  numerous  expeditions  into  districts  un- 
known to  western  travellers,  had  led  him  to  examine  their  geographical 
features,  and  to  make  inquiries  into  the  manners  and  religion  of  their  in- 
habitants. His  last  exploit  had  been  the  subjugation  of  the  tribes  inhab- 

* Particularly  of  Ani.  Mons.  Texier  is,  I believe,  the  only  traveller  who  has  at- 
tempted to  give  elaborate  plans,  elevations,  drawings,  and  restorations  of  these  in- 
teresting edifices. 


8 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap  I. 


iting  the  Dudjook  Mountains,  to  the  south-west  of  Erzeroom,  long  in  open 
rebellion  against  the  Sultan.  The  account  he  gave  me  of  the  country 
and  its  occupants,  much  excited  a curiosity  which  the  limited  time  at  my 
command  did  not  enable  me  to  gratify.  According  to  the  Pasha,  the 
tribes  are  idolatrous,  worshipping  venerable  oaks,  great  trees,  huge  soli- 
tary rocks,  and  other  grand  features  of  nature.  He  was  inclined  to  at- 
tribute to  them  mysterious  and  abominable  rites.  This  calumny,  the 
resource  of  ignorance  and  intolerance,  from  which  even  primitive  Chris- 
tianity did  not  escape,  has  generally  been  spread  in  the  East  against  those 
whose  tenets  are  unknown  or  carefully  concealed,  and  who,  in  Turkey,  are 
included  under  the  general  term,  indicating  their  supposed  obscene  cere- 
monies, of  Cheragh-sonderan,  or  “ Extinguishers  of  Lights.”  They  have 
a chief  priest,  who  is,  at  the  same  time,  a kind  of  political  head  of  the 
sect.  He  had  recently  been  taken  prisoner,  sent  to  Constantinople,  and 
from  thence  exiled  to  some  town  on  the  Danube.  They  speak  a Kurdish 
dialect,  though  the  various  septs  into  which  they  are  divided  have  Arabic 
names,  apparently  showing  a southern  origin.  Of  their  history  and  early 
migrations,  however,  the  Pasha  could  learn  nothing.  The  direct  road  be- 
tween Trebizond  and  Mesopotamia  once  passed  through  their  districts,  and 
the  ruins  of  spacious  and  well-built  khans  are  still  seen  at  regular  inter- 
vals on  the  remains  of  the  old  causeway.  But  from  a remote  period,  the 
country  had  been  closed  against  the  strongest  caravans,  and  no  traveller 
would  venture  into  the  power  of  tribes  notorious  for  their  cruelty  and  law- 
lessness. The  Pasha  spoke  of  re-opening  the  road,  rebuilding  caravanse- 
rais, and  restoring  trade  to  its  ancient  channel — good  intentions,  not 
wanting  amongst  Turks  of  his  class,  and  which,  if  carried  out,  might  re- 
store a country  rich  in  natural  resources  to  more  than  its  ancient  prosper- 
ity. The  account  he  gave  me  is  not  perhaps  to  be  strictly  relied  on,  but 
a district  hitherto  inaccessible  may  possibly  contain  the  remains  of  ancient 
races,  monuments  of  antiquity,  and  natural  productions  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  merit  the  attention  of  the  traveller  in  Asia  Minor. 

The  city  of  Erzeroom  is  rapidly  declining  in  importance,  and  is  almost 
solely  supported  by  the  Persian  transit  trade.  It  would  be  nearly  deserted 
if  that  traffic  were  to  be  thrown  into  a new  channel  by  the  construction 
of  the  direct  road  from  Batoun  to  the  Persian  frontiers.  It  coirtains  no 
buildings  of  any  interest,  with  the  exception  of  a few  ruins  of  those  mon- 
uments of  early  Mussulman  domination,  the  elaborately  ornamented  por 
tico  and  minaret  faced  with  glazed  tiles  of  rich  yet  harmonious  coloring, 
and  the  conical  mausoleum,  peculiar  to  most  cities  of  early  date  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  modern  Turkish  edifices,  dignified  with  the  names  of  palaces 
and  barracks,  are  meeting  the  fate  of  neglected  mud.  Their  crumbling 
walls  can  scarcely  shelter  their  inmates  in  a climate  almost  unequalled  in 
the  habitable  globe  for  the  rigor  of  its  winters. 

The  districts  of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  through  which  lay  our  road 
from  Erzeroom  to  Mosul,  are  sufficiently  unknown  and  interesting  to 


Chap.  I.] 


THE  DUDJOOK  TP.IBES 


9 


merit  more  than  a casual  mention.  The  map  will  show  that  our  route 
by  the  lake  of  Wan,  Bitlis,  and  Jezirah  was  nearly  a direct  one.  It  had 
been  hut  recently  opened  to  caravans.  The  haunts  of  the  last  of  the 
Kurdish  rebels  were  on  the  shores  of  this  lake.  After  the  fall  of  the  most 
powerful  of  their  chiefs,  Beder  Khan  Bey,  they  had  one  by  one  been  sub- 
dued and  carried  away  into  captivity.  Only  a few  months  had,  however, 
elapsed  since  the  Beys  of  Bitlis,  who  had  longest  resisted  the  Turkish 
arms,  had  been  captured.  With  them  rebellion  was  extinguished  for  the 
time  in  Kurdistan. 

Our  caravan  consisted  of  my  own  party,  with  the  addition  of  a mule- 
teer and  his  two  assistants,  natives  of  Bitlis,  who  furnished  me  with  seven- 
teen horses  and  mules  from  Erzeroom  to  Mosul.  The  first  day’s  ride,  as 
is  customary  in  the  East,  where  friends  accompany  the  traveller  far  be- 
yond the  city  gates,  and  where  the  preparations  for  a journey  are  so  nu- 
merous that  everything  cannot  well  be  remembered,  scarcely  exceeded  nine 
miles.  We  rested  for  the  night  in  the  village  of  Guli,  whose  owner,  one 
Shah  an  Bey,  had  been  apprised  of  my  intended  visit.  He  had  rendered 
his  newly-built  house  as  comfortable  as  his  means  would  permit  for  our 
accommodation,  and,  after  providing  us  with  an  excellent  supper,  passed 
the  evening  with  me.  Descended  from  an  ancient  family  of  Dereh-Beys 
he  had  inherited  the  hospitality  and  polished  manners  of  a class  now  al- 
most extinct,  and  of  which  a short  account  may  not  be  uninteresting. 

The  Turkish  conquerors,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Greek  empire,  par- 
celled out  their  newly  acquired  dominions  into  military  fiefs.  These  ten- 
ures varied  subsequently  in  size  from  the  vast  possessions  of  the  great  fam- 
ilies, with  their  hosts  of  retainers,  such  as  the  Kara  Osmans  of  Magnesia, 
the  Pasvan  Oglus,  and  others,  to  the  small  spahiliks  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
whose  owners  were  obliged  to  perform  personal  military  service  when 
called  upon  by  the  state.  Between  them,  of  middle  rank,  were  the  Dereh- 
Beys,  literally  the  “ Lords  of  the  Valley,”  who  resided  in  their  fortified  cas- 
tles, or  villages,  and  scarcely  owned  more  than  a nominal  allegiance  tc 
the  Sultan,  although  generally  ready  to  accompany  him  in  a great  national 
war  against  the  infidels,  or  in  expeditions  against  too  powerful  and  usurp- 
ing subjects.  Sultan  Mahmoud,  a man  of  undoubted  genius  and  of  vast 
views  for  the  consolidation  and  centralisation  of  his  empire,  aimed  not  only 
at  the  extirpation  of  all  those  great  families,  which,  either  by  hereditary 
right  or  by  local  influence,  had  assumed  a kind  of  independence  ; but  of  all 
the  smaller  Dereh-Beys  and  Spahis.  This  gigantic  scheme,  which  changed 
the  whole  system  of  tenure  and  local  administration,  whether  political  or 
financial,  he  nearly  carried  out,  partly  by  force  of  arms,  and  partly  by  treach- 
ery. Sultan  Abd-ul-Mejid,  freed  from  the  difficulties  and  embarrassments 
with  which  an  unfortunate  war  with  Russia  and  successful  rebellions  in  Al- 
bania and  Egypt  had  surrounded  his  father,  has  completed  what  Mahmoud 
commenced.  Not  only  have  the  few  remaining  Dereh-Beys  been  destroyed 
or  removed  one  by  one,  but  even  military  tenure  has  been  entirely  abol- 


10 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYL.ON. 


[Chap.  I. 


ished  by  arbitrary  enactments,  which  have  given  no  compensation  to  the 
owmers,  and  have  destroyed  the  only  hereditary  nobility  in  the  empire. 
Opinions  may  differ  as  to  the  wisdom  of  the  course  pursued,  and  as  to  its 
probable  results.  Whilst  greater  personal  security  has  been  undoubtedly 
established  throughout  the  Ottoman  dominions,  whilst  the  subjects  of  the 
Sultan  are,  theoretically  at  least,  no  longer  exposed  to  the  tyranny  of  local 
chiefs,  but  are  governed  by  the  more  equitable  and  tolerant  laws  of  the 
empire  ; his  throne  has  lost  the  support  of  a race  bred  to  military  life,  un- 
disciplined, it  is  true,  but  brave  and  devoted,  always  ready  to  join  the  holy 
standard  when  unfurled  against  the  enemies  of  the  nation  and  its  religion, 
a race  who  carried  the  Turkish  arms  into  the  heart  of  Europe,  and  were 
the  terror  of  Christendom.  Whether  a regular  army,  disciplined  as  far  as 
possible  after  the  fashion  of  Europe,  will  supply  the  place  of  the  old  Turk- 
ish irregular  cavalry  and  infantry,  remains  to  be  seen,  and,  for  reasons 
which  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  enter  into,  may  fairly  be  doubted.  With 
the  old  system  the  spirit  which  supported  it  is  fast  dying  away,  and  it  may 
be  questioned  whether,  iu  Mussulman. Turkey,  discipline  can  ever  compen- 
sate for  its  loss.  The  country  has  certainly  not  yet  recovered  from  the 
change.  During  the  former  state  of  things,  with  all  the  acts  of  tyranny 
and  oppression  which  absolute  power  engendered,  there  was  more  happiness 
amongst  the  people,  and  more  prosperity  in  the  land.  The  hereditary  chiefs 
looked  upon  their  Christian  subjects  as  so  much  property  to  be  improved 
and  protected,  like  the  soil  itself.  They  were  a source  of  revenue  ; conse- 
quently heavy  taxes  which  impeded  labor,  and  drove  the  laborer  from  the 
land,  were  from  interest  rarely  imposed  upon  them.  The  Government  left 
the  enforcement  of  order  to  the  local  chiefs ; all  the  tribute  received  from 
* them  was  so  much  clear  gain  to  the  treasury,  because  no  collectors  were 
needed  to  raise  it,  nor  troops  to  enforce  its  payment.  The  revenues  of  the 
empire  were  equal  to  great  wars,  and  there  was  neither  public  debt  nor 
embarrassment.  Now  that  the  system  of  centralisation  has  been  fully  car- 
ried out,  the  revenues  are  more  than  absorbed  in  the  measures  necessary  to 
collect  them,  and  the  officers  of  government,  having  no  interest  whatever 
in  the  districts  over  which  they  are  placed,  neglect  all  that  may  tend  to 
the  prosperity  and  well-being  of  their  inhabitants.  It  may  be  objected  in 
extenuation  that  it  is  scarcely  fair  to  judge  of  the  working  of  a system  so 
suddenly  introduced,  and  that  Turkey  is  merely  in  a transition  state  ; the 
principle  it  has  adopted,  whatever  its  abuse,  being  fundamentally  correct. 
One  thing  is  certain,  that  Turkey  must,  sooner  or  later,  have  gone  through 
this  change. 

It  is  customary  to  regard  these  old  Turkish  lords  as  inexorable  tyrants — 
robber  chiefs  who  lived  on  the  plunder  of  travellers  and  of  their  subjects. 
That  there  were  many  who  answered  to  this  description  cannot  be  denied ; 
but  they  were,  I believe,  exceptions.  Amongst  them  were  some  rich  in  vir- 
tues and  high  and  noble  feeling.  It  has  been  frequently  my  lot  to  find  a 
representative  of  this  nearly  extinct  class  in  some  remote  and  almost  un- 


SHAHAN  BEY. 


11 


Chap.  I.] 

known  spot  in  Asia  Minor  or  Albania.  I have  been  received  with  affec- 
tionate warmth  at  the  end  of  a day’s  journey  by  a venerable  Bey  or  Agha 
in  his  spacious  mansion,  now  fast  crumbling  to  ruin,  but  still  bright  with 
the  remains  of  rich,  yet  tasteful,  oriental  decoration  ; his  long  beard,  white 
as  snow,  falling  low  on  his  breast ; his  many-folded  turban  shadowing  his 
benevolent  yet  manly  countenance,  and  his  limbs  enveloped  in  the  noble 
garments  rejected  by  the  new  generation  ; his  hall  open  to  all  comers,  the 
guest  neither  asked  from  whence  he  came  or  whither  he  was  going,  dipping 
his  hands  with  him  in  the  same  dish ; his  servants,  standing  with  rever- 
ence before  him,  rather  his  children  than  his  servants  ; his  revenues  spent 
in  raising  fountains*  on  the  wayside  for  the  weary  traveller,  or  in  building 
caravanserais  on  the  dreary  plain ; not  only  professing  but  practising  all 
the  duties  and  virtues  enjoined  by  the  Koran,  which  are  Christian  duties 
and  virtues  too  ; in  his  manners,  his  appearance,  his  hospitality,  and  his 
faithfulness  a perfect  model  for  a Christian  gentleman.  The  race  is  fast 
passing  away,  and  I feel  grateful  in  being  able  to  testify,  with  a few  oth- 
ers, to  its  existence  once,  against  prejudice,  intolerance,  and  so  called  re- 
form. 

But  to  return  to  our  host  at  Guli.  Shahan  Bey,  although  not  an  old 
man,  was  a very  favorable  specimen  of  the  class  I have  described.  He 
was  truly,  in  the  noble  and  expressive  phraseology  of  the  East,  an  “Ojiak 
Zadeh,”  “ a child  of  the  hearth,”  a gentleman  born.  His  family  had  orig- 
inally migrated  from  Daghistan,  and  his  father,  a pasha,  had  distinguished 
himself  in  the  wars  with  Russia.  He  entertained  me  with  animated  ac- 
counts of  feuds  between  his  ancestors  and  the  neighbouring  chiefs,  when 
without  their  armed  retainers  neither  could  venture  beyond  their  immedi- 
ate territories,  contrasting,  with  good  sense  and  a fair  knowledge  of  his  sub- 
ject, the  former  with  the  actual  state  of  the  country.  On  the  following 
morning,  when  I bade  him  adieu,  he  would  not  allow  me  to  reward  either 
himself  or  his  servants,  for  hospitality  extended  to  so  large  a company. 
He  rode  with  me  for  some  distance  on  my  route,  with  his  greyhounds  and 
followers,  and  then  returned  to  his  village. 

From  Guli  we  crossed  a high  range  of  mountains,  running  nearly  east 
and  west,  by  a pass  called  Ali-Baba,  or  Ala-Baba,  enjoying  from  the  summit 
an  extensive  view  of  the  plain  of  Pasvin,  once  one  of  the  most  thickly-peo- 
pled and  best  cultivated  districts  in  Armenia.  The  Christian  inhabitants 
were  partly  induced  by  promises  of  land  and  protection,  and  partly  com- 
pelled by  force,  to  accompany  the  Russian  army  into  Georgia  after  the  end 
of  the  last  war  with  Turkey.  By  similar  means  that  part  of  the  Pashalic 
of  Erzeroom  adjoining  the  Russian  territories  was  almost  stripped  of  its 
most  industrious  Armenian  population.  To  the  south  of  us  rose  the  snow- 

* The  most  unobservant  and  hasty  traveller  in  Turkey  would  soon  become  ac- 
quainted with  this  fact,  could  he  read  the  modest  and  pious  inscription,  carved  in  re- 
lief on  a small  marble  tablet  of  the  purest  white,  adorning  almost  every  half-ruined 
fountain  at  which  he  stops  to  refresh  himself  by  the  wayside. 


12 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  j. 


capped  mountains  of  the  Bin  Ghiul,  or  the  “ Thousand  Lakes,”  in  which 
the  Araxes  and  several  confluents  of  the  Euphrates  have  their  source.  We 
descended  from  the  pass  into  undulating  and  barren  downs.  The  villages, 
thinly  scattered  over  the  low  hills,  were  deserted  by  their  inhabitants,  who, 
at  this  season  of  the  year,  pitch  their  tents  and  seek  pasture  for  their  flocks 
in  the  uplands.  We  encamped  for  the  night  near  one  of  these  villages, 
called  Gundi-Miran,  or,  in  Turkish,  Bey-Kiui,  which  has  the  same  meaning, 
“ the  village  of  the  chief.”  A man  who  remained  to  watch  the  crops  of 
com  and  barley  went  to  the  tents,  and  brought  us  such  provisions  as  we 
required.  The  inhabitants  of  this  district  are  Kurds,  and  are  still  divided 
into  tribes.  The  owners  of  Gundi-Miran,  and  the  surrounding  villages, 
are  the  Ziraklu  (the  armour-wearers),  who  came  originally  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Diarbekir.  Within  a few  months  of  our  visit  they  were  in 
open  rebellion  against  the  government,  and  the  country  had  been  closed 
against  travellers  and  caravans. 

Next  day  we  continued  our  journey  amongst  undulating  hills,  abound- 
ing in  flocks  of  the  great  and  lesser  bustard.  Innumerable  sheep-walks 
branched  from  the  beaten  path,  a sign  that  villages  were  near  ; .but,  like 
those  we  had  passed  the  day  before,  they  had  been  deserted  for  the  yilaks , 
or  summer  pastures.  These  villages  are  still  such  as  they  were  when 
Xenophon  traversed  Armenia.  “ Their  houses,”  says  he,  “ were  under 
ground  ; the  mouth  resembling  that  of  a well,  but  spacious  below  : there 
was  an  entrance  dug  for  the  cattle,  but  the  inhabitants  descended  by  lad- 
ders. In  these  houses  were  goats,  sheep,  cows,  and  fowls  with  their  young.”* 
The  low  hovels,  mere  holes  in  the  hill-side,  and  the  common  refuge  of 
man,  poultry,  and  cattle,  cannot  be  seen  from  any  distance,  and  they  are 
purposely  built  away  from  the  road  to  escape  the  unwelcome  visits  of  trav- 
elling government  officers  and  marching  troops.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a 
traveller  to  receive  the  first  intimation  of  his  approach  to  a village  by  find- 
ing his  horse’s  fore  feet  down  a chimney,  and  himself  taking  his  place  un- 
expectedly in  the  family  circle  through  the  roof.  Numerous  small  streams 
wind  among  the  valleys,  marking  by  meandering  lines  of  perpetual  green 
their  course  to  the  Arras,  or  Araxes.  We  crossed  that  river  about  midday 
by  a ford  not  more  than  three  feet  deep,  but  the  bed  of  the  stream  is  wide, 
and  after  rains,  and  during  the  spring,  is  completely  filled  by  an  impassa- 
ble torrent.  On  its  southern  bank  we  found  a caravan  reposing,  the  horses 
and  mules  feeding  in  the  long  grass,  the  travellers  sleeping  in  the  shade  of 
their  piled  up  bales  of  goods.  Amongst  the  merchants  we  recognised  sev- 
eral natives  of  Mosul  who  trade  with  Erzeroom,  changing  dates  and  coarse 
Mosul  fabrics  for  a fine  linen  made  at  Riza, — a small  place  on  the  Black 
Sea,  near  Trebizond, — and  much  worn  by  the  wealthy  and  by  women. 

During  the  afternoon  we  crossed  the  western  spur  of  the  Tiektab  Mount- 
ains, a high  and  bold  range  with  three  well  defined  peaks,  which  had  been 
visible  from  the  summit  of  the  Ala-Baba  pass.  From  th?  crest  we  had  the 
* Anabasis,  lib.  iv.  c.  5 


THE  SUBHAN  DAGH. 


Chap.  I.] 


1r% 

O 


first  view  of  Subhan,  or  Sipan,  Dagh,^  a magnificent  conical  peak,  covered 
with  eternal  snow,  and  rising  abruptly  from  the  plam  to  the  north  of  Lake 
Wan.  It  is  a conspicuous  and  beautiful  object  from  every  part  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  We  descended  into  the  wide  and  fertile  plain  of  Hinnis. 
The  town  was  just  visible  in  the  distance,  but  we  left  it  to  the  right,  and 
halted  for  the  night  in  the  large  Armenian  village  of  Kosli,  after  a ride  of 
more  than  nine  hours.  I was  received  at  the  guest-housef  with  great  hos- 
pitality by  one  Misrab  Agha,  a Turk,  to  whom  the  village  formerly  belong- 
ed as  Spahilik  or  military  tenure,  and  who,  deprived  of  his  hereditary  rights, 
had  now  farmed  its  revenues.  He  hurried  with  a long  stick  among  the 
low  houses,  and  heaps  of  dried  dung,  piled  up  in  every  open  space  for  win- 
ter fuel,  collecting  fowls,  curds,  bread,  and  barley,  abusing  at  the  same  time 
the  tanzimat,  which  compelled  such  exalted  travellers  as  ourselves,  he  said, 
“ to  pay  for  the  provisions  we  condescended  to  accept.”  The  inhabitants 
were  not,  however,  backward  in  furnishing  us  with  all  we  wanted,  and  the 
flourish  of  Misrab  Agha’s  stick  was  only  the  remains  of  an  old  habit.  I 
invited  him  to  supper  with  me,  an  invitation  he  gladly  accepted,  having 
himself  contributed  a tender  lamb  roasted  whole  toward  our  entertainment. 

The  inhabitants  of  Kosli  could  scarcely  be  distinguished  either  by  their 
dress  or  by  their  general  appearance  from  the  Kurds.  They  seemed  pros- 
perous and  were  on  the  best  terms  with  the  Mussulman  farmer  of  their 
tithes.  This  village,  with  others  in  the  district,  had  been  nearly  deserted 
after  the  Russian  war,  the  inhabitants  migrating  into  Georgia.  Several 


* Sipan  is  a Kurdish  corruption  of  Subhan,  i.  e.  Praise.  The  mountain  is  so  called, 
because  a tradition  asserts  that  whilst  Noah  was  carried  to  and  fro  by  the  waters  of 
the  deluge,  the  ark  struck  against  its  peak,  and  the  patriarch,  alarmed  by  the  shock, 
exclaimed  “ Subhanu-llah,”  “ Praise  be  to  God !”  It  has  also  been  conjectured  that 
the  name  is  derived  from  “ Surp,”  an  Armenian  word  meaning  “holy.”  It  has  only 
been  ascended  once,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  by  Europeans.  Mr.  Brant,  the  British 
consul  of  Erzeroom,  accompanied  by  Lieut.  Glascott  and  Dr.  Dickson,  reached  the 
summit  on  the  1st  of  September,  1838,  after  experiencing  considerable  fatigue  and 
inconvenience  from  some  peculiarity  in  the  atmosphere  (not,  it  would  appear,  the  re- 
sult of  any  very  considerable  elevation).  They  found  within  the  cone  a small  lake, 
apparently  filling  the  hollow  of  a crater ; and  scoria  and  lava,  met  with  in  abundance 
during  the  ascent,  indicated  the  existence,  at  some  remote  period,  of  a volcano.  Un- 
fortunately, the  barometers  with  which  the  party  were  provided,  were  out  of  order, 
and  Mr.  Brant  has  only  been  able  to  estimate  the  height  of  the  mountain  by  approx- 
imation, at  10,000  feet,  which  I believe  to  be  under  the  mark.  (See  Mr.  Brant’s 
highly  interesting  memoir  in  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geograph- 
ical Society,  p.  49.) 

t Almost  every  village  in  Turkey,  not  on  a high  road,  and  not  provided  with  a car- 
avanserai or  khan,  contains  a house  reserved  exclusively  for  the  entertainment  of 
guests,  in  which  travellers  are  not  only  lodged,  but  fed,  gratuitously.  It  is  maintain- 
ed by  the  joint  contribution  of  the  villagers,  or  sometimes  by  the  charitable  bequests 
of  individuals,  and  is  under  the  care  either  of  the  chief  of  the  village,  or  of  a person 
expressly  named  for  the  purpose,  and  called  the  Oda-Bashi,  the  chief  of  the  guest- 
room. Since  the  introduction  of  the  tanzimat  (reformed  system),  this  custom  is  rap- 
idly falling  into  disuse  in  most  parts  of  Turkey  frequented  by  European  travellers. 


14 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  I. 


families  had  recently  returned,  but  having  finished  their  harvest,  were  de- 
sirous of  recrossing  the  frontier,  probably  a manoeuvre  to  avoid  the  payment 
of  certain  dues  and  taxes.  Of  this  Misrab  Agha  was  fully  aware.  “ The 
id-mannered  fellows,”  exclaimed  he,  “ having  filled  their  bellies  with  good 
things,  and  taken  away  the  fat  of  the  land,  want  to  go  back  to  the  Mus- 
covites ; but  they  deceive  themselves,  they  must  now  sit  where  they  are.” 
The  emigrants  did  not  indeed  speak  very  favourably  of  the  condition  of 
those  who  had  settled  in  Russia.  Many  wish  to  return  to  their  old  villages 
in  Turkey,  where  they  can  enjoy  far  greater  liberty  and  independence. 
This  was  subsequently  confirmed  to  me  by  others  who  had  come  back  to 
their  native  settlements.  The  Russian  government,  however,  by  a strict 
military  surveillance  along  the  Georgian  frontiers,  prevents  as  far  as  pos- 
sible this  desertion. 

Kosli  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  forming  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
plain  of  Hinnis,  through  which  flows  a branch  of  the  Murad  Su,  or  Lower 
Euphrates.  We  forded  this  river  near  the  ruins  of  a bridge  at  Kara  Kupri. 
The  plain  is  generally  well  cultivated,  the  principal  produce  being  corn 
and  hemp.  The  villages,  which  are  thickly  scattered  over  it,  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  extreme  wretchedness,  and,  with  their  low  houses  and  heaps 
of  dried  manure  piled  upon  the  roofs  and  m the  open  spaces  around,  look 
more  like  gigantic  dunghills  than  human  habitations.  The  Kurds  and  Ar- 
menian Christians,  both  hardy  and  industrious  races,  are  pretty  equally 
divided  in  numbers,  and  live  sociably  in  the  same  filth  and  misery.  The 
extreme  severity  of  the  winter — the  snow  lying  deep  on  the  ground  for 
some  months — prevents  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees,  and  the  complete  ab- 
sence of  wood  gives  the  country  a desolate  aspect.  Bustards,  cranes,  and 
waterfowl  of  various  kinds  abound. 

We  left  the  plain  of  Hinnis  by  a pass  through  the  mountain  range  of 
Zernak.  In  the  valleys  we  found  clusters  of  black  tents  belonging  to  the 
nomad  Kurds,  and  the  hill-sides  were  covered  with  their  flocks.  The  sum- 
mit of  a high  peak  overhanging  the  road  is  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  a castle 
formerly  held  by  Kurdish  chiefs,  who  levied  black-mail  on  travellers,  and 
carried  their  depredations  into  the  plains.  On  reaching  the  top  of  the  pass 
we  had  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  Subhan  Dagh.  From  the  village  of 
Karagol,  where  we  halted  for  the  night,  it  rose  abruptly  before  us.  This 
magnificent  peak,  with  the  rugged  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  the  river  Eu- 
phrates winding  through  the  plain,  the  peasants  driving  the  oxen  over  the 
corn  on  the  threshing-floor,  and  the  groups  of  Kurdish  horsemen  with  their 
long  spears  and  flowing  garments,  formed  one  of  those  scenes  of  Eastern 
travel  which  leave  an  indelible  impression  on  the  imagination,  and  bring 
back  in  after  years  indescribable  feelings  of  pleasure  and  repose. 

The  threshing-floor,  which  added  so  much  to  the  beauty  and  interest  of 
the  picture  at  Karagol,  had  been  seen  in  all  the  villages  we  had  passed 
during  our  day’s  journey.  The  abundant  harvest  had  been  gathered  in, 
and  the  corn  was  now  to  be  threshed  and  stored  for  the  winter.  The  pro- 


Chap.  I ] 


A THRESHING-FLOOR. 


15 


cess  adopted  is  simple,  and  nearly  such  as  it  was  in  patriarchal  times. 
The  children  either  drive  horses  round  and  round  over  the  heaps,  or  stand- 
ing upon  a sledge  stuck  full  of  sharp  flints  on  the  under  part,  are  drawn  by 
oxen  over  the  scattered  sheaves.  Such  were  “ the  threshing-sledges  armed 
with  teeth”  mentioned  by  Isaiah.  In  no  instance  are  the  animals  muz- 
zled— “ thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  corn  but 
they  linger  to  pick  up  a scanty  mouthful  as  they  are  urged  on  by  the  boys 
and  young  girls,  to  whom  the  duties  of  the  threshing-floor  are  chiefly  as- 
signed. The  grain  is  winnowed  by  the  men  and  women,  who  throw  the 
corn  and  straw  together  into  the  air  with  a wooden  shovel,  leaving  the 
wind  to  carry  away  the  chaff  whilst  the  seed  falls  to  the  ground.  The 


Threshing  the  Corn  in  Armenia. 


wheat  is  then  raked  into  heaps  and  left  on  the  threshing-floor  until  the 
tithe-gatherer  has  taken  his  portion.  The  straw  is  stored  for  the  winter, 
as  provender  for  the  cattle.* 

The  Kurdish  inhabitants  of  this  plain  are  chiefly  of  the  tribe  of  Mamanli 

* These  processes  of  threshing  and  winnowing  appear  to  have  been  used  from  the 
earliest  time  in  Asia.  Isaiah  alludes  to  it  when  addressing  the  Jews  (xxviii.  27,  28. 
See  Translation  by  the  Rev.  John  Jones) : — 

“ The  dill  is  not  threshed  with  the  threshing  sledge , 

Nor  is  the  wheel  of  the  wain  made  to  roll  over  the  cummin. 

Bread  corn  is  threshed : 

But  not  for  ever  will  he  continue  thus  to  thresh  it ; 

Though  he  driveth  along  the  wheels  of  his  wain, 

And  his  horses,  he  will  not  bruise  it  to  dust.” 

“ The  oxen  and  the  young  asses,  that  till  the  ground 

Shall  eat  clean  provender, 

Which  hath  been  winnowed  with  the  shovel  and  with  the  fan.”  (xxx.  24.) 

“ Behold,  I have  made  thee  a new  sharp  threshing  wain  (sledge)  armed  with  point- 
ed teeth."  (xli.  15.) 

“ Thou  shalt  winnow  them,  and  the  wind  shall  carry  them  away.”  (xli.  16.) 


16 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  I. 


once  very  powerful,  and  mustering  nearly  2000  horsemen  for  war,  accord- 
ing to  the  information  I received  from  one  of  their  petty  chiefs  who  lodged 
with  us  for  the  night  in  the  guest-house  of  Karagol.  After  the  Russian 
war,  part  of  the  tribe  was  included  in  the  ceded  territory.  Their  chief  re- 
sides at  Malaskert. 

"We  crossed  the  principal  branch  of  the  Euphrates  soon  after  leaving 
Karagol.  Although  the  river  is  fordable  at  this  time  of  the  year,  during 
the  spring  it  is  nearly  a mile  in  breadth,  overflowing  its  banks,  and  con- 
verting the  entire  plain  into  one  great  marsh.  "VYe  had  now  to  pick  our 
way  through  a swamp,  scaring,  as  we  advanced,  myriads  of  wild-fowl.  I 
have  rarely  seen  game  in  such  abundance  and  such  variety  in  one  spot ; 
the  water  swarmed  with  geese,  duck,  and  teal,  the  marshy  ground  with 
herons  and  snipe,  and  the  stubble  with  bustards  and  cranes.  After  the 
rains  the  lower  road  is  impassable,  and  caravans  are  obliged  to  make  a con 
siderable  circuit  along  the  foot  of  the  hills. 

\Ye  were  not  sorry  to  escape  the  fever-breeding  swamp  and  mud  of  the 
plain,  and  to  enter  a line  of  low  hills,  separating  us  from  the  lake  of  Gula 
Shailu.  I stopped  for  a few  minutes  at  an  Armenian  monastery,  situated 
on  a small  platform  overlooking  the  plain.  The  bishop  was  at  his  breakfast, 
his  fare  frugal  and  episcopal  enough,  consisting  of  nothing  more  than  boiled 
beans  and  sour  milk.  He  insisted  that  I should  partake  of  his  repast,  and 
I did  so,  in  a small  room  scarcely  large  enough  to  admit  the  round  tray  con- 
taining the  dishes,  into  which  I dipped  my  hand  with  him  and  his  chaplain. 
I found  him  profoundly  ignorant,  like  the  rest  of  his  class,  grumbling  about 
taxes,  and  abusing  the  Turkish  government.  All  I could  learn  of  the 
church  was  that  it  contained  the  body  of  a much  venerated  saint,  who  had 
lived  about  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  and  that  it  was  the 
resort  of  the  afflicted  and  diseased  who  trusted  to  their  faith,  rather  than 
to  medicine,  for  relief.  The  whole  establishment  belongs  to  the  large  Ar- 
menian village  of  Kop,  which  could  be  faintly  distinguished  in  the  plain  be- 
low. The  Kurds  had  plundered  the  convent  of  its  books  and  its  finery,  but 
the  church  remained  pretty  well  as  it  had  been  some  fifteen  centuries  ago. 

After  a pleasant  ride  of  five  hours  we  reached  a deep  clear  lake,  em- 
bedded in  the  mountains,  two  or  three  pelicans,  “ swan  and  shadow  double,” 
and  myriads  of  water-fowl,  lazily  floating  on  its  blue  waters.  Piron,  the 
village  where  we  halted  for  the  night,  stands  at  the  further  end  of  the 
Gula  Shailu,  and  is  inhabited  by  Kurds  of  the  tribe  of  Hasananlu,  and  by 
Armenians,  all  living  in  good  fellowship  amidst  the  dirt  and  wretchedness 
of  their  eternal  dungheaps.  Ophthalmia  had  made  sad  havoc  amongst 
them,  and  the  doctor  was  soon  surrounded  by  a orowd  of  the  blind  and 
diseased  clamoring  for  relief.  The  villagers  said  that  a Persian,  professing 
to  be  a Hakim,  had  passed  through  the  place  some  time  before,  and  had 
offered  to  cure  all  bad  eyes  on  payment  of  a certain  sum  in  advance.  These 
terms  being  agreed  to,  he  gave  his  patients  a powder  which  left  the  sore 
eyes  as  they  were,  and  destroyed  the  good  ones.  He  then  went  his  way : 


A KURDISH  VILLAGE 


17 


Chap.I.] 

“ And  with  the  money  in  his  pocket  too,”  added  a ferocious-looking  Kurd, 
whose  appearance  certainly  threw  considerable  doubt  on  the  assertion  ; 
“ but  what  can  one  do  in  these  days  of  accursed  Tanzimat  (reform)  ?” 

The  district  we  had  now  entered  formerly  belonged  to  Sheriff  Bey,  the 
rebellious  chief  of  Moush,  but,  since  his  capture  last  year,  had  been  made 
miri , or  government  property.  Although  all  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants 
of  this  part  of  Kurdistan  are  Kurds,  those  alone  are  called  so  who  live  in 
tents ; those  who  reside  in  villages  are  known  simply  as  “ Mussulman.” 

The  lake  of  Shailu  is  separated  from  the  larger  lake  of  Nazik,  by  a 
range  of  low  hills  about  six  miles  in  breadth.  We  reached  the  small 
village  of  Khers,  built  on  its  western  extremity,  in  about  two  hours  and  a 
half,  and  found  the  chief,  surrounded  by  the  principal  inhabitants,  seated 
on  a raised  platform  near  a well-built  stone  house.  He  assured  me,  stroking 
a beard  of  spotless  white  to  confirm  his  words,  that  he  was  above  ninety 
years  of  age,  and  had  never  seen  an  European  before  the  day  of  my  visit. 
Half  blind,  he  peered  at  me  through  his  bleer  eyes  until  he  had  fully  satis- 
fied his  curiosity ; then  spoke  contemptuously  of  the  Franks,  and  abused 
the  Tanzimat,  which  he  declared  had  destroyed  all  Mussulman  spirit,  had 
turned  true  believers  into  infidels,  and  had  brought  his  own  tribe  to  ruin, 
meaning,  of  course,  that  they  could  no  longer  prey  upon  their  neighbours. 
His  son,  more  of  a courtier,  and  probably  thinking  that  something  might 
be  gained  by  praising  the  present  state  of  things,  spoke  less  unfavorably 
of  reform,  though,  I doubt  not,  entertaining  equal  aversion  to  it  in  his  heart. 
The  old  gentleman,  notwithstanding  his  rough  exterior,  was  hospitable 
after  his  fashion,  and  would  not  suffer  us  to  depart  until  we  had  eaten  of 
every  delicacy  the  village  could  afford. 

Our  path  lay  along  the  banks  of  the  lake.  The  people  of  Khers  declare 
that  the  Nazik  Gul  only  contains  fish  during  the  spring  of  the  year,  and 
then  but  of  the  one  kind  caught  in  the  lake  of  Wan.  I was  unable 
to  account  for  this  fact,  repeated  by  the  peasants  whom  we  met  on  our 
road,  until  reaching  the  eastern  end  of  the  lake  I found  that  a communi- 
cation existed  between  it  and  that  of  Wan,  by  a deep  ravine,  through 
which  the  waters,  swollen  during  the  rains  and  by  the  melting  of  the  snows 
in  spring,  discharge  themselves  near  Akhlat.*  At  this  season  there  was 
only  water  enough  in  the  ravine  to  show  the  difference  of  level.  In  spring 
the  fish  seek  the  creeks  and  fresh- water  streams  to  spawn,  and  at  that  time 
alone  are  captured  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  shores  of  the  lake  of  Wan. 
During  the  rest  of  the  year,  they  leave  the  shallows  and  are  secure  from 
the  nets  of  the  fishermen.!  The  only  fish  known  is  of  the  size  and  appear- 

* The  Shailu  lake  has,  I was  informed,  a similar  communication  with  the  Murad 
Su.  Both  lakes  are  wrongly  placed  in  the  Prussian  and  other  maps,  and  their  out- 
lets unnoticed. 

t Yakuti,  in  his  geographical  work,  the  “Moajem  el  Buldan,”  mentions  this  dis- 
appearance of  the  fish,  which  are  only  to  be  seen,  he  says,  during  three  months  of 
the  year.  He  adds,  however,  frogs  and  shellfish. 

B 


18 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  I. 


ance  of  a herring.  It  is  caught  during  the  season  in  such  abundance  that 
it  forms,  when  dried  and  salted,  provision  for  the  rest  of  the  year,  and  a 
considerable  article  of  exportation.  I was  informed,  however,  by  a Chris- 
tian, that  a large  fish,  probably  of  the  barbel  kind,  was  found  in  the  Nazik 
Gul,  whose  waters,  unlike  those  of  Wan,  are  fresh  and  sweet. 

Leaving  the  Nazik  Gul  we  entered  an  undulating  country  traversed  by 
very  deep  ravines,  mere  channels  cut  into  the  sandstone  by  mountain  tor- 
rents. The  villages  are  built  at  the  bottom  of  these  gullfeys,  amidst  fruit 
trees  and  gardens,  sheltered  by  perpendicular  rocks  and  watered  by  running 
streams.  They  are  undiscovered  until  the  traveller  reaches  the  very  edge 
of  the  precipice,  when  a pleasant  and  cheerful  scene  opens  suddenly  be- 
neath his  feet.  He  would  have  believed  the  upper  country  a mere  desert 
had  he  not  spied  here  and  there  in  the  distance  a peasant  slowly  driving 
his  plough  through  the  rich  soil.  The  inhabitants  of  this  district  are  more 
industrious  and  ingenious  than  their  neighbours.  They  carry  the  produce 
of  their  harvest  not  on  the  backs  of  animals,  as 
in  most  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  but  in  carts  entire- 
ly made  of  wood,  no  iron  being  used  even  in  the 
wheels,  which  are  ingeniously  built  of  walnut, 
oak,  and  kara  agatch  (literally,  black  tree  — ? 
thorn),  the  stronger  woods  being  used  for  rough 
spokes  let  into  the  nave.  The  plough  also  differs 
from  that  in  general  use  in  Asia.  To  the  share 
are  attached  two  parallel  boards,  about  four  feet 
long  and  a foot  broad,  which  separate  the  soil 
and  leave  a deep  and  well  defined  furrow. 

We  rode  for  two  or  three  hours  on  these  uplands,  until,  suddenly  reach- 
ing the  edge  of  a ravine,  a beautiful  prospect  of  lake,  woodland,  and  mount- 
ain, opened  before  us. 


Section  of  Wheel  of  Armenian 
Cart. 


Armenian  Plough,  near  Akhlat. 


Early  Mussulman  Tomb  at  Akhlat. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  LAKE  OF  WAN. AKHLAT. TATAR  TOMBS. ANCIENT  REMAINS. A DERVI9H. A 

FRIEND. THE  MUDIR. ARMENIAN  REMAINS. AN  ARMENIAN  CONVENT  AND  BISHOP. 

JOURNEY  TO  BITLIS. NIMROUD  DAGH. BITLIS. JOURNEY  TO  KHERZAN. — YEZIDI  VIL- 

LAGE. 

The  first  view  the  traveller  obtains  of  the  lake  of  Wan,  on  descending 
towards  it  from  the  hills  above  Akhlat,  is  singularly  beautiful.  This  great 
inland  sea,  of  the  deepest  blue,  is  bounded  to  the  east  by  ranges  of  serrated 
snow-capped  mountains,  peering  one  above  the  other,  and  springing  here 
and  there  into  the  highest  peaks  of  Tiyari  and  Kurdistan  ; beneath  them 
lies  the  sacred  island  of  Akhtamar,  just  visible  in  the  distance,  like  a dark 
shadow  on  the  water.  At  the  further  end  rises  the  one  sublime  cone  of 
the  Subhan,  and  along  the  lower  part  of  the  eastern  shores  stretches  the 
Nimroud  Dagh,  varied  in  shape,  and  rich  in  local  traditions. 

At  our  feet,  as  we  drew  nigh  to  the  lake,  were  the  gardens  of  the  an- 
cient city  of  Akhlat,  leaning  minarets  and  pointed  mausoleums  peeping 


20 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  II. 

above  tbe  trees.  We  rode  through  vast  burying-grounds,  a perfect  forest 
of  upright  stones  seven  or  eight  feet  high  of  the  richest  red  colour,  most 
delicately  and  tastefully  carved  with  arabesque  ornaments  and  inscriptions 
in  the  massive  character  of  the  early  Mussulman  age.  In  the  midst  of 
them  rose  here  and  there  a conical  turbeh * of  beautiful  shape,  covered 
with  exquisite  tracery.  The  monuments  of  the  dead  still  stand,  and  have 
become  the  monuments  of  a city,  itself  long  crumbled  Into  dust.  Amidst 
orchards  and  gardens  are  scattered  here  and  there  low  houses  rudely  built 
out  of  the  remains  of  the  earlier  habitations,  and  fragments  of  cornice  and 
sculpture  are  piled  up  into  walls  around  the  cultivated  plots. 

Leaving  the  servants  to  pitch  the  tents  on  a lawn  near  one  of  the  finest 
of  the  old  Mussulman  tombs,  and  in  a grove  of  lofty  trees,  beneath  whose 
spreading  branches  we  could  catch  distant  views  of  the  lake,  I walked 
through  the  ruins.  Emerging  from  the  gardens  and  crossing  a part  of  the 
great  burying-ground,  I came  upon  a well-preserved  mausoleum  of  the 
same  deep  red  stone,  now  glowing  in  the  rays  of  the  sun ; its  conical  roof 
rested  on  columns  and  arches,  and  on  a kubleh , or  place  to  direct  the  face 
in  prayer,  decorated  with  all  the  richness,  yet  elegance,  of  Eastern  taste. 
The  cornice  supporting  the  roof  was  formed  by  many  bands  of  ornament, 
each  equally  graceful  though  differing  one  from  the  other.  The  columns 
stood  on  a base  rising  about  nine  feet  from  the  ground,  the  upper  part  of 
which  was  adorned  with  panels,  each  varying  in  shape,  and  containing 
many-angled  recesses,  decorated  with  different  patterns,  and  the  lower  part 
projected  at  an  angle  with  the  rest  of  the  building.  In  this  basement  was 
the  chamber  ; the  mortal  remains  of  its  royal  occupant  had  long  ago  been 
torn  away  and  thrown  to  the  dust.  Around  the  turbeh  were  scattered 
richly  carved  head  and  foot  stones,  marking  the  graves  of  less  noble  men ; 
and  the  whole  was  enclosed  by  a grove  of  lofty  trees,  the  dark-blue  lake 
glittering  beyond.  Whilst  the  scene  was  worthy  of  the  pencil  of  a Turner, 
each  detail  in  the  building  was  a study  for  an  architect.  Tradition  names 
the  tomb  that  of  Sultan  Baiandour,f  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  great  Tatar 
tribes,  who  crossed  the  frontiers  of  Persia  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
building  still  resisting  decay  is  now  used  as  a storehouse  for  grain  and  straw 
by  a degenerate  race,  utterly  unmindful  of  the  glories  of  their  ancestors. 
Near  this  turbeh  were  others,  less  well  preserved,  but  equally  remarkable 
for  elegant  and  varied  decoration,  their  conical  roofs  fretted  with  delicate 
tracery,  carved  in  relief  on  the  red  stone.  They  belong,  according  to  local 
tradition,  to  Sultans  of  the  Ak-Kouyunlu  and  Kara-Kouyunlu  Tatars,  the 
well-known  tribes  of  the  White  and  Black  Sheep. 

Beyond  the  turbeh  of  Sultan  Baiandour,  through  a deep  ravine  such 
as  I have  already  described,  runs  a brawling  stream,  crossed  by  an  old 
bridge  ; orchards  and  gardens  make  the  bottom  of  the  narrow  valley,  and 

* The  small  building  which  sometimes  covers  a Mohammedan  tomb  is  so  called. 

t A sultan  of  the  Ak-Kouyunlu,  or  White-sheep  Tatars,  from  whom  the  tribe  de- 
rived their  name  of  Baiandouri. 


Turbeh,  or  Tomb,  of  Sultan  Baiandour,  at  Akhlat. 


22 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  II. 


the  cultivated  ledges  as  seen  from  above,  a bed  of  foliage.  The  lofty  per- 
pendicular rocks  rising  on  both  sides  are  literally  honeycombed  with  en- 
trances to  artificial  caves,  ancient  tombs,  or  dwelling-places.  On  a high 
isolated  mass  of  sandstone  stand  the  walls  and  towers  of  a castle,  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  city  of  Khelath,  celebrated  in  Armenian  history,  and 
one  of  the  seats  of  Armenian  power.  I ascended  to  the  crumbling  ruins, 
and  examined  the  excavations  in  the  rocks.  The  latter  are  now  used  as 
habitations,  and  as  stables  for  herds  and  flocks.  The  spacious  entrances 
of  some  are  filled  up  with  stones  for  protection  and  comfort,  a small  opening 
being  left  for  a doorway.  Before  them,  on  the  ledges  overlooking  the  ra- 
vine, stood  here  and  there  groups  of  as  noble  a race  as  I have  anywhere 
seen,  tall,  brawny  men,  handsome  women,  and  beautiful  children.  They 
were  Kurds,  dressed  in  the  flowing  and  richly-colored  robes  of  their  tribe. 
I talked  with  them  and  found  them  courteous,  intelligent,  and  communi- 
cative. 

Many  of  the  tombs  are  approached  by  flights  of  steps,  also  cut  in  the 
rock.  An  entrance,  generally  square,  unless  subsequently  widened,  and 
either  perfectly  plain  or  decorated  with  a simple  cornice,  opens  into  a spa- 
cious chamber,  which  frequently  leads  into  others  on  the  same  level,  or  by 
narrow  flights  of  steps  into  upper  rooms.  There  are  no  traces  of  the  means 
by  which  these  entrances  were  closed  : they  probably  were  so  by  stones, 
turning  on  rude  hinges,  or  rolling  on  rollers.*  Excavated  in  the  walls,  or 
sometimes  sunk  into  the  floor,  are  recesses  or  troughs,  in  which  once  lay  the 
bodies  of  the  dead,  whilst  in  small  niches,  in  the  sides  of  the  chambers, 
were  placed  lamps  and  sacrificial  objects.  Tombs  in  every  respect  similar 
are  found  throughout  the  mountains  of  Assyria  and  Persia,  as  far  south  as 
Shiraz ; but  I have  never  met  with  them  in  such  abundance  as  at  Akh- 
lat.  Their  contents  were  long  ago  the  spoil  of  conquerors,  and  the  ancient 
chambers  of  the  dead  have  been  for  centuries  the  abodes  of  the  living. 

Leaving  the  valley  and  winding  through  a forest  of  fruit  trees,  here  and 
there  interspersed  with  a few  primitive  dwellings,  I came  to  the  old  Turk- 
ish castle,  standing  on  the  very  edge  of  the  lake.  It  is  a pure  Ottoman 
edifice,  less  ancient  than  the  turbehs,  or  the  old  walls  towering  above  the 
ravine.  Inscriptions  over  the  gateways  state  that  it  was  partly  built  by 
Sultan  Selim,  and  partly  by  Sultan  Suleiman,  and  over  the  northern  en- 
trance occurs  the  date  of  975  of  the  Hejira.  The  walls  and  towers  are 

* Tombs,  with  entrances  closed  by  stones,  ingeniously  made  to  roll  back  into  a 
groove,  still  exist  in  many  parts  of  the  East.  We  learn  from  both  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  that  such  tombs  were  in  common  use  in  Palestine,  as  well  as  in  othei 
countries  of  Asia.  The  stone  was  “ rolled  away  from  the  sepulchre”  in  which  Christ 
was  laid ; which  we  may  gather  from  the  context  was  a chamber  cut  into  the  rock 
and  intended  to  receive  many  bodies,  although  it  had  not  been  used  before.  Such 
also,  was  the  tomb  of  Lazarus.  Raphael,  who  is  singularly  correct  in  delineating 
Eastern  habits  and  costumes  in  his  scriptural  pieces,  has  thus  portrayed  the  tomb 
of  the  Saviour  in  a sketch  in  the  Oxford  Collection. 


RUINS  OF  AKHLAT. 


23 


Chap.  II.] 

still  standing,  and  need  but  slight  repair  to  be  again  rendered  capable  of 
defence.  They  inclose  a fort,  and  about  200  houses,  with  two  mosques 
and  baths,  fast  falling  into  decay,  and  only  tenanted  by  a few  miserable 
families,  who,  too  poor  or  too  idle  to  build  anew,  linger  amongst  the  ruins. 
In  the  fort,  separated  from  the  dwelling  places  by  a high  thick  wall  and  a 
ponderous  iron-bound  gate  now  hanging  half  broken  away  from  its  rusty 
hinges,  there  dwelt,  until  very  recently,  a notorious  Kurdish  freebooter,  of 
the  name  of  Mehemet  Bey,  who,  secure  in  this  stronghold,  ravaged  the 
surrounding  country,  and  sorely  vexed  its  Christian  inhabitants.  He  fled 
on  the  approach  of  the  Turkish  troops,  after  their  successful  expedition 
against  Nur-Ullah  Bey,  and  is  supposed  to  be  wandering  in  the  mountains 
of  southern  Kurdistan. 

After  the  capture  of  Beder  Khan  Bey,  Osman  Pasha,  the  commander-in- 
chief of  the  Turkish  army,  a man  of  enterprise  and  liberal  views,  formed 
a plan  for  restoring  to  Akhlat  its  ancient  prosperity,  by  making  it  the  cap- 
ital of  the  north-eastern  provinces  of  the  Turkish  empire.  He  proposed, 
by  grants  of  land,  to  induce  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  villages  to 
remove  to  the  town,  and  by  peculiar  privileges  to  draw  to  the  new  settle- 
ment the  artizans  of  Wan,  Bitlis,  Moush,  and  even  Erzeroom.  Its  posi- 
tion on  the  borders  of  a vast  lake  is  favourable  to  traffic,  and  its  air  is  con- 
sidered very  salubrious.  From  its  vicinity  to  the  Persian  and  Russian 
frontiers  it  might  become  of  considerable  importance  as  a military  depot. 
Osman  Pasha  was  about  to  construct  a palace,  a bazar,  and  barracks,  and 
to  repair  the  walls  of  the  old  castle,  when  death  put  an  end  to  his  schemes. 
In  Turkey  a man  in  power,  from  principle,  never  carries  out  the  plans,  or 
finishes  the  buildings  of  his  predecessor ; and  Akhlat,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  spots  that  the  imagination  can  picture,  will  probably  long  remain 
a heap  of  ruins.  Scarcely  a sail  flutters  on  the  water.  The  only  com- 
merce is  carried  on  by  a few  miserable  vessels,  which  venture  in  the  finest 
weather  to  leave  the  little  harbour  of  Wan  to  search  for  wood  and  corn  on 
the  southern  shores  of  the  lake. 

The  ancient  city  of  Khelath  was  the  capital  of  the  Armenian  province 
of  Peznouni.  It  came  under  the  Mohammedan  power  as  early  as  the  ninth 
century,  but  was  conquered  by  the  Greeks  of  the  Lower  Empire  at  the 
end  of  the  tenth.  The  Seljuks  took  it  from  them,  and  it  then  again  be- 
came a Mussulman  principality.  It  was  long  a place  of  contention  for  the 
early  Arab  and  Tatar  conquerors.  Shah  Armen*  reduced  it  towards  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  It  was  besieged,  without  result,  by  the  cele- 
brated Saleh-ed-din,  and  was  finally  captured  by  his  nephew,  the  son  of 
Melek  Adel,  in  a.  d.  1207. 

The  sun  was  setting  as  I returned  to  the  tents.  The  whole  scene  was 

* Shah  Armen,  i.  e.  King  of  Armenia,  was  a title  assumed  by  a dynasty  reigning 
at  Akhlat,  founded  by  Sokman  Kothby,  a slave  of  the  Seljuk  prince,  Kothbedin  Is- 
mail, who  established  an  independent  principality  at  Akhlat  in  a.  d.  1100,  which  lasted 
eighty  years. 


24 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  II. 


lighted  up  with  its  golden  tints,  and  Claude  never  composed  a subject  more 
beautiful  than  was  here  furnished  by  nature  herself.  I was  seated  out- 
side my  tent  gazing  listlessly  on  the  scene,  when  I was  roused  by  a well- 
remembered  cry,  but  one  which  I had  not  heard  for  years.  I turned  about 
and  saw  standing  before  me  a Persian  Dervish,  clothed  in  the  fawn-colored 
gazelle  skin,  and  wearing  the  conical  red  cap,  edged  with  fur,  and  embroid- 
ered in  black  braid  with  verses  from  the  Koran  and  invocations  to  Ali,  the 
patron  of  his  sect.  He  was  no  less  surprised  than  I had  been  at  his  greet- 
ing, when  I gave  him  the  answer  peculiar  to  men  of  his  order.  He  was 
my  devoted  friend  and  servant  from  that  moment,  and  sent  his  boy  to  fetch 
a dish  of  pears,  for  which  he  actually  refused  a present  ten  times  their 
value.  He  declared  that  I was  one  of  his  craft,  and  was  fairly  puzzled  to 
make  out  where  I had  picked  up  my  knowledge  of  his  mystery  and  phra- 
seology. But  he  was  not  my  first  Dervish  friend ; I had  had  many  ad- 
ventures in  company  with  such  as  he. 

Whilst  we  were  seated  chatting  in  the  soft  moonlight,  Hormuzd  was 
suddenly  embraced  by  a young  man  resplendent  with  silk  and  gold  em- 
broidery and  armed  to  the  teeth.  He  was  a chief  from  the  district  of  Mo- 
sul and  well  known  to  us.  Hearing  of  our  arrival  he  had  hastened  from 
his  village  at  some  distance  to  welcome  us,  and  to  endeavor  to  persuade 
me  to  move  the  encampment  and  partake  of  his  hospitality.  Failing,  of 
course,  in  prevailing  upon  me  to  change  my  quarters  for  the  night,  he  sent 
his  servant  to  his  wife,  who  was  a lady  of  Mosul,  and  formerly  a friend  of 
my  companion’s,  for  a sheep.  We  found  ourselves  thus  unexpectedly 
amongst  friends.  Our  circle  was  further  increased  by  Christians  and  Mus- 
sulmans of  Akhlat,  and  the  night  was  far  spent  before  we  retired  to  rest. 

In  the  morning,  soon  after  sunrise,  I renewed  my  wanderings  amongst 
the  ruins,  first  calling  upon  the  Mudir,  or  governor,  who  received  me  seated 
under  his  own  fig-tree.  He  was  an  old  greybeard,  a native  of  the  place, 
and  of  a straightforward,  honest  bearing.  I had  to  listen  to  the  usual 
complaints  of  poverty  and  over-taxation,  although,  after  all,  the  village, 
with  its  extensive  gardens,  only  contributed  yearly  ten  purses,  or  less  than 
forty-five  pounds,  to  the  public  revenue.  This  sum  seems  small  enough, 
but  without  trade,  and  distant  from  any  high  road,  there  was  not  a para 
of  ready  money,  according  to  the  Mudir,  in  the  place. 

The  governor’s  cottage  stood  near  the  northern  edge  of  Akhlat,  and  a 
little  beyond  it  the  road  again  emerged  into  that  forest  of  richly-carved 
tombs  which  surrounds  the  place,  like  a broad  belt — the  accumulated  re- 
mains of  successive  generations.  The  triumph  of  the  dead  over  the  living 
is  perhaps  only  thus  seen  in  the  East.  In  England,  where  we  grudge  our 
dead  their  last  resting  places,  the  habitations  of  the  living  encroach  on  the 
burial-ground  ; in  the  East  it  is  the  grave-yard  which  drives  before  it  the 
cottage  and  the  mansion.  The  massive  headstones  still  stand  erect  long 
after  the  dwelling-places  of  even  the  descendants  of  those  who  placed 
them  there  have  passed  away.  Several  handsome  turbehs,  resembling  in 


Chap  II.]  an  Armenian  convent.  25 

their  general  form  those  I had  already  visited,  though  differing  from  them 
in  their  elegant  and  elaborate  details,  were  scattered  amongst  the  more 
humble  tombs. 

From  the  Mudir’s  house  I rode  to  the  more  ancient  part  of  the  city  and 
to  the  rock  tombs.  The  ravine,  at  no  great  distance  from  where  it  joins 
the  lake,  is  divided  into  two  branches,  each  watered  by  an  abundant 
stream.  I followed  them  both  for  four  or  five  miles,  ascending  by  the  one, 
then  crossing  the  upland  which  divides  them,  and  descending  by  the  other. 
Both  afford  innumerable  pleasant  prospects, — the  water  breaking  in  fre- 
quent cascades  over  the  rocky  bottom,  beneath  thick  clusters  of  gigantic 
chesnuts  and  elms,  the  excavated  cliffs  forming  hold  frames  to  the  pic- 
tures. I entered  many  of  the  rock-tombs,  and  found  all  of  them  to  be  of 
the  same  character,  though  varying  in  size.  The  doors  of  some  have  been 
enlarged,  to  render  the  interior  more  convenient  as  dwelling-places,  and 
there  are  hut  few  which  have  not  been  blackened  by  the  smoke  of  the 
fires  of  many  centuries.  The  present  population  of  the  ravine,  small  and 
scanty  enough,  resides  almost  entirely  in  these  caves.  Amongst  the  tombs 
there  are  galleries  and  passages  in  the  cliffs  without  apparent  use,  and 
flights  of  steps,  cut  out  of  the  rock,  which  seem  to  lead  nowhere.  I 
searched  and  inquired  in  vain  for  inscriptions  and  remains  of  sculpture,  and 
yet  the  place  is  of  undoubted  antiquity,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
cotemporary  sites  where  cuneiform  inscriptions  do  exist. 

During  my  wanderings  I entered  an  Armenian  church  and  convent 
standing  on  a ledge  of  rock  overhanging  the  stream,  about  four  miles  up 
the  southern  ravine.  The  convent  was  tenanted  by  a bishop  and  two 
priests.  They  dwelt  in  a small  low  room,  scarcely  lighted  by  a hole  care- 
fully blocked  up  with  a sheet  of  oiled  paper  to  shut  out  the  cold ; dark, 
musty,  and  damp,  a very  parish  clerk  in  England  would  have  shuddered 
at  the  sight  of  such  a residence.  Their  bed,  a carpet  worn  to  threads, 
spread  on  the  rotten  hoards ; their  diet,  the  coarsest  sandy  bread  and  a 
little  sour  curds,  with  beans  and  mangy  meat  for  a jubilee.  A miserable 
old  woman  sat  in  a kind  of  vault  under  the  staircase  preparing  their  food, 
and  passing  her  days  in  pushing  to  and  fro  with  her  skinny  hands  the  goat’s 
skin  containing  the  milk  to  be  shaken  into  butter.  She  was  the  house- 
keeper and  handmaiden  of  the  episcopal  establishment.  The  church  was 
somewhat  higher,  though  even  darker  than  the  dwelling-room,  and  was 
partly  used  to  store  a heap  of  mouldy  corn  and  some  primitive  agricultural 
implements.  The  whole  was  well  and  strongly  built,  and  had  the  evi- 
dent marks  of  antiquity.  The  bishop  showed  me  a rude  cross  carved  on 
a rock  outside  the  convent,  which,  he  declared,  had  been  cut  by  one  of  the 
disciples  of  the  Saviour  himself.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  considered  a relic  of 
very  great  sanctity,  and  is  an  object  of  pilgrimage  for  the  surrounding 
Christian  population.  Near  the  spot  are  several  tombs  of  former  bishops, 
the  head  and  foot  stones  of  the  same  deep  mellow  red  stone,  and  as  elab- 
orately carved  as  those  of  the  old  Tatar  chiefs  near  the  lake,  although  dif- 


26 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  II. 


fering  from  them  somewhat  in  the  style  of  their  ornaments ; the  cross,  and 
the  bold,  square,  ancient  Armenian  character  being  used  instead  of  the 
flowery  scroll-work  and  elongated  letters  of  the  early  Mussulman  conquer- 
ors. The  bishop,  notwithstanding  his  poverty,  was,  on  the  whole,  better 
informed  than  others  of  his  order  I had  met  in  the  provinces.  He  had  vis- 
ited the  capital,  had  even  studied  there,  and  possessed  a few  books,  amongst 
which,  fortunately  for  himself,  and  I hope  for  his  congregation,  he  was  not 
ashamed  to  include  several  of  the  very  useful  works  issued  by  the  Ameri- 
can missionary  press,  and  by  that  praiseworthy  religious  society,  the  Mek- 
hitarists  of  Venice.  The  older  books  and  MSS.  of  the  church,  together 
with  its  little  store  of  plate,  its  hangings,  and  its  finery,  were  gone.  The 
last  rummage  was  made  by  Mehemet  Bey,  the  Kurdish  freebooter  of  the 
castle  on  the  lake,  who,  having  been  expelled  from  his  stronghold  by  the 
exasperated  inhabitants  of  Akhlat,  took  refuge  in  the  Armenian  convent, 
and  defended  it  for  nearly  a year  against  his  assailants,  living  of  course, 
the  while,  upon  the  scanty  stores  of  the  priests,  and  carrying  off,  when  he 
had  no  longer  need  of  the  position,  the  little  property  he  had  pulled  out 
of  every  nook  and  corner.  The  tyranny  of  this  chief  had  driven  nearly  the 
whole  Christian  population  from  Akhlat.  About  twenty  families  only  re- 
mained, and  they  were  huddled  together  in  the  rock  tombs,  and  on  the 
ledges  immediately  opposite  the  convent.  They  are  not  allowed  to  possess 
the  gardens  and  orchards  near  the  lake,  which  are  looked  upon  as  the  pe- 
culiar property  of  the  ancient  Mussulman  inhabitants,  to  be  enjoyed  by  their 
orthodox  descendants,  who  employ  neither  care  nor  labor  in  keeping  them 
up,  trusting  to  a rich  soil  and  a favorable  climate  for  their  annual  fruits. 

I was  again  struck  during  my  ride  with  the  beauty  of  the  children,  who 
assembled  round  me,  issuing,  like  true  Troglodytes,  from  their  rocky  dwell- 
ing-places. Near  the  end  of  the  ravine,  on  the  edge  of  a precipice  clothed 
with  creepers,  is  a half-fallen  turbeh,  of  elegant  proportions  and  rich  in  arch- 
itectural detail.  It  overhangs  the  transparent  stream,  which,  struggling 
down  its  rocky  bed,  is  crossed  by  a ruined  bridge  ; a scene  calling  to  mind 
the  well-known  view  of  Tivoli.  Beyond,  and  nearer  to  the  lake,  are  other 
turbehs,  all  of  which  I examined,  endeavoring  to  retain  some  slight  record 
of  their  peculiar  ornaments.  The  natives  of  the  place  followed  me  as  I 
wandered  about  and  found  names  for  the  ancient  chiefs  in  whose  honor  the 
mausoleums  had  been  erected.  Amongst  them  were  Iskender,  Hassan,  and 
Haroun,  the  Padishas,  or  sultans,  of  the  Tatar  tribes.* 

* Iskender,  the  son  of  Kara  Yusuf,  second  sultan  of  the  Tatar  dynasty  of  the 
Black  Sheep,  began  to  reign  a.  d.  1421,  and  was  murdered  by  his  son,  Shah  Kobad. 
Hassan,  commonly  called  Usun,  or  the  Long,  the  first  sultan  of  the  Baiandcuri,  or 
White  Sheep,  Tatars,  succeeded  to  the  throne  a.  d.  1467.  Neither  of  these  sultans, 
however,  appear  to  have  died  at  Akhlat.  I have  been  unable  to  find  the  name  of 
Haroun  amongst  the  sultans  of  these  Tatar  dynasties.  It  is  possible  that  the  tur- 
behs may  be  more  ancient  than  the  period  assigned  to  them  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Akhlat,  and  that  they  may  belong  to  some  of  the  earlier  Mussulman  conquerors. 


ARMENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


27 


Chat.  II.] 

On  my  return  to  our  encampment  the  tents  were  struck,  and  the  caravan 
had  already  began  its  march.  Time  would  not  permit  me  to  delay,  and 
with  a deep  longing  to  linger  on  this  favored  spot  I slowly  followed  the  road 
leading  along  the  margin  of  the  lake  to  Bitlis.  I have  seldom  seen  a fair- 
er scene,  one  richer  in  natural  beauties.  The  artist  and  the  lover  of  na- 
ture may  equally  find  at  Akhlat  objects  of  study  and  delight.  The  archi- 
tect, or  the  traveller,  interested  in  the  history  of  that  graceful  and  highly 
original  branch  of  art,  which  attained  its  full  perfection  under  the  Arab 
rulers  of  Egypt  and  Spain,  should  extend  his  journey  to  the  remains  of  an- 
cient Armenian  cities,  far  from  high  roads  and  mostly  unexplored.  He 
would  then  trace  how  that  architecture,  deriving  its  name  from  Byzantium, 
had  taken  the  same  development  in  the  East  as  it  did  in  the  West,  and  how 
its  subsequent  combination  with  the  elaborate  decoration,  the  varied  out- 
line, and  tasteful  coloring  of  Persia  had  produced  the  style  termed  Sara- 
cenic, Arabic,  and  Moresque.  He  would  discover  almost  daily,  details,  or- 
naments, and  forms,  recalling  to  his  mind  the  various  orders  of  architecture, 
which,  at  an  early  period,  succeeded  to  each  other  in  Western  Europe  and 
in  England  ;*  modifications  of  style  for  which  we  are  mainly  indebted  to 
the  East  during  its  close  union  with  the  West  by  the  bond  of  Christianity. 
The  Crusaders,  too,  brought  back  into  Christendom,  on  their  return  from 
Asia,  a taste  for  that  rich  and  harmonious  union  of  color  and  architecture 
which  had  already  been  so  successfully  introduced  by  the  Arabs  into  the 
countries  they  had  conquered. 

This  connection  between  Eastern  and  Western  architecture  is  one  well 
worthy  of  study,  tfnd  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than  by  the  early  Chris- 
tian ruins  of  Armenia,  and  those  of  the  Arsacian  and  Sassanian  periods  still 
existing  in  Persia.  As  yet  it  has  been  almost  entirely  overlooked,  nor  are 
there  any  plans  or  drawings  of  even  the  best  known  Byzantine,  or  rather 
Armenian,  remains  in  Asia  Minor,  upon  which  sufficient  reliance  can  be 
placed  to  admit  of  the  analogies  between  the  styles  being  fully  proved. 
The  union  of  early  Christian  and  Persian  art  and  architecture  produced  a 
style  too  little  known  and  studied,  yet  affording  combinations  of  beauty  and 
grandeur,  of  extreme  delicacy  of  detail  and  of  boldness  of  outline,  worthy 
of  the  highest  order  of  intellect. f 

* The  sketch,  not  very  accurate  unfortunately  in  its  details,  of  the  ruined  Arme- 
nian church  at  Yarzahan  (p.  6.),  will  sufficiently  show  my  meaning,  and  point  out 
the  connection  indicated  in  the  text.  I would  also  refer  to  M.  Texier’s  folio  work  on 
Armenia  and  Persia,  for  many  examples  of  Armenian  churches,  illustrating  the  tran- 
sition between  the  Byzantine  and  what  we  may  undoubtedly  term  Gothic.  It  would 
be  of  considerable  importance  to  study  the  remains  of  churches  still  scattered  over 
Armenia,  and  of  which  no  accurate  plans  or  drawings  have  been  published. 

t The  Arabs,  a wild  and  uncultivated  people,  probably  derived  their  first  notions 
of  architecture  on  the  conquest  of  the  Persian  provinces.  The  peculiar  and  highly 
tasteful  style  of  the  Persians,  of  which  traces  may  still  be  seen  in  the  remains  of  the 
celebrated  palace  of  Chosroes,  at  Ctesiphon,  and  in  other  ruins  of  southern  Persia 
and  Khuzistan,  united  with  the  Byzantine  churches  and  palaces  of  Syria,  produced 


28 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  II. 


Our  road  skirted  the  foot  of  the  Nimroud  Dagh,  which  stretches  from 
Akhlat  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake.  We  crossed  several  dykes 
of  lava  and  scoria,  and  wide  mud-torrents  now  dry,  the  outpourings  of  a 
volcano  long  since  extinct,  but  the  crater  of  which  may  probably  still  he 
traced  in  a small  lake  said  to  exist  on  the  very  summit  of  the  mountain. 
There  are  several  villages,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Christians,  built  on  the  wa- 
ter’s edge,  or  in  the  ravines  worn  by  the  streams  descending  from  the  hills. 
Our  road  gradually  led  away  from  the  lake.  With  Cawal  Yusuf  and  my 
companions  I left  the  caravan  far  behind.  The  night  came  on,  and  we 
were  shrouded  in  darkness.  We  sought  in  vain  for  the  village  which  was 
to  afford  us  a resting-place,  and  soon  lost  our  uncertain  track.  The  Cawal 
took  the  opportunity  of  relating  tales  collected  during  former  journeys  on 
this  spot,  of  robber  Kurds  and  murdered  travellers,  which  did  not  tend  to 
remove  the  anxiety  felt  by  some  of  my  party.  At  length,  after  wandering 
to  and  fro  for  above  an- hour,  we  heard  the  distant  jingle  *of  the  caravan 
bells.  We  rode  in  the  direction  of  the  welcome  sound,  and  soon  found  our- 
selves at  the  Armenian  village  of  Keswack,  standing  in  a small  bay,  and 
sheltered  by  a rocky  promontory  jutting  boldly  into  the  lake. 

Next  morning  we  rode  along  the  margin  of  the  lake,  still  crossing  the 
spurs  of  the  Nimroud  Dagh,  furrowed  by  numerous  streams  of  lava  and 
mud.  In  one  of  the  deep  gulleys,  opening  from  the  mountain  to  the  wa- 
ter’s edge,  are  a number  of  isolated  masses  of  sandstone,  worn  into  fantastic 
shapes  by  the  winter  torrents,  which  sweep  down  from  the  hills.  The  peo- 
ple of  the  country  call  them  “ the  Camels  of  Nimrod.”  Tradition  says  that 
the  rebellious  patriarch  endeavoring  to  build  an  inaccessible  castle,  strong 
enough  to  defy  both  God  and  man,  the  Almighty,  to  punish  his  arrogance, 
turned  the  workmen  as  they  were  working  into  stone.  The  rocks  on  the 
border  of  the  lake  are  the  camels,  who  with  their  burdens  were  petrified 
into  a perpetual  memorial  of  the  Divine  vengeance.  The  unfinished  walls 
of  the  castle  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the  top  of  the  mountain  ; and  the  sur- 
rounding country,  the  seat  of  a primaeval  race,  abounds  in  similar  tradi- 
tions. 

We  left  the  southern  end  of  the  lake,  near  the  Armenian  village  of  Tad- 
wan,  once  a place  of  some  importance,  and  containing  a caravanserai, 
mosques,  and  baths  built  by  Khosrew  Pasha  in  the  sixteenth  century.  En- 
tering an  undulating  country  we  soon  gazed  for  the  last  time  on  the  deep 
blue  expanse  of  water,  and  on  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Hakkiari  mountains. 
The  small  trickling  streams,  now  running  towards  the  south,  and  a gradual 
descent  showed  that  we  had  crossed  the  water-shed  of  central  Asia,  and  had 
reached  the  valleys  of  Assyria.  Here  and  there  the  ruins  of  a fine  old  khan, 
its  dark  recesses,  vaulted  niches,  and  spacious  stalls,  blackened  with  the 

the  Saracenic.  Already  some  such  modification  had,  I am  convinced,  taken  place  in 
Armenia  by  a similar  process,  the  Persian  and  Imperial  power  being  continually 
brought  into  contact  in  that  kingdom.  I cannot  dwell  longer  upon  this  subject,  which 
well  merits  investigation. 


TOWN  OF  BITLIS. 


29 


Chap  II.] 

smoke  of  centuries,  served  to  mark  one  of  the  great  highways,  leading  in 
the  days  of  Turkish  prosperity  from  central  Armenia  to  Baghdad.  We  had 
crossed  this  road  in  the  plain  of  Hinnis.  It  runs  from  Erzeroom  to  Moush 
and  thence  to  Bitlis,  leaving  to  th?  east  the  Nimroud  Dagh,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  lake  of  Wan.  Commerce  has  deserted  it  for  very  many 
years,  and  its  bridges  and  caravanserais  have  long  fallen  into  decay  ; when, 
with  the  restoration  of  order  and  tranquillity  to  this  part  of  Turkey,  trade 
shall  rovive,  it  may  become  once  more  an  important  thoroughfare,  uniting 
the  northern  and  southern  provinces  of  the  empire. 

We  soon  entered  a rugged  ravine  worn  by  the  mountain  rills,  collected 
into  a large  stream.  This  was  one  of  the  many  head  waters  of  the  Tigris. 
It  was  flowing  tumultuously  to  our  own  bourne,  and,  as  we  gazed  upon  the 
troubled  waters,  they  seemed  to  carry  us  nearer  to  our  journey’s  end.  The 
ravine  was  at  first  wild  and  rocky ; cultivated  spots  next  appeared,  scat- 
tered in  the  dry  bed  of  the  torrent ; then  a few  gigantic  trees  ; gardens  and 
orchards  followed,  and  at  length  the  narrow  valley  opened  on  the  long 
straggling  town  of  Bitlis. 

The  governor  had  provided  quarters  for  us  in  a large  house  belonging  to 
an  Armenian,  who  had  been  tailor  to  Beder  Khan  Bey.  From  the  terrace 
before  the  gate  we  looked  down  upon  the  bazars  built  in  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  gulley  in  the  centre  of  the  town.  On  an  isolated  rock  opposite  to  us 
rose  a frowning  castle,  and,  on  the  top  of  a lofty  barren  hill,  the  fortified 
dwelling  of  Sheriff  Bey,  the  rebel  chief,  who  had  for  years  held  Bitlis  and 
the  surrounding  country  in  subjection,  defying  the  authority  and  the  arms 
of  the  Sultan.  Here  and  there  on  the  mountain  sides  were  little  sunny 
landscapes,  gardens,  poplar  trees,  and  low  white  houses  surrounded  by 
trellised  vines.  • 

My  party  was  now,  for  the  first  time  during  the  journey,  visited  with 
that  curse  of  Eastern  travel,  fever  and  ague.  The  doctor  was  prostrate, 
and  having  then  no  experience  of  the  malady,  at  once  had  dreams  of  typhus 
and  malignant  fever.  A day’s  rest  was  necessary,  and  our  jaded  horses 
needed  it  as  well  as  we,  for  there  were  bad  mountain  roads  and  long 
marches  before  us.  I had  a further  object  in  remaining.  Three  near  rela- 
tions of  Cawal  Yusuf  returning  from  their  annual  visitation  to  the  Yezidi 
tribes  in  Georgia  and  northern  Armenia,  had  been  murdered  two  years  be- 
fore, near  Bitlis,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Kurdish  Bey.  The  money  col- 
lected by  the  Cawals  for  the  benefit  of  the  sect  and  its  priesthood,  together 
with  their  personal  effects,  had  been  taken  by  Sheriff  Bey,  and  I was  de- 
sirous of  aiding  Cawal  Yusuf  in  their  recovery.  Beshid  Pasha  had  given 
me  an  official  order  for  their  restoration  out  of  the  property  of  the  late  chief, 
and  it  rested  with  me  to  see  it  enforced.  I called  early  in  the  morning  on 
the  mudir  or  governor,  one  of  the  household  of  old  Essad  Pasha,  who  was 
at  that  time  governor-general  of  Kurdistan,  including  Bitlis,  Moush,  and  the 
surrounding  country,  and  resided  at  Diarbekir.  He  gave  me  the  assistance 
I required  for  the  recovery  of  the  property  of  the  murdered  Cawals,  and 


30 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap  II. 


spoke  in  great  contempt  of  the  Kurds  now  that  they  had  been  subdued, 
treating  like  dogs  those  who  stood  humbly  before  him.  The  Turks,  how 
ever,  had  hut  recently  dared  to  assume  this  haughty  tone.  Long  after  the 
fall  of  Beder  Khan  Bey,  the  chiefs  of  Hakkiari,  Wan,  Moush,  and  Bitlis 
had  maintained  their  independence,  and  Sheriff  Bey  had  only  been  sent 
that  spring  to  the  capital  to  pass  the  rest  of  his  days  in  exile  with  the  au- 
thor of  the  Nestorian  massacre. 

The  governor  ordered  cawasses  to  accompany  me  through  the  town.  I 
had  been  told  that  ancient  inscriptions  existed  in  the  castle,  or  on  the  rock, 
hut  I searched  in  vain  for  them  : those  pointed  out  to  me  were  early  Mo- 
hammedan. Bitlis  contains  many  picturesque  remains  of  mosques,  baths, 
and  bridges,  and  was  once  a place  of  considerable  size  and  importance.  It 
is  built  in  the  very  bottom  of  a deep  valley,  and  on  the  sides  of  ravines, 
worn  by  small  tributaries  of  the  Tigris.  The  best  houses  stand  high  upon 
the  declivities,  and  are  of  stone,  ornamented  with  large  arched  windows, 
trellis  work,  and  porticoes ; many  of  them  being  surrounded  by  groves  of 
trees.  The  bazars  are  in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  town,  and  low,  ill-built, 
and  dirty.  They  are  generally  much  crowded,  as  in  them  is  carried  on 
the  chief  trade  of  this  part  of  Kurdistan.  The  export  trade  is  chiefly  sup- 
plied by  the  produce  of  the  mountains ; galls,  honey,  wax,  wool,  and  car- 
pets and  stuffs,  woven  and  dyed  in  the  tents.  The  dyes  of  Kurdistan,  and 
particularly  those  from  the  district  around  Bitlis,  Sert,  and  Jezireh,  are 
celebrated  for  their  brilliancy.  They  are  made  from  herbs  gathered  in  the 
mountains,  and  from  indigo,  yellow  berries,  and  other  materials,  imported 
into  the  country.  The  colors  usually  worn  by  both  men  and  women  are  a 
deep  dull  red  and  a bright  yellow,  mingled  with  black,  a marked  taste  for 
these  tints,  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  every  other,  being  a peculiar  charac- 
teristic of  the  Kurdish  race  from  Bayazid  to  Suleimaniyah.  The  carpets 
are  of  a rich  soft  texture,  the  patterns  displaying  considerable  elegance 
and  taste  : they  are  much  esteemed  in  Turkey.  There  was  a fair  show 
of  Manchester  goods  and  coarse  English  cutlery  in  the  shops.  The  sale  of 
arms,  once  extensively  carried  on,  had  been  prohibited.  The  trade  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  merchants  from  Mosul  and  Erzeroom,  who  come  to  Bitlis 
for  galls,  at  present  almost  the  only  article  of  export  from  Kurdistan  to  the 
European  markets.  This  produce  of  the  oak  was  formerly  monopolised  by 
Beder  Khan  Bey,  and  other  powerful  Kurdish  chiefs,  but  the  inhabitants 
are  now  permitted  to  gather  them  without  restriction,  each  village  having 
its  share  in  the  woods.  The  wool  of  the  mountains  is  coarse,  and  scarcely 
fit  for  export  to  Europe ; and  the  “ teftik,”  a fine  underhair  of  the  goat, 
although  useful  and  valuable,  is  not  collected  in  sufficient  quantity  for 
commerce.  There  is  a race  of  sheep  in  Kurdistan  producing  a long  silken 
wool,  like  that  of  Angora,  but  it  is  not  common,  and  the  fleeces  being 
much  prized  as  saddle  and  other  ornaments  by  the  natives,  are  expensive. 
There  are,  no  doubt,  many  productions  of  the  mountains,  besides  valuable 
minerals,  which  appear  to  abound,  that  would  become  lucrative  objects  of 


TOWN  OF  BITLIS 


31 


Chap.  II.] 

commerce  were  tranquillity  fully  restored,  and  trade  encouraged.  The 
slaughter-houses,  the  resort  of  crowds  of  mangy  dogs,  are  near  the  bazars, 
on  the  banks  of  the  stream,  and  the  effluvia  arising  from  them  is  most  of- 
fensive. 

Having  examined  the  town  I visited  the  Armenian  bishop,  who  dwells 
in  a large  convent  in  one  of  the  ravines  branching  off  from  the  main  valley. 
On  my  way  I passed  several  hot  springs,  some  gurgling  up  in  the  very  bed 
of  the  torrent.  The  bishop  was  maudlin,  old,  and  decrepit ; he  cried  over 
his  own  personal  woes,  and  over  those  of  his  community,  abused  the  Turks, 
and  the  American  missionaries,  whispering  confidentially  in  my  ear  as  if 
the  Kurds  were  at  his  door.  He  insisted  in  the  most  endearing  terms,  and 
occasionally  throwing  his  arms  round  my  neck,  that  I should  drink  a couple 
of  glasses  of  fiery  raki,  although  it  was  still  early  morning,  pledging  me 
himself  in  each  glass.  He  showed  me  his  church,  an  ancient  building, 
well  hung  with  miserable  daubs  of  saints  and  miracles.  On  the  whole, 
whatever  may  have  been  their  condition  under  the  Kurdish  chiefs,  the 
Christians  of  Bitlis  at  the  time  of  my  visit  had  no  very  great  grounds  of 
complaint.  I found  them  well  inclined  and  exceedingly  courteous,  those 
who  had  shops  in  the  bazar  rising  as  I passed.  The  town  contains  about 
seven  hundred  Armenian  and  forty  Jacobite  families  (the  former  have  four 
churches),  but  no  Nestorians,  although  formerly  a part  of  the  Christian 
population  was  of  that  sect. 

There  are  three  roads  from  Bitlis  to  Jezireh ; two  over  the  mountains 
through  Sert,  generally  frequented  by  caravans,  but  very  difficult  and 
precipitous  ; a third  more  circuitous,  and  winding  through  the  valleys  of 
the  eastern  branch  of  the  Tigris.  I chose  the  last,  as  it  enabled  me  to 
visit  the  Yezidi  villages  of  the  district  of  Kherzan.  We  left  Bitlis  on  the 
20th.  Soon  issuing  from  the  gardens  of  the  town  we  found  ourselves 
amidst  a forest  of  oaks  of  various  descriptions.*  It  was  one  of  those  deep, 
narrow,  and  rocky  valleys  abounding  in  Kurdistan ; the  foaming  torrent 
dashing  through  it,  to  be  crossed  and  re-crossed,  to  the  great  discomfort  of 
the  laden  mules,  almost  at  every  hundred  yards,  and  from  the  want  of 
bridges  generally  impassable  during  the  spring  and  after  rains.  In  autumn 
and  winter  the  declivities  are  covered  with  the  black  tents  of  the  Kochers, 
or  wandering  Kurds,  who  move  in  summer  to  the  higher  pastures.  The 
tribes  inhabiting  the  valley  are  the  Selokeen,  the  Hamki,  and  the  Babosi, 
by  whom  the  relatives  of  Cawal  Yusuf  were  murdered.  There  are  no 
villages  near  the  road-side.  They  stand  in  deep  ravines  branching  out 
from  the  main  valley,  either  perched  on  precipitous  and  almost  inaccessible 
ledges  of  rock,  or  hid  in  the  recesses  of  the  forest.  Several  bridges  and 
spacious  khans,  whose  ruins  still  attest  the  ancient  commerce  and  inter- 
course carried  on  through  these  mountains,  are  attributed,  like  all  other 

* In  the  appendix  will  be  found  a note,  with  which  I have  been  kindly  favored  by 
Dr.  Lindsay,  upon  the  new  and  remarkable  oaks  found  in  these  mountains,  and  now 
for  the  first  time  grown  in  this  country  from  acorns  sent  home  by  me 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


32 


[Chap.  II. 


public  works  in  the  country,  to  Sultan  Murad  during  his  memorable  expe- 
dition against  Baghdad  (a.  d.  1638). 

About  five  miles  from  Bitlis  the  road  is  carried  by  a tunnel,  about  twenty 
feet  in  length,  through  a mass  of  calcareous  rock,  projecting  like  a huge 
rib  from  the  mountain’s  side.  The  mineral  stream,  which  in  the  lapse  of 
ages  has  formed  this  deposit,  is  still  at  work,  projecting  great  stalactites 
from  its  sides,  and  threatening  to  close  ere  long  the  tunnel  itself.  There 
is  no  inscription  to  record  by  whom  and  at  what  period  this  passage  was 
cut.  It  is,  of  course,  assigned  to  Sultan  Murad,  but  is  probably  of  a far 
earlier  period.  There  are  many  such  in  the  mountains  ;*  and  the  re- 
mains of  a causeway,  evidently  of  great  antiquity,  in  many  places  cut  out 
of  the  solid  rock,  are  traceable  in  the  valley.  "We  pitched  our  tents  for 
the  night  near  a ruined  and  deserted  khan. 

We  continued  during  the  following  day  in  the  same  ravine,  crossing  by 
ancient  bridges  the  stream  which  was  gradually  gathering  strength  as  it 
advanced  towards  the  low  country.  About  noon  we  passed  a large  Kurd- 
ish village  called  Goeena,  belonging  to  Sheikh  Kassim,  one  of  those  relig- 
ious fanatics  who  are  the  curse  of  Kurdistan.  He  was  notorious  for  his 
hatred  of  the  Yezidis,  on  whose  districts  he  had  committed  numerous  depre- 
dations, murdering  those  who  came  within  his  reach.  His  last  expedition 
had  not  proved  successful ; he  was  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  many  of  his 
followers.  We  encamped  in  the  afternoon  on  the  bank  of  the  torrent,  near 
a cluster  of  Kurdish  tents,  concealed  from  view  by  the  brushwood  and  high 
reeds.  The  owners  were  poor  but  hospitable,  bringing  us  a lamb,  yahgourt, 
and  milk.  Late  in  the  evening  a party  of  horsemen  rode  to  our  encamp- 
ment. They  were  a young  Kurdish  chief,  with  his  retainers,  carrying  off 
a girl  with  whom  he  had  fallen  in  love, — not  an  uncommon  occurrence  in 
Kurdistan.  They  dismounted,  eat  bread,  and  then  hastened  on  their  jour- 
ney to  escape  pursuit. 

Starting  next  morning  soon  after  dawn  we  rode  for  two  hours  along  the 
banks  of  the  stream,  and  then,  turning  from  the  valley,  entered  a country 
of  low  undulating  hills.  Here  we  left  the  Bitlis  stream,  which  is  joined 
about  six  hours  beyond,  near  a village  named  Kitchki,  by  the  river  of 
Sert,  another  great  feeder  of  the  Tigris.  This  district  abounds  in  saline 
springs  and  wells,  whose  waters,  led  into  pans  and  allowed  to  evaporate, 
deposit  much  salt,  which  is  collected  and  forms  a considerable  article  of 
export  even  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Mosul. 

We  halted  for  a few  minutes  in  the  village  of  Omais-el-Koran,  belong- 
ing to  one  of  the  innumerable  saints  of  the  Kurdish  mountains.  The 
Sheikh  himself  was  on  his  terrace  superintending  the  repair  of  his  house, 
gratuitously  undertaken  by  the  neighbouring  villagers,  who  came  eagerly 
to  engage  in  a good  and  pious  work.  Whilst  the  chief  enjoys  the  full  ad- 
vantages of  a holy  character  the  place  itself  is  a Ziorah,  or  place  of  pil- 

* See  Col.  Sheiks  Memoir  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  vol. 
viii.  p.  81. 


A YEZIDI  VILLAGE. 


33 


Chap.  II.] 

grimage,  and  a visit  to  it  is  considered  by  the  ignorant  Kurds  almost  as 
meritorious  as  a journey  to  Mecca ; such  pilgrimages  being  usually  ac- 
companied by  an  offering  in  money,  or  in  kind,  are  not  discouraged  by  the 
Sheikh. 

Leaving  a small  plain,  we  ascended  a low  range  of  hills  by  a precipi- 
tous pathway,  and  halted  on  the  summit  at  a Kurdish  village  named  Kho- 
khi.  It  was  filled  with  Bashi-Bozuks,  or  irregular  troops,  collecting  the 
revenue,  and  there  was  such  a general  confusion,  quarrelling  of  men  and 
screaming  of  women,  that  we  could  scarcely  get  bread  to  eat.  Yet  the 
officer  assured  me  that  the  whole  sum  to  be  raised  amounted  to  no  more 
than  seventy  piastres  (about  thirteen  shillings).  The  poverty  of  the  vil- 
lage must  indeed  have  been  extreme,  or  the  bad  will  of  the  inhabitants 
outrageous. 

It  was  evening  before  we  descended  into  the  plain  country  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Kherzan.  The  Yezidi  village  of  Hamki  had  been  visible  for  some 
time  from  the  heights,  and  we  turned  towards  it.  As  the  sun  was  fast 
sinking,  the  peasants  were  leaving  the  threshing-floor,  and  gathering  to- 
gether their  implements  of  husbandry.  They  saw  the  large  company  of 
horsemen  drawing  nigh,  and  took  us  for  irregular  troops, — the  terror  of  an 
Eastern  village.  Cawal  Yusuf,  concealing  all  but  his  eyes  with  the  Arab 
kefieh,  which  he  then  wore,  rode  into  the  midst  of  them,  and  demanded 
in  a peremptory  voice  provisions  and  quarters  for  the  night.  The  poor 
creatures  huddled  together,  unwilling  to  grant,  yet  fearing  to  refuse.  The 
Cawal  having  enjoyed  their  alarm  for  a moment,  threw  his  kerchief  from 
his  face,  exclaiming,  “ 0 evil  ones  ! will  you  refuse  bread  to  your  priest, 
and  turn  him  hungry  from  your  door  ?”  There  was  surely  then  no  unwil- 
lingness to  receive  us.  Casting  aside  their  shovels  and  forks,  the  men 
threw  themselves  upon  the  Cawal,  each  struggling  to  kiss  his  hand.  A 
boy  ran  to  the  village  to  spread  the  news,  and  from  it  soon  issued  women, 
children,  and  old  men,  to  welcome  us.  A few  words  sufficed  to  explain 
from  whence  we  came,  and  what  we  required.  Every  one  was  our  serv- 
ant. Horses  were  unloaded,  tents  pitched,  lambs  brought,  before  we  had 
time  to  look  around.  There  was  a general  rejoicing,  and  the  poor  Yezi- 
dis  seemed  scarcely  able  to  satiate  themselves  with  looking  on  their  priest ; 
for  a report  had  gone  abroad,  and  had  been  industriously  encouraged  by 
the  Mussulmans,  who  had  heard  of  the  departure  of  the  deputation  for 
Constantinople,  that  Yusuf  and  his  companions  had  been  put  to  death  by 
the  Sultan,  and  that  not  only  the  petition  of  the  Yezidis  had  been  rejected, 
but  that  fresh  torments  were  in  store  for  them.  For  eight  months  they 
had  received  no  news  of  the  Cawal,  and  this  long  silence  had  confirmed 
their  fears  ; but  “ he  was  dead  and  is  alive  again,  he  was  lost  and  is 
found  and  they  made  merry  with  all  that  the  village  could  afford. 

Yusuf  was  soon  seated  in  the  midst  of  a circle  of  the  elders.  He  told 
his  whole  history,  with  such  details  and  illustrations  as  an  Eastern  alone 
can  introduce,  to  bring  every  fact  vividly  before  his  listeners.  Nothing 

C 


34  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  II- 

was  omitted : his  arrival  at  Constantinople,  his  reception  by  me,  his  intro- 
duction to  the  ambassador,  his  interview  with  the  great  ministers  of  state, 
the  firman  of  future  protection  for  the  Yezidis,  prospects  of  peace  and  hap- 
piness for  the  tribe,  our  departure  from  the  capital,  the  nature  of  steam- 
boats, the  tossing  of  the  waves,  the  pains  of  sea-sickness,  and  our  journey 
to  Kherzan.  Not  the  smallest  particular  was  forgotten;  every  person  and 
event  were  described  with  equal  minuteness ; almost  the  very  number  of 
pipes  he  had  smoked  and  coffees  he  had  drunk  was  given.  He  was  con- 
tinually interrupted  by  exclamations  of  gratitude  and  wonder ; and,  when 
he  had  finished,  it  was  my  turn  to  be  the  object  of  unbounded  welcomes 
and  salutations. 

As  the  Cawal  sat  on  the  ground,  with  his  noble  features  and  flowing 
robes,  surrounded  by  the  elders  of  the  village,  eager  listeners  to  every  word 
which  dropped  from  their  priest,  and  looking  towards  him  with  looks  of 
profound  veneration,  the  picture  brought  vividly  to  my  mind  many  scenes 
described  in  the  sacred  volumes.  Let  the  painter  who  would  throw  off  the 
conventionalities  of  the  age,  who  would  feel  as  well  as  portray  the  inci- 
dents of  Holy  Writ,  wander  in  the  East,  and  mix,  not  as  the  ordinary  trav- 
eller, but  as  a student  of  men  and  of  nature,  with  its  people.  He  will 
daily  meet  with  customs  which  he  will  otherwise  be  at  a loss  to  under- 
stand, and  be  brought  face  to  face  with  those  who  have  retained  with  lit- 
tle change  the  manners,  language,  and  dress  of  a patriarchal  race. 


Yezidi  Women 


Kurdish  Women  at  a Spring. 


CHAPTER  III. 

RECEPTION  BY  THE  YEZIDIS. VILLAGE  OF  GUZELDER. TRIUMPHAL  MARCH  TO  REDWAX. 

REDWAN. ARMENIAN  CHURCH. MIRZA  AGHA. THE  MELEK  TAOUS,  OR  BRAZEN  BIRD. 

TILLEH. VALLEY  OF  THE  TIGRIS. BAS  RELIEFS. JOURNEY  TO  DEREBOUN. TO  SEMIL. 

ABDE  AGHA. JOURNEY  TO  MOSUL. THE  YEZIDI  CHIEFS. ARRIVAL  AT  MOSUL. XEN- 

OPIION’S  MARCH  FROM  THE  ZAB  TO  THE  BLACK  SEA. 

I was  awoke  on  the  following  morning  by  the  tread  of  horses  and  the 
noise  of  many  voices.  The  good  people  of  Hamki  having  sent  messengers 
in  the  night  to  the  surrounding  villages  to  spread  the  news  of  our  arrival,  a 
large  body  of  Yezidis  on  horse  and  on  foot  had  already  assembled,  although 
it  was  not  yet  dawn,  to  greet  us  and  to  escort  us  on  our  journey.  They 
were  dressed  in  their  gayest  garments,  and  had  adorned  their  turbans  with 
flowers  and  green  leaves.  Their  chief  was  Akko,  a warrior  well  known  in 
the  Yezidi  wars,  still  active  and  daring,  although  his  beard  had  long  turned 
grey.  The  head  of  the  village  of  Guzelder,  with  the  principal  inhabitants, 
had  come  to  invite  me  to  eat  bread  in  his  house,  and  we  followed  him 
As  we  rode  along  we  were  joined  by  parties  of  horsemen  and  footmen,  each 
man  kissing  my  hand  as  he  arrived,  the  horsemen  alighting  for  that  pur- 
pose. Before  we  reached  Guzelder  the  procession  had  swollen  to  many 
hundreds.  The  men  had  assembled  at  some  distance  from  the  village,  the 
women  and  children,  dressed  in  their  holiday  attire,  and  carrying  boughs 
of  trees,  congregated  on  the  housetops  As  I approached  sheep  were 


36 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  III. 


brought  into  the  road  and  slain  before  my  horse’s  feet,  and  as  we  entered 
the  yard  of  Akko’s  house,  the  women  and  men  joined  in  the  loud  and  pierc- 
ing “tahlel.”  The  chief’s  family  were  assembled  at  his  door,  and  his  wife 
and  mother  insisted  upon  helping  me  to  dismount.  We  entered  a spacious 
room  completely  open  to  the  air  on  one  side,  and  distinguished  by  that  ex- 
treme neatness  and  cleanliness  peculiar  to  the  Yezidis.  Many-colored  car- 
pets were  spread  over  the  floor,  and  the  principal  elders  took  their  seats 
with  me. 

Soon  after  our  arrival  several  Fakirs,*  in  their  dark  coarse  dresses  and 
red  and  black  turbans,  came  to  us  from  the  neighbouring  villages.  One 
of  them  wore  round  his  neck  a chain,  as  a sign  that  he  had  renounced  the 
vanities  of  the  world,  and  had  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  God  and 
his  fellow-creatures.  Other  chiefs  and  horsemen  also  flocked  in,  and  were 
invited  to  join  in  the  feast,  which  was  not,  however,  served  up  until  Cawal 
Yusuf  had  related  his  whole  history  once  more,  without  omitting  a single 
detail.  After  we  had  eaten  of  stuffed  lambs,  pillaws,  and  savory  dishes 
and  most  luscious  grapes,  the  produce  of  the  district,  our  entertainer  placed 
a present  of  home-made  carpets  at  my  feet,  and  we  rose  to  depart.  The 
horsemen,  the  Fakirs,  and  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Guzelder  on  foot 
accompanied  me.  At  a short  distance  from  the  village  we  were  met  by 
another  large  body  of  Yezidis,  and  by  many  Jacobites,  headed  by  one  Namo; 
who,  by  the  variety  of  his  arms,  the  richness  of  his  dress,  a figured  Indian 
silk  robe,  with  a cloak  of  precious  fur,  and  his  tastefully  decorated  Arab 
mare,  might  rather  have  been  taken  for  a Kurdish  bey  than  the  head  of  a 
Christian  village.  A bishop  and  several  priests  were  with  him.  Two 
hours’  ride,  with  this  great  company,  the  horsemen  galloping  to  and  fro, 
the  footmen  discharging  their  firearms,  brought  us  to  the  large  village  of 
Koshana.  The  whole  of  the  population,  mostly  dressed  in  pure  white,  and 
wearing  leaves  and  flowers  in  their  turbans,  had  turned  out  to  meet  us ; 
women  stood  on  the  road-side  with  jars  of  fresh  water  and  bowls  of  sour 
milk,  whilst  others  with  the  children  were  assembled  on  the  housetops 
making  the  tahlel.  Resisting  an  invitation  to  alight  and  eat  bread,  and 
having  merely  stopped  to  exchange  salutations  with  those  assembled,  I 
continued  on  the  road  to  Redwan,  our  party  swollen  by  a fresh  accession 
of  followers  from  the  village.  Ere  long  we  were  met  by  three  Cawals  on 
their  periodical  visitation  to  the  district.  They  w*ere  nearly  related  to 
Cawal  Yusuf,  and  old  friends  of  my  own.  With  them,  amongst  others, 
were  several  young  Mussulmans,  who  appeared  to  be  on  the  best  terms  with 
their  Yezidi  friends,  but  had  probably  ridden  out  with  them  to  show  their 
gay  dresses  and  admirable  horsemanship.  As  we  passed  through  the  de- 
file leading  into  the  plain  of  Redwan,  we  had  the  appearance  of  a triumph- 
al procession,  but  as  we  approached  the  small  town  a still  more  enthusias- 
tic reception  awaited  us.  First  came  a large  body  of  horsemen,  collected 
from  the  place  itself,  and  the  neighbouring  villages.  They  were  followed 
* The  lowest  ordor  of  tha  Yezidi  priesthood. 


Chap.  III.] 


TOWN  OF  REDWAN. 


37 

by  Yezedis  on  foot,  carrying  flowers  and  branches  of  trees,  and  preceded  by 
musicians  playing  on  the  tubbul  and  zernai.^  Next  were  the  Armenian 
community  headed  by  their  clergy,  and  then  the  Jacobite  and  other  Chris- 
tian sects,  also  with  their  respective  priests ; the  women  and  children  lined 
the  entrance  to  the  place  and  thronged  the  housetops.  I alighted  amidst 
the  din  of  music  and  the  “ tahlel”  at  the  house  of  Nazi,  the  chief  of  the 
whole  Yezidi  district,  two  sheep  being  slain  before  me  as  I took  my  feet 
from  the  stirrups. 

Nazi’s  house  was  soon  filled  with  the  chiefs,  the  principal  visitors,  and 
^ the  inhabitants  of  Redwan.  Again  had  Cawal  Yusuf  to  describe  all  that 
had  occurred  at  Constantinople,  and  to  confirm  the  good  tidings  of  an  im- 
perial firman  giving  the  Yezidis  equal  rights  with  the  Mussulmans,  a com- 
plete toleration  of  their  religion,  and  relief  from  the  much  dreaded  laws  of 
the  conscription.  At  length  breakfast  was  brought  and  devoured.  It  was 
then  agreed  that  Nazi’s  house  was  likely  to  be  too  crowded  during  the  day 
to  permit  me  to  enjoy  comfort  or  quiet,  and  with  a due  regard  to  the  du- 
ties of  hospitality,  it  was  suggested  that  I should  take  up  my  quarters  in 
the  Armenian  church,  dining  in  the  evening  with  the  chiefs  to  witness  the 
festivities. 

The  change  was  indeed  grateful  to  me,  and  I found  at  length  a little 
repose  and  leisure  to  reflect  upon  the  gratifying  scene  to  which  I had  that 
day  been  witness.  I have,  perhaps,  been  too  minute  in  the  account  of  my 
reception  at  Redwan,  but  I record  with  pleasure  this  instance  of  a sincere 
and  spontaneous  display  of  gratitude  on  the  part  of  a much  maligned  and 
oppressed  race.  To  those,  unfortunately  too  many,  who  believe  that  East- 
erns can  only  be  managed  by  violence  and  swayed  by  fear,  let  this  record 
be  a proof  that  there  are  high  and  generous  feelings  which  may  not  only 
be  relied  and  acted  upon  without  interfering  with  their  authority,  or  com- 
promising their  dignity,  but  with  every  hope  of  laying  the  foundation  of 
real  attachment  and  mutual  esteem. 

The  church  stands  on  the  slope  of  a mound,  on  the  summit  of  which  are 
the  ruins  of  a castle  belonging  to  the  former  chiefs  of  Redwan.  It  was 
built  expressly  for  the  Christians  of  the  Armenian  sect  by  Mirza  Agha,  the 
last  semi-independent  Yezidi  chief,-  a pleasing  example  of  toleration  and 
liberality  well  worthy  of  imitation  by  more  civilised  men.  The  building 
is  peculiar  and  primitive  in  its  construction ; one  side  of  the  courtyard  is 
occupied  by  stables  for  the  cattle  of  the  priests  ; above  them  is  a low  room 
with  a dead  wall  on  three  sides  and  a row  of  arches  on  the  fourth.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  court  is  an  iwan,  or  large  vaulted  chamber,  com- 
^ pletely  open  on  one  side  to  the  air ; in  its  centre,  supported  on  four  columns, 
is  a gaudily  painted  box  containing  a picture  of  the  Virgin ; a few  miser- 
able daubs  of  saints  are  pasted  on  the  walls.  This  is  the  church,  when 
in  summer  the  heat  prevents  the  use  of  a closed  room.  It  can  only  be  di- 
vided from  the  yard  by  a curtain  of  figured  cotton  print,  drawn  across  when 
* A large  drum  beaten  at  both  ends,  and  a kind  of  oboe  or  pipe. 


38 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  III. 


unbelievers  enter  the  building  ; a low  doorway  to  the  left  leads  into  a dark 
inner  church,  in  which  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  saints  can  faintly  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  light  of  a few  propitiatory  lamps  struggling  with  the 
gloom.  Service  was  performed  in  the  open  iwan  during  the  afternoon, 
the  congregation  kneeling  uncovered  in  the  yard. 

The  priests  of  the  different  communities  called  upon  me  as  soon  as  I 
was  ready  to  receive  their  visits.  The  most  intelligent  amongst  them  was 
a Roman  Catholic  Chaldsean,  a good-humoured,  tolerant  fellow,  who  with 
a very  small  congregation  of  his  own  did  not  bear  any  ill  will  to  his  neigh- 
bours. With  the  principal  Yezedi  chiefs,  too,  I had  a long  and  interesting 
conversation  on  the  state  of  their  people  and  on  their  prospects.  Nazi  is 
descended  from  the  ancient  hereditary  lords  of  Redwan.  The  last  of  them 
was  Mirza  Agha,  his  uncle,  whose  history  and  end  were  those  of  many  of' 
the  former  independent  chieftains  of  Turkey.  When  the  celebrated  Reshid 
Pasha  had  subdued  northern  Kurdistan  and  was  marching  to  the  south, 
Mirza  Agha,  dreading  the  approach  of  the  army,  submitted  to  the  Sultan, 
and  agreed  to  receive  a Turkish  governor  in  his  castle.  The  officer  chosen 
for  the  post  was  one  Emin  Agha.  He  had  not  been  long  in  Redwan  be- 
fore he  carried  away  by  force  the  beautiful  wife  of  the  Yezidi  chief.  Mirza 
Agha,  instead  of  appealing  to  arms,  went  to  Reshid  Pasha,  and  feigning 
that  the  woman  was  a slave  and  not  his  wife,  protested  that  Emin  Agha 
might  come  back  without  fear  to  his  government.  The  Turk  did  return, 
but  he  and  his  followers  were  no  sooner  in  the  power  of  the  chief  than  they 
fell  victims  to  his  revenge.  Reshid  Pasha  then  marched  against  Redwan, 
but  being  called  away  against  the  rebel  Bey  of  Rahwanduz,  was  unable 
to  subdue  the  district.  After  the  successful  termination  of  the  expedition 
against  the  Kurdish  bey,  Mirza  Agha  again  made  an  unqualified  submission, 
was  received  into  favour,  and  appointed  governor  over  his  own  people.  On 
the  death  of  Reshid  Pasha  he  was  invited  to  the  quarters  of  the  new  Turk- 
ish commander,  and  treacherously  murdered  during  his  visit.  His  former 
wife,  who,  according  to  the  laws  of  the  sect,  could  not  be  received  again 
into  the  community,  had  been  placed  in  the  harem  of  the  murderer ; she 
died  on  hearing  the  fate  of  her  Yezidi  husband.  The  body  of  Mirza  Agha 
was  brought  by  some  faithful  attendants  to  his  native  place,  and  lies  under 
a neat  turbeh  on  the  banks  of  the  stream  to  the  west  of  the  town.  Nazi, 
his  nephew,  was  his  successor,  but  long  oppression  has  reduced  him  to 
poverty ; the  old  castle  has  been  deserted,  and  is  fast  falling  to  ruin,  whilst 
its  owner  occupies  a mud  hovel  like  the  meanest  of  his  followers. 

Redwan  is  called  a town,  becauseit  has  a bazar,  and  is  the  chief  place 
of  a considerable  district.  It  may  contain  about  eight  hundred  rudely-built 
huts,  and  stands  on  a large  stream,  which  joins  the  Diarbekir  branch  of 
the  Tigris,  about  five  or  six  miles  below.  The  inhabitants  are  Yezedis, 
with  the  exception  of  about  one  hundred  Armenian,  and  forty  or  fifty  Jac- 
obite and  Chaldsean  families.  A Turkish  Mudir,  or  petty  governor,  gen- 
erally resides  in  the  place,  but  was  absent  at  the  time  of  my  visit. 


MELEK  TAOUS. 


39 


Chap.  III.] 

The  sounds  of  rejoicing  had  been  heard  during  the  whole  afternoon ; 
raki  had  circulated  freely,  and  there  were  few  houses  which  had  not  slain 
a lamb  to  celebrate  the  day.  After  we  had  dined,  the  dances  commenced 
in  the  courtyard  of  Nazi’s  house,  and  were  kept  up  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  night,  the  moon  shedding  its  pale  light  on  the  white  robes  of  the 
Yezidi  dancers.  But  as  the  sun  was  setting  we  were  visited  by  one  of 
those  sudden  storms  or  whirlwinds  which  frequently  riot  over  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia  and  through  the  valleys  of  Assyria.  Although  it  lasted 
scarcely  more  than  half  an  hour,  it  tore  down  in  its  fury  tents  and  more 
solid  dwellings,  and  swept  from  the  housetops  the  beds  and  carpets  already 
spread  for  the  night’s  repose.  After  its  passage,  the  air  seemed  even  more 
calm  than  it  had  been  before,  and  those  who  had  been  driven  to  take 
shelter  from  its  violence  within  the  walls  resumed  their  occupations  and 
their  dances. 

We  slept  in  the  long  room  opening  on  the  courtyard,  and  were  awoke 
long  before  daybreak  by  the  jingling  of  small  bells  and  the  mumbling  of 
priests.  It  was  Sunday,  and  the  Armenians  commence  their  church  services 
betimes.  I gazed  half  dozing,  and  without  rising  from  my  bed,  upon  the 
ceremonies,  the  bowing,  raising  of  crosses,  and  shaking  of  bells,  which  con- 
tinued for  above  three  hours,  until  priests  and  congregation  must  have  been 
well  nigh  exhausted.  The  people,  as  during  the  previous  afternoon’s  serv- 
ice, stood  and  knelt  uncovered  in  the  courtyard. 

The  Cawals,  who  are  sent  yearly  by  Hussein  Bey  and  Sheikh  Nasr  to 
instruct  the  Yezidis  in  their  faith,  and  to  collect  the  contributions  forming 
the  revenues  of  the  great  chief,  and  of  the  tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi,  were  now 
in  Redwan.  The  same  Cawals  do  not  take  the  same  rounds  every  year. 
The  Yezidis  are  parcelled  out  into  four  divisions  for  the  purpose  of  these 
annual  visitations,  those  of  the  Sinjar,  of  Kherzan,  of  the  pashalic  of  Aleppo, 
and  of  the  villages  in  northern  Armenia,  and  within  the  Russian  frontiers. 
The  Yezidis  of  the  Mosul  districts  have  the  Cawals  always  amongst  them. 
I was  aware  that  on  the  occasion  of  these  journeys  the  priests  carry  with 
them  the  celebrated  Melek  Taous,  or  brazen  peacock,  as  a warrant  for  their 
mission.  A favourable  opportunity  How  offered  itself  to  see  this  mysterious 
figure,  and  I asked  Cawal  Yusuf  to  gratify  my  curiosity.  He  at  once  ac- 
ceded to  my  request,  and  the  Cawals  and  elders  offering  no  objection,  I 
was  conducted  early  in  the  morning  into  a dark  inner  room  in  Nazi’s 
house.  It  was  some  time  before  my  eyes  had  become  sufficiently  accus- 
tomed to  the  dim  light  to  distinguish  an  object,  from  which  a large  red 
coverlet  had  been  raised  on  my  entry.  The  Cawals  drew  near  with  every 
sign  of  respect,  bowing  and  kissing  the  corner  of  the  cloth  on  which  it  was 
placed.  A stand  of  bright  copper  or  brass,  in  shape  like  the  candlesticks 
generally  used  in  Mosul  and  Baghdad,  was  surmounted  by  the  rude  image 
of  a bird  in  the  same  metal,  and  more  like  an  Indian  or  Mexican  idol  than 
a cock  or  peacock.  Its  peculiar  workmanship  indicated  some  antiquity, 
but  I could  see  no  traces  of  inscription  upon  it.  Before  it  stood  a copper 


40 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  III. 


bowl  to  receive  contributions,  and  a bag  to  contain  the  bird  and  stand, 
which  takes  to  pieces  when  carried  from  place  to 
place.  There  are  four  such  images,  one  for  each  dis- 
trict visited  by  the  Cawals.  The  Yezidis  declare 
that,  notwithstanding  the  frequent  wars  and  massa- 
cres to  which  the  sect  has  been  exposed,  and  the  plun- 
der and  murder  of  the  priests  during  their  journeys, 
no  Melek  Taous  has  ever  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mussulmans.  Cawal  Yusuf,  once  crossing  the 
desert  on  a mission  to  the  S injar,  and  seeing  a body 
of  Bedouin  horsemen  in  the  distance,  buried  the  Me- 
lek Taous.  Having  been  robbed  and  then  left  by 
the  Arabs,  he  dug  it  up  and  carried  it  in  safety  to  its 
destination.  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam  was  alone  per- 
mitted to  visit  the  image  with  me.  As  I have  else- 
where observed,*  it  is  not  looked  upon  as  an  idol, 
but  as  a symbol  or  banner,  as  Sheikh  Nasr  termed 
it,  of  the  house  of  Hussein  Bey. 

Having  breakfasted  at  Nazi’s  house  we  left  Red- 
wan,  followed  by  a large  company  of  Yezidis,  whom 
I had  great  difficulty  in  persuading  to  turn  back 
about  three  or  four  miles  from  the  town.  My  party  was  increased  by  a 
very  handsome  black  and  tan  grey-hound  with  long  silky  hair,  a present 
from  old  Akko,  the  Yezidi  chief,  who  declared  that  he  loved  him  as  his 
child.  The  affection  was  amply  returned.  No  delicacies  or  caresses 
would  induce  Touar,  for  such  was  the  dog’s  name,  to  leave  his  master. 
He  laid  himself  down  and  allowed  one  of  the  servants  to  drag  him  by  a rope 
over  the  rough  ground,  philosophically  giving  tongue  to  his  complaints  in  a 
low  howl.  This  greyhound,  a fine  specimen  of  a noble  breed,  much  prized 
by  the  Kurds  and  Persians,  became,  from  his  highly  original  character  and 
complete  independence,  a great  favourite  with  us.  He  soon  forgot  his  old 
masters,  and  formed  an  equal  attachment  for  his  new.  Another  dog,  a 
shepherd  cur,  had  accompanied  our  caravan  the  whole  way  from  Trebizond. 
He  joined  us  without  invitation,  and  probably  finding  the  living  to  his  taste, 
and  the  exercise  conducive  to  health,  remained  with  us,  acknowledging 
the  hospitality  shown  him  by  keeping  watch  over  tfie  horses  by  night. 

Cawal  Yusuf,  and  the  Yezidi  chiefs,  had  sent  messengers  even  to  Hus- 
sein Bey  to  apprise  him  of  our  coming.  As  they  travelled  along  they  scat- 
tered the  news  through  the  country,  and  I was  received  outside  every  vil- 
lage by  its  inhabitants.  At  Kunduk,  two  hours  from  Redwan,  we  found  a 
second  breakfast  prepared  for  us,  and  were  obliged  to  alight.  Below  this 
place  the  Redwan  stream  joins  the  Diarbekir  branch  of  the  Tigris,  the  two 
forming  a broad  river.  Near  are  the  remains  of  Husn  Kaifa,  and  of  other 
ancient  cities,  which  I was  unable  to  visit. 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  298. 


XENOPHON’S  RETREAT. 


41 


Chap.  III.] 

We  had  scarcely  left  Kunduk  when  we  were  met  by  a party  of  Chris- 
tians, with  the  Kiayah  of  the  village  of  Aoudi  at  their  head.  I was  again 
obliged  to  stop,  eat  bread,  and  receive  an  offering  of  home-made  carpets, 
of  which  we  had  now  well  nigh  received  a mule-load  as  presents.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  district  were  suffering  much  from  oppression  and  illegal 
taxation. 

The  Kiayah,  with  some  horsemen,  accompanied  us  to  Tilleh,  where  the 
united  waters  of  Bitlis,  Sert,  and  the  upper  districts  of  Bohtan,  join  the 
western  branch  of  the  Tigris.  The  two  streams  are  about  equal  in  size, 
and  at  this  time  of  the  year  both  fordable  in  certain  places.  We  crossed 
the  lower,  or  eastern,  which  we  found  wide  and  exceedingly  rapid,  the 
water,  however,  not  reaching  above  the  saddle-girths.  The  villagers  rais- 
ed the  luggage,  and  supported  the  horses  against  the  current,  which  rush- 
ing over  loose  and  slippery  stones,  affording  an  uncertain  footing,  threat- 
ened to  sweep  the  animals  down  the  stream.  Our  travelling  companion, 
the  dog  from  Trebizond,  having  made  several  vain  attempts  to  brave  the 
rapids,  quietly  retired,  thinking  our  company  not  worth  any  further  risk. 
Touar,  more  fortunate,  was  carried  over  in  the  arms  of  a servant. 

The  spot  at  which  we  crossed  was  one  of  peculiar  interest.  It  was  here 
that  the  Ten  Thousand  in  their  memorable  retreat  forded  this  river,  called, 
by  Xenophon,  the  Centritis.  The  Greeks  having  fought  their  way  over 
the  lofty  mountains  of  the  Carduchians,  found  their  further  progress  toward 
Armenia  arrested  by  a rapid  stream.  The  ford  was  deep,  and  its  passage 
disputed  by  a formidable  force  of  Armenians,  Mygdonians,  and  Chaldseans, 
drawn  up  on  an  eminence  300  or  400  feet  from  the  river.  In  this  strait 
Xenophon  dreamt  that  he  was  in  chains,  and  that  suddenly  his  fetters 
burst  asunder  of  their  own  accord.  His  dream  was  fulfilled  when  two 
youths  casually  found  a more  practicable  ford,  by  which  the  army,  after  a 
skilful  stratagem  on  the  part  of  their  commander,  safely  reached  the  oppo- 
site bank.* 

The  village  of  Tilleh  belongs  to  Hassan  Agha,  a Kurdish  chief,  who 
lives  in  a small  mud  fort.  He  maintained,  during  the  time  of  Beder  Khan 
Bey,  a sort  of  independence,  sorely  oppressing  Christians  and  Yezidis.  Un- 
fortunately the  Turks,  with  their  usual  want  of  foresight  and  justice,  had 
enabled  him  to  continue  in  his  evil  ways  by  selling  him  the  revenues  and 
tithes  of  the  district,  and  naming  him  its  governor.  He  came  out  and  in- 
vited me  into  his  castle,  pressing  me  to  pass  the  night  with  him,  and  re- 
galing us  with  pipes  and  coffee.  It  was  near  Tilleh  that  the  Sultan’s 
troops,  assisted  by  the  Yezidis,  completely  defeated  Khan  Malmoud,  who 
was  marching  with  the  tribes  of  Wan  and  Hakkiari  to  the  help  of  Beder 
Khan  Bey. 

The  sun  had  set  before  our  baggage  had  been  crossed,  and  we  sought, 
by  the  light  of  the  moon,  the  difficult  track  along  the  Tigris,  where  the 
river  forces  its  way  to  the  low  country  of  Assyria,  through  a long,  narrow, 

* Anab.  book  iv.  c.  3. 


42 


NINEVEH  ANT)  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  Ill 


and  deep  gorge.  Huge  rocks  rose  perpendicularly  on  either  side,  broken 
into  many  fantastic  shapes,  and  throwing  their  dark  shadows  over  the  wa- 
ter. In  some  places  they  scarcely  left  room  for  the  river  to  pursue  its 
course ; and  then  a footpath,  hardly  wide  enough  to  admit  the  loaded 
mules,  was  carried  along  a mere  ledge  overhanging  the  gurgling  stream. 
The  gradual  deepening  of  this  outlet  during  countless  centuries  is  strikingly 
shown  by  the  ledges  which  jutt  out  like  a succession  of  cornices  from  the 
sides  of  the  cliffs.  The  last  ledge  left  by  the  retiring  waters  formed  our 
pathway.  The  geological  history  of  the  Tigris,  and,  consequently,  of  the 
low  country,  at  its  entry  into  the  plain,  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  this 
rocky  ravine.  In  winter  this  drainer  of  the  springs  and  snows  of  the  high- 
lands of  Armenia  and  Kurdistan  is  swollen  into  a most  impetuous  torrent, 
whose  level  is  often  full  thirty  feet  above  the  summer  average  of  the  river. 

We  found  no  village  until  we  reached  Chellek.  The  place  had  been 
deserted  by  its  inhabitants  for  the  Yilaks,  or  mountain  pastures.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  (in  the  district  of  Asheeti)  danced  the  lights  of  a 
second  village,  also  called  Chellek,  hut  distinguished  from  the  one  on  the 
eastern  bank  by  the  addition  of  “ Ali  kummo,”  the  name  of  a petty  Kurd- 
ish chief,  who  owns  a mud  fort  there. 

After  some  search  we  found  a solitary  Kurd,  who  had  been  left  to  watch 
the  small  patches  of  cultivation  belonging  to  the  villagers.  Taking  us  for 
Turkish  soldiers,  he  had  hidden  himself  on  our  arrival.  He  offered  to  walk 
to  the  tents,  and  returned  after  midnight  with  provisions  for  ourselves  and 
barley  for  our  horses. 

For  three  hours  during  the  following  morning  we  followed  the  bold  and 
majestic  ravine  of  the  Tigris,  scenes  rivalling  each  other  in  grandeur  and 
beauty  opening  at  every  turn.  Leaving  the  river,  where  it  makes  a sudden 
bend  to  the  northward,  we  commenced  a steep  ascent,  and  in  an  hour  and 
a half  reached  the  Christian  village  of  Khouara.  We  rested  during  the 
heat  of  the  day  under  the  grateful  shade  of  a grove  of  trees,  and  in  the 
afternoon  continued  our  journey,  ascending  again  as  soon  as  we  had  left  the 
village,  towards  the  crest  of  a mountain,  from  whence,  according  to  Cawal 
Yusuf,  we  were  to  behold  all  the  world  ; and  certainly,  when  we  reached 
the  summit,  there  was  as  much  of  the  world  before  us  as  could  well  be 
taken  in  at  one  ken.  We  stood  on  the  brink  of  the  great  platform  of  Cen- 
tral Asia.  Beneath  us  were  the  vast  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  lost  in  the 
hazy  distance,  the  undulating  land  between  them  and  the  Taurus  confound- 
ed, from  so  great  a height,  with  the  plains  themselves  ; the  hills  of  the  Sin- 
jar  and  of  Zakko,  like  ridges  on  an  embossed  map ; the  Tigris  and  the 
Khabour,  winding  through  the  low  country  to  their  place  of  junction  at 
Dereboun  ; to  the  right,  facing  the  setting  sun,  and  catching  its  last  rays, 
the  high  cone  of  Mardin ; behind,  a confused  mass  of  peaks,  some  snow- 
capped, all  rugged  and  broken,  of  the  lofty  mountains  of  Bohtan  and  Mal- 
ataiyah  ; between  them  and  the  northern  range  of  Taurus,  the  deep  ravine 
of  the  river  and  the  valley  of  Redwan.  I watched  the  shawdows  as  they 


Chap.  III.] 


KURDISH  HOSPITALITY 


43 


lengthened  over  the  plain,  melting  one  by  one  into  the  general  gloom,  and 
then  descended  to  the  large  Kurdish  village  of  Funduk,  whose  inhabitants, 
during  the  rule  of  Beder  Khan  Bey,  were  notorious  amongst  even  the  savage 
tribes  of  Bohtan  for  their  hatred  and  insolence  to  Christians. 

Although  we  had  now  nothing  to  fear,  I preferred  seeking  another  spot 
for  our  night’s  halt,  and  we  passed  through  the  narrow  streets  as  the  fam- 
ilies were  settling  themselves  on  the  housetops  for  their  night’s  rest.  We 
had  ridden  about  half  a mile  when  we  heard  a confused  murmur  in  the 
village,  and  saw  several  Kurds  running  towards  us  at  the  top  of  their  speed. 
Mr.  C.,  had  been  fairly  frightened  into  a state  of  despair  by  the  youngest 
of  our  party,  who  entered  with  mischievous  minuteness  into  the  details  of 
the  innumerable  robberies  and  murders,  authentic  and  qtherwise,  comnftt- 
ted  by  the  people  of  Funduk.  He  now  made  up  his  mind  that  his  last  hour 
was  come,  but  gallantly  prepared  his  double-barrelled  pistols.  Neither 
Cawal  Yusuf  nor  myself  could  exactly  make  out  what  was  in  store  for  us, 
until  the  foremost  of  the  runners,  seizing  my  bridle,  declared  that  the 
Kiayah,  or  chief,  would  not  allow  me  to  proceed  without  partaking  of  his 
hospitality  ; that  it  was  worse  than  an  insult  to  pass  his  house  without  eat- 
ing bread  and  sleeping  under  his  roof.  Other  Kurds  soon  came  up  with  us, 
using  friendly  violence  to  turn  my  horse,  and  swearing  that  the  chief,  al- 
though suffering  from  severe  illness,  would  come  out  himself  unless  I con- 
sented to  retrace  my  steps.  It  was  useless  to  persist  in  a refusal  after  such 
a display  of  hospitality,  and  notwithstanding  the  protests  of  my  companion, 
who  believed  that  we  were  rushing  into  the  jaws  of  destruction,  I rode  back 
to  the  village. 

Resoul  Kiayah,  although  laboring  under  a fit  of  ague,  was  standing  at 
his  door  to  receive  me,  surrounded  by  as  ferocious  a set  of  friends  as  one 
could  well  desire  to  be  in  company  with.  “ He  had  entertained,”  he  ex- 
claimed, as  he  saluted  me,  “Osman  Pasha  and  Ali  Pasha,  and  it  would  be 
a disgrace  upon  his  house  if  the  Bey  passed  without  eating  bread  in  it.” 
In  the  meanwhile  a sheep  had  been  slain,  and  comfortable  carpets  and 
cushions  spread  on  the  housetop.  His  greeting  of  Yusuf,  although  he  knew 
him  to  be  a Yezidi,  was  so  warm  and  evidently  sincere,  that  I was  at  a 
loss  to  account  for  it,  until  the  Cawal  explained  to  me  that  when  Khan 
Mahmoud  and  Beder  Khan  Bey’s  troops  were  defeated  near  Tilleh,  the 
Kiayah  of  Funduk  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  men  of  Redwan,  who  were 
about  to  inflict  summary  justice  upon  him  by  pitching  him  into  the  river. 
He  was  rescued  by  our  friend  Akko,  who  concealed  him  in  his  house  until 
he  could  return  to  Kurdistan  in  safety.  To  show  his  gratitude  he  has 
since  condescended  to  bestow  on  the  Yezidi  chief  the  title  of  father,  and  to 
receive  with  a hearty  welcome  such  travellers  of  the  sect  as  may  pass 
through  his  village.  The  Kurds  of  Funduk  wear  the  Bohtan  dress  in  its 
full  perfection,  a turban  nearly  three  feet  in  diameter,  shalwars  or  trowsers 
of  enormous  width,  loose  embroidered  jackets,  and  shirt  sleeves  sweeping 
the  ground ; all  being  striped  deep  dull  red  and  black,  except  the  under- 


44 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  Ill 


linen  and  one  kerchief  tied  diagonally  across  the  turban,  which  is  generally 
of  bright  yellow.  They  are  armed,  too,  to  the  teeth,  and  as  they  crouched 
round  the  fires  on  the  housetops,  their  savage  countenances  peering  through 
the  gloom,  my  London  companion,  unused  to  such  scenes,  might  well  have 
fancied  himself  in  a den  of  thieves.  The  Kiayah,  notwithstanding  his  had 
reputation,  was  exact  in  all  the  duties  of  hospitality  ; the  supper  was  abund- 
ant, the  coffee  flowed  perpetually,  and  he  satisfied  my  curiosity  upon  many  . 
points  of  revenue,  internal  administration,  tribe-history,  and  local  curiosi- 
ties. 

We  passed  the  night  on  the  roof  without  any  adventure,  and  resumed 
our  journey  before  dawn  on  the  following  morning,  to  the  great  relief  of 
Mr.  C.,  who  rejoiced  to  feel  himself  well  out  of  the  hands  of  such  danger- 
ous hosts.  Crossing  a mountain  wooded  with  dwarf  oaks,  by  a very  diffi- 
cult pathway,  carried  along  and  over  rocks  containing  many  excavated 
tombs,  we  descended  to  Fynyk,  a village  on  the  Tigris  supposed  to  occupy 
the  site  of  an  ancient  town  (Phcenica).*  We  rested  during  the  heat  of  the 
day  in  one  of  the  pleasant  gardens  with  which  the  village  is  surrounded. 
At  its  entrance  was  a group  of  girls  and  an  old  Kurd  baking  bread  in  a hole 
in  the  ground,  plastered  with  clay.  “Have  you  any  bread?”  we  asked. 

“No,  by  the  Prophet!”  “Any  buttermilk?” — “No,  by  my  faith!” 

“ Any  fruit  ?” — “ No,  by  Allah !” — the  trees  were  groaning  under  the  weight 
of  figs,  pomegranates,  pears,  and  grapes.  He  then  asked  a string  of  ques- 
tions in  his  turn:  “Whence  do  you  come?” — “From  afar!”  “What  is 
your  business?” — “What  God  commands!”  “Whither  are  you  going?” 

“As  God  wills  !”  The  old  gentleman,  having  thus  satisfied  himself  as 

to  our  character  and  intentions,  although  our  answers  were  undoubtedly 
vague  enough,  and  might  have  been  elsewhere  considered  evasive,  left  us 
without  saying  a word  more,  but  soon  after  came  back  bearing  a large  bowl 
of  curds,  and  a basket  filled  with  the  finest  fruit.  Placing  these  dainties 
before  me,  he  ordered  the  girls  to  bake  bread,  which  they  speedily  did, 
bringing  us  the  hot  cakes  as  they  drew  them  from  their  primitive  oven. 

After  we  had  breakfasted,  some  Kurds  who  had  gathered  round  us,  of- 
fered to  take  me  to  a rock,  sculptured,  they  said,  with  unknown  Frank  fig- 
ures. We  rode  up  a narrow  and  shady  ravine,  through  which  leapt  a 
brawling  torrent,  watering  fruit  trees  and  melon  beds.  The  rocks  on  both 
sides  were  honeycombed  with  tombs.  The  bas-relief  is  somewhat  above  the 
line  of  cultivation,  and  is  surrounded  by  excavated  chambers.  It  consists 

* It  was  at  the  foot  of  this  steep  descent  that  Xenophon  was  compelled  to  turn  off, 
as  caravans  still  are,  from  the  river,  and  to  brave  the  difficulties  of  a mountain  pass, 
defended  by  the  warlike  Carduchi  or  Kurds.  The  Rhodian,  who  offered  to  construct 
a bridge  with  the  inflated  skins  of  sheep,  goats,  oxen,  and  asses,  anchoring  them  with 
stones,  and  covering  them  with  fascines  and  earth,  had  perhaps  taken  his  idea  from 
the  rafts  which  were  then  used  for  the  navigation  of  the  Tigris,  as  they  are  to  this 
day.  As  there  was  a large  body  of  the  enemy  on  the  opposite  side,  ready  to  dispute 
the  passage,  the  Greeks  were  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  his  ingenious  suggestion. 


Chap.  III.] 


ROCK  SCULPTURES. 


45 


Sculptured  Tablet  at  Fynyk. 


of  two  figures,  dressed  in  loose  vests  and 

I trowsers,  one  apparently  resting  his  hand 
llll  on  the  shoulder  of  the  other.  There 

II  I are  the  remains  of  an  inscription,  but  too 
Iffjy  much  weather-worn  to  be  copied  with 

m any  accuracy.  The  costume  of  the  fig- 
^ ' ures,  and  the  forms  of  the  characters,  as 
Him/  far  as  they  can  he  distinguished,  prove 
that  the  tablet  belongs  to  the  Parthian 
period.  It  closely  resembles  monuments 
i of  the  same  epoch  existing  in  the  mount- 
■ ains  of  Persia.*  Most  of  the  surround- 
| ing  tombs,  like  those  of  Akhlat,  contain 
fl  three  troughs  or  niches  for  the  dead,  one 
8 1 on  each  side,  and  a third  facing  the  en- 
1 trance. 

We  quitted  Fynyk  in  the  afternoon. 
|fw  Accompanied  by  Cawal  Yusuf  and  Mr. 
C.,  I left  the  caravan  to  examine  some 
rock-sculptures,  in  a valley  leading  from 


Rock  Sculpture  near  Jezireh.  Rock  Sculpture  near  Jezireh. 


* Particularly  those  which  I discovered  near  Shimbor,  in  the  mountains  of  Susiana 
(Journal  of  Geog.  Soc.  vol.  xvi.  p,  84.) 


46 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  III. 


Jezireh  to  Derghileh,  the  former  stronghold  of  Beder  Khan  Bey.  The 
sculptures  are  about  two  miles  from  the  high  road,  near  a small  fort  built 
by  Mir  Saif-ed-din,*  and  now  occupied  by  a garrison  of  Arnaouts.  There 
are  two  tablets,  one  above  the  other ; the  upper  contains  a warrior  on 
horseback,  the  lower  a single  figure.  Although  no  traces  of  inscription 
remain,  the  bas-reliefs  may  confidently  be  assigned  to  the  same  period  as 
that  at  Fynyk.  Beneath  them  is  a long  cutting,  and  tunnel  in  the  rock, 
probably  an  ancient  watercourse  for  irrigation,  to  record  the  construction 
of  which  the  tablets  may  have  been  sculptured.  On  our  return  we  passed 
a solitary  Turkish  officer,  followed  by  his  servant,  winding  up  the  gorge  on 
his  way  to  Derghileh,  where  one  Ali  Pasha  was  stationed  with  a detach- 
ment of  troops  ; a proof  of  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  coun- 
try since  my  last  visit,  when  Beder  Khan  Bey  was  still  powerful,  and  no 
Turk  would  have  ventured  into  that  wild  valley. 

We  found  the  caravan  at  Mansouriyah,  where  they  had  established 
themselves  for  the  night.  This  is  one  of  the  very  few  Nestorian  Chaldsean 
villages  of  the  plains  which  has  not  gone  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

It  contains  a church,  and  supports  a priest.  The  inhabitants  complained 
much  of  oppression,  and,  unfortunately,  chiefly  from  brother  Christians  for- 
merly of  their  own  creed.  I was  much  struck  with  the  intelligence  and 
beauty  of  the  children  ; one  boy,  scarcely  twelve  years  of  age,  was  already 
a shamasha  or  deacon,  and  could  read  with  ease  the  Scriptures  and  the 
commentaries. 

We  left  Mansouriyah  at  four  in  the  morning,  passing  Jezireh  about  dawn, 
its  towers  and  walls  just  visible  through  the  haze  on  the  opposite  bank  of 
the  Tigris.  Shortly  after  we  were  unexpectedly  met  by  a number  ofYez- 
idi  horsemen,  who,  having  heard  of  our  approach  from  the  messengers  sent 
to  Hussein  Bey,  had  ridden  through  the  night  from  Dereboun  to  escort 
us.  They  were  mounted  on  strong,  well-bred  Arab  mares,  and  armed 
with  long  lances  tipped  with  ostrich-feathers.  We  learnt  from  them  that 
the  country  was  in  a very  disturbed  state,  on  account  of  the  incursions  of  the 
Desert  Arabs ; but  as  a strong  party  was  waiting  to  accompany  us  to  Se-  * 
mil,  I determined  upon  taking  the  shorter,  though  more  dangerous  and  less 
frequented,  road  by  Dereboun.  This  road,  impracticable  to  caravans  ex- 
cept when  the  river  Khabour  is  fordable,  winds  round  the  spur  of  the  Zak- 
ko  hills,  and  thus  avoids  a difficult  and  precipitous  pass.  We  stopped  to 
breakfast  at  the  large  Catholic  Chaldsean  village  of  Tiekhtan,  one  of  the 
many  settlements  of  the  same  sect  scattered  over  the  singularly  fertile  plain 
of  Zakko.  The  Yezidi  Kochers,  or  Nomades,  had  begun  to  descend  from 

* Mir  Saif-ed-din  was  the  hereditary  chief  of  Bohtan,  in  whose  name  Beder  Khan 
Bey  exercised  his  authority.  His  son,  Asdenshir  (a  corruption  of  Ardeshir)  Bey,  is 
now  under  surveillance  amongst  the  Turks.  So  well  aware  was  Beder  Khan  Bey  of 
the  necessity  of  keeping  up  the  idea  amongst  the  Kurds,  that  his  power  was  delega- 
ted to  him  by  the  Mir,  that  he  signed  most  of  his  public  documents  with  that  chief’s 
seal,  although  he  confined  him  a close  prisoner  until  his  death. 


VILLAGE  OF  SEMIL. 


47 


Chap.  Ill] 

the  mountain  pastures,  and  their  black  tents  and  huts  of  boughs  and  dried 
grass  were  scattered  amongst  the  villages.  We  forded  the  Khabour,  where 
it  is  divided  into  several  branches,  and  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the 
Tigris.  The  water  in  no  part  reached  much  above  the  horses’  bellies,  and 
the  stream  was  far  less  rapid  than  that  of  the  eastern  Tigris,  at  Tilleh. 
Dereboun  is  a large  Yezidi  village  standing  on  the  western  spur  of  the  Zak- 
ko  range.  Numerous  springs  burst  from  the  surrounding  rocks,  and  irrigate 
extensive  rice-grounds.  Below  is  the  large  Christian  village  of  Feshapoor, 
where  there  is  a ferry  across  the  Tigris.  We  were  most  hospitably  entertain- 
ed by  the  Yezidi  chief,  one  of  the  horsemen  who  had  met  us  near  Jezireh. 

We  mounted  our  horses  as  the  moon  rose,  and  resumed  our  journey,  ac- 
companied by  a strong  escort,  which  left  us  when  we  were  within  five  or 
six  miles  of  Semil.  It  was  late  in  the  forenoon  before  we  reached  our 
halting-place,  after  a dreary  and  fatiguing  ride.  We  were  now  fairly  in 
the  Assyrian  plains ; the  heat  was  intense — that  heavy  heat,  which  seems 
to  paralyse  all  nature,  causing  the  very  air  itself  to  vibrate.  The  high 
artificial  mound  of  the  Yezidi  village,  crowned  by  a modem  mud-built  cas- 
tle, had  been  visible  in  the  distance  long  before  we  reached  it,  miraged 
into  double  its  real  size,  and  into  an  imposing  group  of  towers  and  fortifica- 
tions. Almost  overcome  with  weariness,  we  toiled  up  to  it,  and  found  its 
owner,  Abde  Agha,  the  Yezidi  chieftain,  seated  in  the  gate,  a vaulted  en- 
trance with  deep  recesses  on  both  sides,  used  as  places  of  assembly  for  busi- 
ness during  the  day,*  and  as  places  of  rest  for  guests  during  the  night. 
He  was  of  a tall,  commanding  figure,  with  the  deepest  and  most  powerful 
voice  I ever  heard.  We  arrived  earlier  than  he  had  expected,  our  forced 
march  from  Dereboun  having  saved  us  some  hours,  and  he  apologised  for 
not  having  ridden  out  to  meet  us.  His  reception  was  most  hospitable ; 
the  lamb  was  slain  and  the  feast  prepared.  But,  in  the  midst  of  our  greet- 
ings, a man  appeared  breathless  before  him.  The  Bedouins  had  attacked 
the  neighbouring  district  and  the  village  of  Pashai,  belonging  to  Abde 
Agha’s  tribe.  No  time  was  lost  in  idle  preparations.  The  messenger  had 
scarcely  delivered  his  message,  and  answered  a few  necessary  inquiries,  be- 
fore the  high  bred  mare  was  led  out  ready  saddled  from  the  harem ; her 
owner  leapt  on  her  back,  and  followed  by  a small  body  of  horsemen,  his 
immediate  dependants,  galloped  off  in  the  direction  of  the  Tigris.  Wea- 
ried by  my  long  night’s  march  I retreated  to  a cool  dark  chamber  in  the  cas- 
tle, unmindful  of  the  bloody  business  on  which  its  owner  had  sallied  forth. 

Abde  Agha  did  not  return  that  day,  but  his  wife  well  performed  all  the 

* The  custom  of  assembling  and  transacting  business  in  the  gate  is  continually 
referred  to  in  the  Bible.  See  2 Sam.  xix.  8.,  where  king  David  is  represented  as 
sitting  in  the  gate;  comp.  2 Chron.  xviii.  9.,  and  Dan.  ii.  49.  The  gates  of  Jewish 
houses  were  probably  similar  to  that  described  in  the  text.  Such  entrances  are  also 
found  in  Persia.  Frequently  in  the  gates  of  cities,  as  at  Mosul,  these  recesses  are 
used  as  shops  for  the  sale  of  wheat  and  barley,  bread  and  grocery.  Elisha  prophe- 
sies that  a measure  of  fine  flour  shall  be  sold  for  a shekel,  and  two  measures  of  bar 
ley  for  a shekel,  in  the  gate  of  Samaria.  2 Kings,  vii.  1.  and  18. 


48 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  III. 


duties  of  hospitality  in  his  stead.  Messengers  occasionally  came  running 
from  the  scene  of  the  fight  with  the  latest  news,  mostly,  as  in  such  cases, 
greatly  exaggerated,  to  the  alarm  of  those  who  remained  in  the  castle. 
But  the  chief  himself  did  not  appear  until  near  dawn  the  following  morn- 
ing, as  we  were  preparing  to  renew  our  journey.  He  had  not  been  idle 
during  his  absence,  and  his  adherents  concurred  in  stating  that  he  had 
killed  five  Arabs  with  his  own  hand.  His  brother,  however,  had  received 
a dangerous  wound,  and  one  of  his  relations  had  been  slain.  He  advised 
us  to  make  the  best  of  our  way  to  Tel  Eskoff,  before  the  Arabs  were  either 
repulsed,  or  had  succeeded  in  taking  Pashai.  He  could  not  furnish  us  with 
an  escort,  as  every  man  capable  of  bearing  arms  was  wanted  to  defend 
the  district  against  the  Bedouins,  who  were  now  swarming  over  the  river 
to  support  their  companions.  Taking  a hasty  leave  of  us,  and  changing 
his  tired  mare,  he  rushed  again  to  the  fight.  We  rode  off  in  the  direction 
of  the  hills,  taking  an  upper  road,  less  likely  to  be  occupied  by  the  Arabs. 

About  three  miles  from  Semil  we  saw  a horseman  closely  pursued  by  a 
Bedouin,  who  was  fast  coming  up  with  him,  but  on  observing  us  turned 
back,  and  soon  disappeared  in  the  distance.  The  fugitive  was  a Mosuleean 
Spahi,  with  broken  spear,  and  speechless  with  terror.  When  he  had  suffi- 
ciently recovered  himself  to  speak,  he  declared  that  the  Bedouins  had  de- 
feated the  Yezidis,  and  were  spreading  over  the  country.  Although  not 
putting  much  faith  in  the  information,  I urged  on  the  caravan,  and  took 
such  precautions  as  were  necessary.  Suddenly  a large  body  of  horsemen 
appeared  on  a rising  ground  to  the  east  of  us.  We  could  scarcely  expect 
Arabs  from  that  quarter ; however,  all  our  party  made  ready  for  an  attack. 
Cawal  Yusuf  and  myself,  being  the  best  mounted,  rode  towards  them  to  re- 
connoitre. Then  one  or  two  horsemen  advanced  warily  from  the  opposite 
party.  We  neared  each  ether.  Yusuf  spied  the  well-known  black  turban, 
dashed  forward  with  a shout  of  joy,  and  in  a moment  we  were  surrounded, 
and  in  the  embrace  of  friends.  Hussein  Bey  and  Sheikh  Nasr,  with  the 
Cawals  and  Yezidi  elders,  had  ridden  nearly  forty  miles  through  the  night 
to  meet  and  escort  me,  if  needful,  to  Mosul ! Their  delight  at  seeing  us 
knew  no  bounds ; nor  was  I less  touched  by  a display  of  gratitude  and  good 
feeling,  equally  unexpected  and  sincere. 

They  rode  with  us  as  far  as  Tel  Eskoff,  where  the  danger  from  the 
Arabs  ceased,  and  then  turned  their  hardy  mares,  still  fresh  after  their  long 
journey,  towards  Sheikhan.  I was  now  once  more  with  old  friends.  We 
had  spent  the  first  day  of  our  journey,  on  leaving  Mosul  two  years  ago,  in 
the  house  of  Toma,  the  Christian  Kiayah  of  Tel  Eskoff ; we  now  eat  bread 
with  him  the  last  on  our  return.  In  the  afternoon,  as  we  rode  towards 
Tel  Kef,  I left  the  high  road  with  Hormuzd  to  drink  water  at  some  Arab 
tents.  As  we  approached  we  were  greeted  with  exclamations  of  joy,  and 
were  soon  in  the  midst  of  a crowd  of  men  and  women,  kissing  our  knees, 
and  exhibiting  other  tokens  of  welcome.  They  were  Jebours,  who  had 
been  employed  in  the  excavations.  Hearing  that  we  were  again  going  to 


Chap.  III.] 


A HAPPY  MEETING. 


49 


dig  after  old  stones,  they  at  once  set  about  striking  their  tents  to  join  us  at 
Mosul  or  Nimroud. 

As  we  neared  Tel  Kef  we  found  groups  of  my  old  superintendents  and 
workmen  by  the  road  side.  There  were  fat  Toma,  Mansour,  Behnan,  and 
Hannah,  joyful  at  meeting  me  once  more,  and  at  the  prospect  of  fresh  serv- 
ice. In  the  village  we  found  Mr.  Rassam  (the  vice-consul)  and  Khodja 
Toma,  his  dragoman,  who  had  made  ready  the  feast  for  us  at  the  house 
of  the  Chaldsean  bishop.  Next  morning,  as  we  rode  the  three  last  hours 
of  our  journey,  we  met  fresh  groups  of  familiar  faces  : — Merjan,  with  my 
old  groom  holding  the  stirrup  ready  for  me  to  mount,  the  noble  animal  look- 
ing as  beautiful,  as  fresh,  and  as  sleek  as  when  I last  saw  him,  although 
two  long  years  had  passed ; former  servants,  Awad  and  the  Sheikhs  of  the 
Jebours,  even  the  very  greyhounds  who  had  been  brought  up  under  my 
roof.  Then  as  we  ascend  an  eminence  midway,  walls,  towers,  minarets, 
and  domes  rise  boldly  from  the  margin  of  the  broad  river,  cheating  us  into 
the  belief,  too  soon  to  be  dispelled,  that  Mosul  is  still  a not  unworthy  rep- 
resentative of  the  great  Nineveh.  As  we  draw  near,  the  long  line  of 
lofty  mounds,  the  only  remains  of  mighty  bulwarks  and  spacious  gates,  de- 
tach themselves  from  the  low  undulating  hills : now  the  vast  mound  of 
Kouyunjik  overtops  the  surrounding  heaps ; then  above  it  peers  the  white 
cone  of  the  tomb  of  the  prophet  Jonah;  many  other  well-remembered  spots 
follow  in  rapid  succession ; but  we  cannot  linger.  Hastening  over  the 
creaking  bridge  of  boats,  we  force  our  way  through  the  crowded  bazars., 
and  alight  at  the  house  I had  left  two  years  ago.  Old  servants  take  their 
places  as  a matter  of  course,  and,  uninvited,  pursue  their  regular  occupa- 
tions as  if  they  had  never  been  interrupted.  Indeed  it  seemed  as  if  we 
had  but  returned  from  a summer’s  ride  ; two  years  had  passed  away  like  a 
dream. 

I may  in  this  place  add  a few  words  on  part  of  the  route  pursued  by 
Xenophon  and  the  Ten  Thousand  during  their  memorable  retreat,  the  iden- 
tification of  which  had  been  one  of  my  principal  objects  during  our  journey. 
I have,  in  the  course  of  my  narrative,  already  pointed  out  one  or  two  spots 
signalled  by  remarkable  events  on  their  march. 

I must  first  state  my  conviction  that  the  parasang,  like  its  representa- 
tive the  modern  farsang  or  farsakh  of  Persia,  was  not  a measure  of  distance 
very  accurately  determined,  but  rather  indicated  a certain  amount  of  time 
employed  in  traversing  a given  space.  Travellers  are  well  aware  that  the 
Persian  farsakh  varies  considerably  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country, 
and  the  usual  modes  of  conveyance  adopted  by  its  inhabitants.  In  the 
plains  of  Khorassan  and  central  Persia,  where  mules  and  horses  are  chiefly 
used  by  caravans,  it  is  equal  to  about  four  miles,  whilst  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Western  Persia,  where  the  roads  are  difficult  and  precipitous, 
and  in  Mesopotamia  and  Arabia,  where  camels  are  the  common  beasts  of 
burden,  it  scarcely  amounts  to  three.  The  farsakh  and  the  hour  are  al- 
most invariably  used  as  expressing  the  same  distance.  That  Xenophon 

D 


50 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  III. 


reckoned  by  the  common  mode  of  computation  of  the  country  is  evident 
by  his  employing,  almost  always,  the  Persian  “ parasang”  instead  of  the 
Greek  stadium  ; and  that  the  parasang  was  the  same  as  the  modern  hour, 
we  find  by  the  distance  between  Larissa  (Nimroud)  anc  Mespila  (Kouyun 
jik)  being  given  as  six  parasangs,  corresponding  exactly  with  the  number 
of  hours  assigned  by  the  present  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  by  the  au- 
thorities of  the  Turkish  post,  to  the  same  road.  The  six  hours  in  this  in- 
stance are  equal  to  about  eighteen  English  miles. 

The  ford,  by  which  the  Greeks  crossed  the  Great  Zab  (Zabates)  may,  I 
think,  be  accurately  determined.  It  is  still  the  principal  ford  in  this  part 
of  the  river,  and  must,  from  the  nature  of  the  bed  of  the  stream,  have  been 
so  from  the  earliest  periods.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles  from  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Zab  and  Tigris.*  A march  of  twenty-five  stadia,  or  nearly 
three  miles,  in  the  direction  of  Larissa,  would  have  brought  them  to  the 
Ghazir,  or  Bumadus ; and  this  stream  was,  I have  little  doubt,  the  deep 
valley  formed  by  the  torrent  where  Mithridates,  venturing  to  attack  the  re- 
treating army,  was  signally  defeated.!  This  action  took  place  eight  stadia 
beyond  the  valley ; the  Persian  commander  having  neglected  to  intercept 
the  Greeks  when  endeavouring  to  cross  the  difficult  ravine,  in  which  they 
would  most  probably  have  been  entangled.  A short  march  of  three  para- 
sangs, or  hours,!  brought  them  to  Larissa,  the  modern  Nimroud.  The 
Greeks  could  not  have  crossed  the  Zab  above  the  spot  I have  indicated, 
as  the  bed  of  the  river  is  deep,  and  confined  within  high  rocky  banks. 
They  might  have  done  so  below  the  junction  of  the  Ghazir,  and  a ravine 
worn  by  winter  rains  may  correspond  with  the  valley  mentioned  by  Xeno- 
phon, but  I think  the  Ghazir  far  more  likely  to  have  been  the  torrent  bed 
viewed  with  so  much  alarm  by  the  Greek  commander,  and  the  passage  of 
which  Mithridates  might  have  disputed  with  some  prospect  of  success. § 
That  Larissa  and  Mespila  are  represented  by  the  ruins  of  Nimroud  and 
Kouyunjik  no  one  can  reasonably  doubt.  Xenophon’s  description  corre- 
sponds most  accurately  with  the  ruins  and  with  the  distance  between  them 
From  Mespila  the  Greeks  marched  four  parasangs  and  probably  halted 
near  the  modern  village  of  Batnai,  between  Tel  Kef  and  Tel  Eskof,  an 
ancient  site  exactly  four  hours,  by  the  usual  caravan  road,  from  Kouyunjik. 
Many  ancient  mounds  around  Batnai  mark  the  remains  of  those  villages, 
from  which,  after  having  repulsed  the  Persian  forces  under  Tissaphernes 
and  Orontas,  the  Greeks  obtained  an  abundant  supply  of  provisions.  In- 
stead of  fording  the  Khabour  near  its  junction  with  the  Tigris,  and  thus 

* Mr.  Ainsworth  would  take  the  Greeks  up  to  the  modem  ferry,  where  there  could 
never  have  been  a ford,  and  which  would  have  been  some  miles  out  of  their  route 
(Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand.)  t Anab  book  iii.  ch.  4. 

t Xenophon  merely  says  that  they  marched  the  rest  of  the  day.  After  the  action, 
they  could  scarcely  have  advanced  more  than  three  parasangs,  or  nine  miles. 

§ In  Chapter  X.  will  be  found  some  further  remarks  on  this  subject ; many  rea- 
sons, based  upon  personal  experience,  may  be  adduced  for  the  prob  ability  of  Xeno- 
phon’s preferring  the  upper  ford. 


XENOPHON’S  RETREAT. 


5\ 


Chap.  III.] 

avoiding  the  hills,  they  crossed  them  by  a precipitous  pass  to  the  site  of 
the  modern  Zakko.  They  reached  this  range  in  four  days,  traversing  it  on 
the  fifth,  probably  by  the  modern  caravan  road.  The  distance  from  Bat- 
nai  to  Zakko,  according  to  the  Turkish  post,  is  twenty  hours.  This  would 
give  between  four  and  five  hours,  or  parasangs,  a day  for  the  march  of  the 
Creeks,  the  distance  they  usually  performed.  They  were  probably  much 
retarded  during  the  last  day,  by  having  to  fight  their  way  over  three  dis- 
tinct mountain  ridges.  It  is  remarkable  that  Xenophon  does  not  mention 
the  Khabour,  although  he  must  have  crossed  that  river  either  by  a ford  or 
by  a bridge^  before  reaching  the  plain.  Yet  the  stream  is  broad  and  rapid, 
and  the  fords  at  all  times  deep.  Nor  does  he  allude  to  the  Hazel,  a con- 
fluent of  the  Khabour,  to  which  he  came  during  his  first  day’s  march,  after 
leaving  Zakko.  These  omissions  prove  that  he  does  not  give  an  accurate 
itinerary  of  his  route. 

Four  days’  march,  the  first  of  only  sixty  stadia,  or  about  seven  miles,! 
brought  the  Greeks  to  the  high  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  which,  meeting 
the  Tigris,  shut  out  all  further  advance  except  by  difficult  and  precipitous 
passes,  already  occupied  by  the  Persians.  Xenophon,  having  dislodged  the 
enemy  from  the  first  ridge,  returned  to  the  main  body  of  the  army,  which 
had  remained  in  the  plain.  This  must  have  been  near  Fynyk,  where  the 
very  foot  of  the  Kurdish  mountains  is  first  washed  by  the  river.  The  spot 
agrees  accurately  with  Xenophon’s  description,  as  it  does  with  the  distance. 
“ The  Greeks,”  says  he,  “ came  to  a place  where  the  river  Tigris  is,  both 
from  its  depth  and  breadth,  absolutely  impassable  ; no  road  appeared,  the 
craggy  mountains  of  the  Carduchians  hanging  over  the  river.”  The  offer 
of  the  Rhodian  to  cross  the  army  on  inflated  skins,  bound  together  to  form 
abridge,  having  been  rejected,  on  account  of  the  strong  force  assembled  on 
the  opposite  side  to  dispute  the  passage,  the  Greeks  marched  back  to  the 
villages.  The  Persian  prisoners  informed  Xenophon  that  four  roads  branch- 
ed off  from  this  spot : one  to  the  south,  by  which  the  Greeks  had  retreated 
from  Babylonia  ; the  second  eastwards,  to  Susa  and  Ecbatana,  by  the  plain 
of  Zakko,  the  modern  Amadiyah,  Suleimaniyah,  and  the  foot  of  the  great 
range  of  Zagros  ; a third  to  the  west,  crossing  the  Tigris,  near  Jezireh,  and 
thence  through  Orfa,  Aintab,  Tarsus,  and  the  Cilician  gates  to  Lydia  and 
Ionia ; and  a fourth  across  the  mountains  of  the  Carduchians,  or  Kurdis- 
tan. The  tribes  infesting  this  fourth  road  were  represented  to  Xenophon 
as  notorious  for  their  courage  and  warlike  habits.  They  only  held  inter- 
course with  the  inhabitants  of  the  low  country,  when  they  were  at  peace 
with  the  governor  residing  in  the  plain,  and  such  has  been  precisely  the 
case  with  their  descendants  to  this  day.  This  route  was,  however,  pre- 

* He  probably  took  the  more  difficult  road  over  the  pass,  and  not  that  round  the 
spur,  in  order  to  cross  the  Khabour  by  a bridge  or  ferry.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  it  was  winter,  and  that  the  rivers  were  consequently  swollen. 

t This  halt,  after  so  short  a day’s  march,  may  have  been  occasioned  by  the  Hazel. 
The  distance  corresponds  with  sufficient  accuracy. 


52 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  III. 


ferred,  as  it  led  into  Armenia,  a country  from  which  they  might  choose 
their  own  road  to  the  sea,  and  which  abounded  in  villages  and  the  neces- 
saries of  life. 

The  Greeks  appear  to  have  followed  the  route  taken  by  Sultan  Murad 
in  his  expedition  against  Baghdad,  and,  recently,  by  part  of  the  Turkish 
forces  sent  against  Beder  Khan  Bey ; in  fact,  the  great  natural  highway 
from  the  remotest  period  between  eastern  Armenia  and  Assyria.  Beyond 
the  Carduchian  mountains  there  were,  according  to  the  prisoners,  two  roads 
into  Armenia,  one  crossing  the  head  waters  of  the  principal  branch  of  the 
Tigris,  the  other  going  round  them ; that  is,  leaving  them  to  the  left. 
These  are  the  roads  to  this  day  followed  by  caravans,  one  crossing  the 
plains  of  Kherzan  to  Diarbekir,  and  thence,  by  well-known  mountain-passes 
to  Kharput,  the  other  passing  through  Bitlis.  Xenophon  chose  the  latter. 
The  villages  in  the  valleys  and  recesses  of  the  mountains  are  still  found 
around  Funduk  ; and,  on  their  first  day’s  march  over  the  Carduchian  hills, 
the  Greeks  probably  reached  the  neighbourhood  of  this  village.  There 
now  remained  about  ten  parasangs  to  the  plain  through  which  flows  the 
eastern  branch  of  the  Tigris ; but  the  country  was  difficult,  and  at  this 
time  of  the  year  (nearly  midwinter),*  the  lower  road  along  the  river  was 
impassable.  The  Greeks  had,  therefore,  to  force  their  way  over  a series 
■>f  difficult  passes,  all  stoutly  defended  by  warlike  tribes.  They  were  con- 
sequently four  days  in  reaching  the  Centritis,  or  eastern  Tigris,  the  united 
waters  of  the  rivers  of  Bitlis,  Sert,  and  Bohtan.  The  stream  was  rapid, 
the  water  reaching  to  the  breast,  and  the  ford,  owing  to  the  unevenness  of 
the  bottom  and  the  loose,  slippery  stones,  exceedingly  difficult ; such,  it 
will  be  remembered,  we  found  to  be  the  case  near  Tilleh.  The  opposite 
banks  were,  moreover,  defended  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Armenians, 
Mygdonians,  and  Chaldseans.  It  was  impossible  to  cross  the  river  at  this 
spot  in  the  face  of  the  enemy.  At  length  a ford  was  discovered  higher  up, 
and  Xenophon,  by  skilful  strategy,  effected  the  passage.  This  must  have 
been  at  a short  distance  from  Tilleh,  as  the  river,  narrowed  between  rocky 
banks,  is  no  longer  fordable  higher  up.  The  Greeks  came  upon  the  Cen- 
tritis soon  after  leaving  the  Carduchian  mountains. 

The  direct  and  most  practicable  road  would  now  have  been  along  the 

* It  is  a matter  of  surprise  that  Cyrus  should  have  chosen  the  very  middle  of  sum- 
mer for  his  expedition  into  Babylonia,  and  still  more  wonderful  that  the  Greeks,  un- 
used to  the  intense  heats  of  Mesopotamia,  and  encumbered  with  their  heavy  arms 
and  armour,  should  have  been  able  to  brave  the  climate.  No  Turkish  or  Persian 
commander  would  in  these  days  venture  to  undertake  a campaign  against  the  Arabs 
in  this  season  of  the  year ; for,  besides  the  heat,  the  want  of  water  would  be  almost 
an  insurmountable  obstacle.  During  their  retreat,  the  Greeks  had  to  encounter  all 
the  rigor  of  an  Armenian  winter ; so  that,  during  the  few  months  they  were  under 
arms,  they  went  through  the  most  trying  extremes  of  climate.  The  expedition  of 
Alexander  was  also  undertaken  in  the  middle  of  summer.  It  must,  however,  be 
borne  in  mind,  that  Mesopotamia  was  probably  then  thickly  peopled  and  well  culti- 
vated, and  that  canals  and  wells  of  water  must  have  abounded. 


XENOPHON’S  RETREAT. 


53 


Chap.  III.] 

river  banks  to  Bitlis  but  owing  to  the  frequent  incursions  of  the  Carduchi, 
the  villages  in  that  direction  had  been  abandoned,  and  the  Greeks  were 
compelled  to  turn  to  the  westward,  to  find  provisions  and  habitations. 
Still  there  was  no  road  into  Armenia,  particularly  at  this  time  of  year,  for 
an  army  encumbered  with  baggage,  except  that  through  the  Bitlis  valley. 
The  remains  of  an  ancient  causeway  are  even  now  to  be  traced,  and  this 
probably  has  always  been  the  great  thoroughfare  between  western  Armenia 
and  the  Assyrian  plains.  Xenophon  consequently  made  nearly  the  same 
detour  as  I had  made  on  my  journey  from  Constantinople. 

Six  marches,  of  five  parasangs  each,  brought  them  to  the  small  river 
Teleboas.  I am  convinced  that  this  river  cannot  be  identified  with  the 
Kara  Su,  which  would  be  at  least  between  forty  and  fifty  parasangs,  or 
from  eight  to  ten  days’  march,  from  Tilleh,  supposing  Xenophon  to  have 
made  the  smallest  possible  deviation  to  the  west.  I believe  the  Teleboas 
to  have  been  the  river  of  Bitlis. f After  crossing  the  low  country  of  Kher- 
zan,  well  described  by  Xenophon  as  “ a plain  varied  by  hills  of  an  easy 
ascent,”  the  Greeks  must  necessarily  have  turned  slightly  to  the  eastward 
to  reach  the  Bitlis  valley,  as  inaccessible  mountains  stopped  all  further 
progress.  My  caravan  was  thirty-three  hours  in  journeying  from  Bitlis  to 
Tilleh,  corresponding  exactly  with  the  six  days’  march  of  the  Greeks. 
They  probably  came  to  the  river  somewhat  below  the  site  of  the  modern 
town,  where  it  well  deserves  the  epithet  of  “ beautiful.”  It  may  have 
then  had,  as  at  this  day,  many  villages  near  its  banks.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  Xenophon  says  that  they  came  to,  not  that  they  crossed,  the 
Teleboas. 

From  this  river  they  reached  the  Euphrates  in  six  marches,  making,  as 
usual,  five  parasangs  each  day  ; in  all,  thirty  parasangs,  or  hours.  Now 
from  the  Kara  Su  to  the  Euphrates,  even  supposing  the  Greeks  to  have 
gone  far  to  the  eastward  out  of  the  direct  route  on  the  plain  of  Malaskert, 
there  would  scarcely  be  twenty  parasangs,  whereas  the  high  road  from  Bit- 
lis to  Northern  Armenia  would  lead  in  exactly  thirty  hours,  or  six  marches, 
to  the  Euphrates,  which  it  crosses  near  Karaghal.  I believe,  therefore, 
that,  after  issuing  from  the  valley  of  Bitlis,  Xenophon  turned  to  the  west- 
ward, leaving  the  lake  of  Wan  a little  to  the  right,  though  completely  con- 
cealed from  him  by  a range  of  low  hills.  I Skirting  the  western  foot  of 
the  Nimroud  Dagh  range,  he  passed  through  a plain  thickly  inhabited, 
abounding  in  well-provisioned  villages,  and  crossed  here  and  there  by  ranges 
of  hills.  This  country  still  tallies  precisely  with  Xenophon’s  description. 

* That  by  Sert  passes  over  very  precipitous  mountains,  and  is  only  now  taken  by 
caravans,  because  it  is  more  secure  than  the  other,  and  leads  through  a town  in  which 
there  is  some  trade. 

t It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  river  of  Bitlis  joins  the  Sert  Su  before  it  falls 
into  the  main  branch  of  the  Tigris  at  Tilleh,  and  might  therefore,  under  a different 
name,  have  appeared  another  river  to  Xenophon. 

t Had  he  seen  this  large  inland  sea,  he  would  probably  have  mentioned  it. 


54 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap  III 


We  have  not,  I conceive,  sufficient  data  in  Xenophon’s  narrative  to  iden- 
tify with  any  degree  of  certainty  his  route  after  crossing  the  Euphrates 
We  know  that  about  twenty  parasangs  from  that  river  the  Greeks  encamped 
near  a hot  spring,  and  this  spring  might  be  recognised  in  one  of  the  many 
which  abound  in  the  country.  It  is  most  probable  that  the  Greeks  took 
the  road  still  used  by  caravans  through  the  plains  of  Hinnis  and  Hassan- 
Kalah,  as  offering  the  fewest  difficulties.  But  what  rivers  are  we  to  iden- 
tify with  the  Phasis  and  Harpasus,  the  distance  between  the  Euphrates 
and  Phasis  being  seventy  parasangs,  and  between  the  Phasis  and  Harpasus 
ninety-five,  and  the  Harpasus  being  the  larger  of  the  two  rivers  ? I can- 
not admit  that  the  Greeks  turned  to  the  west,  and  passed  near  the  site  of 
the  modern  Erzeroom.  There  are  no  rivers  in  that  direction  to  answer 
the  description  of  Xenophon.  Moreover,  the  Greeks  came  to  the  high 
mountain,  and  beheld-  the  sea  for  the  first  time,  at  the  distance  of  thirty- 
two  parasangs  from  Trebizond.  Had  they  taken  either  of  the  three  modern 
roads  from  Erzeroom  to  the  coast,  and  there  are  no  others,  they  must  have 
seen  the  Euxine  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Trebizond,  certainly  not  more 
than  six  or  eight  parasangs  from  that  city.  I am  on  the  whole  inclined 
to  believe,  that  either  the  Greeks  took  a very  tortuous  course  after  leaving 
the  Euphrates,  making  daily  but  little  actual  progress  towards  the  great 
end  of  their  arduous  journey,  the  sea  coast,  or  that  there  is  a considerable 
error  in  the  amount  of  parasangs  given  by  Xenophon ; that  the  Harpasus 
must  be  the  Tcherouk,  and  the  Phasis  either  the  Araxes  or  the  Kur  ;*  and 
that  Mount  Theches,  the  holy  mountain  from  which  the  Greeks  beheld 
the  sea,  was  between  Batoun  and  Trebizond,  the  army  having  followed  the 
valley  of  the  Tcherouk,  but  leaving  it  before  reaching  the  site  of  the  mod- 
ern port  on  the  Black  Sea. 

* In  no  way,  however,  would  a direct  line  of  march  between  these  two  Tivers,  nor 
between  any  other  two  rivers  which  can  possibly  answer  to  his  description,  tally 
with  the  distances  given  by  Xenophon 


Subterranean  Excavations  at  Kouyunjik 


CHAPTER  IY 

STATE  OF  THE  EXCAVATIONS  ON  MY  RETURN  TO  MOSUL. DISCOVERIES  AT  KOUYUNJIK  — 

TUNNELS  IN  THE  MOUND. BAS-RELIEFS  REPRESENTING  ASSYRIAN  CONQUESTS. A WELL. 

SIEGE  OF  A CITY. NATURE  OF  SCULPTURES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. ARRANGEMENTS  FOR 

RENEWAL  OF  EXCAVATIONS  DESCRIPTION  OF  MOUND. KIAMIL  PASHA. VISIT  TO 

SHEIKH  ADI. YEZIDI  CEREMONIES. SHEIKH  JINDI. YEZIDI  MEETING. DRESS  OF  THE 

WOMEN BAVIAN. CEREMONY  OF  THE  KAIDI. SACRED  POEM  OF  THE  YEZIDI. THEIR 

DOCTRINES. JERRAIYAH. RETURN  TO  MOSUL 

On  the  morning  after  our  arrival  in  Mosul,  I rode  at  sunrise  to  Kouyun- 
jik. The  reader  may  remember  that,  on  my  return  to  Europe  in  1847, 
Mr.  Ross  had  continued  the  researches  in  that  mound,  and  had  uncovered 
several  interesting  bas-reliefs,  which  I have  already  described  from  his  own 
account  of  his  discoveries  * That  gentleman  had,  to  my  great  regret,  left 
Mosul.  Since  his  departure  the  excavations  had  been  placed  under  the 
charge  of  Mr.  Rassam,  the  English  vice-consul,  who  was  directed  by  the 
Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  to  employ  a small  number  of  men,  rather 
* See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.,  p 139 


56 


[Chap.  IV. 


\ 

NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 

to  retain  possession  of  the  spot,  and  to  prevent  interference  on  the  part  of 
others,  than  to  carry  on  extensive  operations.  Toma  Shishman,  or  “ the 
Fat,”  was  still  the  overseer  of  the  workmen,  and  accompanied  me  on  my 
first  visit  to  the  ruins 

But  little  change  had  taken  place  in  the  great  mound  since  I had  last 
seen  it.  It  was  yellow  and  hare,  as  it  always  is  at  this  time  of  the  year. 
Heaps  of  earth  marked  the  site  of  former  excavations,  the  chambers  first 
discovered  having  been  again  completely  buried  with  rubbish.  Of  the 
sculptured  walls  laid  bare  two  years  before  no  traces  now  remained.  The 
trenches  dug  under  Mr.  Ross’s  directions,  in  the  southern  corner,  opposite 
the  town  of  Mosul,  were  still  open.  It  was  evident  at  a glance  that  the 
chambers  he  had  entered  did  not,  as  he  had  been  led  to  suppose,  belong  to 
a second  palace.  They  formed  part  of  the  same  great  edifice  once  stand- 
ing on  this  angle  of  the  mound,  and  already  partly  explored.  The  style 
of  the  bas-reliefs,  and  of  the  inscriptions,  marked  them  at  once  as  of 
the  same  epoch  as  those  previously  discovered.  They  belonged  to  the 
same  king,  and  also  recorded  his  wars  and  his  triumphs.  The  same  great 
fire,  too,  which  had  raged  in  the  rest  of  the  building,  turning  the  sculp- 
tured panelling  to  lime,  defacing  the  ancient  records,  and  reducing  the  ed- 
ifice to  a heap  of  ashes  and  rubbish,  had  done  its  work  here.  But  four  or 
five  feet  remained  of  the  bas-reliefs  once  covering  the  walls  of  sun-dried 
bricks  to  the  height  of  eight  or  nine,  and  even  these  fragments  were  gen- 
erally too  much  defaced  to  admit  of  minute  description. 

The  walls  of  two  chambers  had  been  laid  bare.  In  one,*  the  lower  part 
of  a long  series  of  sculptures  was  still  partly  preserved,  but  the  upper  had 


No.  LI.  Plan  I. 


Litfi  of  'S(trony&  >-  Major  o\ r.  ) ' 


SCULPTURES  DISCOVERED. 


57 


Chap.  IV.] 

been  completely  destroyed,  the  very  alabaster  itself  having  disappeared. 
The  bas-reliefs  recorded  the  subjection  by  the  Assyrian  king  of  a nation  in- 
habiting the  banks  of  a river.  The  captive  women  are  distinguished  by 
long  embroidered  robes  fringed  with  tassels,  and  the  castles  have  a pecul- 
iar wedge-shaped  ornament  on  the  walls.  The  towns  probably  stood  in 
the  midst  of  marshes,  as  they  appear  to  be  surrounded  by  canes  or  reeds, 
as  well  as  by  groves  of  palm  trees.  The  Assyrians  having  captured  the 
strong  places  by  escalade,  carried  the  inhabitants  into  captivity,  and  drove 
away  cattle,  camels,  and  carts  drawn  by  oxen.  Some  of  the  men  bear 
large  baskets  of  osier  work,  and  the  women  vases  or  cauldrons.  The  king, 
standing  in  his  chariot,  attended  by  his  warriors,  and  preceded  by  an  eu- 
nuch registering  the  number  of  prisoners  and  the  amount  of  the  spoil,  re- 
ceives the  conquered  chiefs.  Not  a vestige  of  inscription  remains  to  re- 
cord the  name  of  the  vanquished  people  ; but  we  may  conjecture,  from  the 
river  and  the  palm  trees,  that  they  inhabited  some  district  in  southern 
Mesopotamia.  They  were,  probably,  one  of  the  numerous  Arab  tribes  who 
lived  in  the  marshes  formed  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  took  advant- 
age, as  their  descendants  do  to  this  day,  of  their  almost  inaccessible  posi- 
tion in  the  midst  of  vast  swamps  to  be  in  continual  rebellion  against  the 
supreme  government.  Many  of  these  tribes,  it  will  hereafter  be  seen,  are 
mentioned  amongst  the  southern  conquests  of  the  king  who  built  the  pal- 
ace. In  the  southern  wall  of  this  chamber  was  a doorway  formed  by  plain, 
upright  slabs  of  a close-grained  magnesian  limestone,  almost  as  hard  as 
flint : between  them  were  two  small,  crouching  lions,  in  the  usual  alabas- 
ter. This  entrance  led  into  a further  room,  of  which  only  a small  part 
had  been  explored.*  The  walls  were  panelled  with  unsculptured  slabs  of 
the  same  compact  limestone. 

The  sculptured  remains  hitherto  discovered  in  the  mound  of  Kouyunjik 
had  been  reached  by  digging  down  to  them  from  the  surface,  and  then 
removing  the  rubbish.  After  the  departure  of  Mr.  Ross,  the  accumulation 
of  earth  above  the  ruins  had  become  so  considerable,  frequently  exceeding 
thirty  feet,  that  the  workmen,  to  avoid  the  labor  of  clearing  it  away,  be- 
gan to  tunnel  along  the  walls,  sinking  shafts  at  intervals  to  admit  light  and 
air.  The  hardness  of  the  soil,  mixed  with  pottery,  bricks,  and  remains  of 
buildings  raised  at  various  times  over  the  buried  ruins  of  the  Assyrian  pal- 
ace, rendered  this  process  easy  and  safe  with  ordinary  care  and  precaution. 
The  subterraneous  passages  were  narrow,  and  were  propped  up  when  nec- 
essary either  by  leaving  columns  of  earth,  as  in  mines,  or  by  wooden  beams. 
These  long  galleries,  dimly  lighted,  lined  with  the  remains  of  ancient  art, 
broken  urns  projecting  from  the  crumbling  sides,  and  the  wild  Arab  and 
hardy  Nestorian  wandering  through  their  intricacies,  or  working  in  their 
dark  recesses,  were  singularly  picturesque. 

Toma  Shishman  had  removed  the  workmen  from  the  southern  corner 
of  the  mound,  where  the  sculptures  were  much  injured,  and  had  opened 

* No.  LIII.  Plan  I. 


58 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IV. 


tunnels  in  a part  of  the  building  previously  explored,  commencing  where  T 
had  left  off  on  my  departure  from  Mosul.*  I descended  into  the  vaulted 
passages  by  an  inclined  way,  through  which  the  workmen  issued  from  be- 
neath to  throw  away  the  rubbish  dug  out  from  the  ri$jns.  At  the  bottom 
I found  myself  before  a wall  forming  the  southern  side  of  the  great  Hall, 
discovered,  though  only  partly  explored,  during  my  former  researches.! 
The  sculptures,  faintly  seen  through  the  gloom,  were  still  well  enough  pre- 
served to  give  a complete  history  of  the  subject  represented,  although,  writh 
the  rest  of  the  bas-reliefs  of  Kouyunjik,  the  fire  had  nearly  turned  them  to 
lime,  and  had  cracked  them  into  a thousand  pieces.  The  faces  of  the 
slabs  had  been  entirely  covered  with  figures,  varying  from  three  inches  to 
one  foot  in  height,  carefully  finished,  and  designed  with  great  spirit. 

In  this  series  of  bas-reliefs  the  history  of  an  Assyrian  conquest  was  more 
fully  portrayed  than  in  any  other  yet  discovered,  from  the  going  out  of  the 
monarch  to  battle,  to  his  triumphal  return  after  a complete  victory.  The 
first  part  of  the  subject  has  already  been  described  in  my  former  work.! 
The  king,  accompanied  by  his  chariots  and  horsemen,  and  leaving  his  cap- 
ital in  the  Assyrian  plains,  passed  through  a mountainous  and  wooded 
district. § He  does  not  appear  to  have  been  delayed  by  the  siege  of  many 
towns  or  castles,  but  to  have  carried  the  war  at  once  into  the  high  coun- 
try. His  troops,  cavalry  and  infantry,  are  represented  in  close  combat  with 
their  enemies,  pursuing  them  over  hills  and  through  valleys,  beside  streams, 
and  in  the  midst  of  vineyards.  The  Assyrian  horsemen  are  armed  with 
the  spear  and  the  bow,  using  both  weapons  whilst  at  full  speed  : their  op- 
ponents seem  to  be  all  archers.  The  vanquished  turn  to  ask  for  quarter  ; 
or,  wounded,  fall  under  the  feet  of  the  advancing  horses,  raising  their  hands 
imploringly  to  ward  off  the  impending  deathblow.  The  triumph  follows. 
The  king  standing  in  his  chariot,  beneath  the  royal  parasol,  followed  by 
long  lines  of  dismounted  warriors  leading  richly  caparisoned  horses,  and 
by  foot  soldiers  variously  armed  and  accoutred,  is  receiving  the  captives 
and  spoil  taken  from  the  conquered  people.  First  approach  the  victorious 
warriors,  throwing  the  heads  of  the  slain  into  heaps  before  the  registering 
officers.  They  are  followed  by  others  leading,  and  urging  onwards  with 
staves,  the  prisoners — men  chained  together,  or  bound  singly  in  fetters,  and 
women,  some  on  foot,  carrying  their  children  on  their  shoulders,  and  lead- 
ing them  by  the  hand,  others  riding  on  mules.  The  procession  is  finished 

* At  No.  VI.  same  plan.  The  chambers  marked  with  letters  in  the  Plan  of  Kou- 
yunjik in  the  2d  vol.  of  “ Nineveh  and  its  Remains,”  are  distinguished,  for  conven- 
ience of  general  reference,  by  numbers  in  Plan  I.  of  this  work,  which  includes  all 
those  excavated  during  the  first  expedition,  as  well  as  those  discovered  during  the. 
second  : the  letters  are,  however,  also  inserted. 

t No.  VI.  Plan  I. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  134. 

$ The  long  lines  of  variously  armed  troops,  described  in  my  former  work  (vol.  ii. 
p.  134)  as  covering  several  slabs  frcfim  top  to  bottom,  form  the  army  of  the  king 
marching  to  this  campaign.  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  81. 


SCULPTURES  DESCRIBED. 


59 


Chap.  IV.] 

by  asses,  mules,  and  flocks  of  sheep.  As  on  the  bas-reliefs  uncovered  by 
Mr.  Ross,  there  is  unfortunately  no  inscription  by  which  the  name  of  the 
conquered  people  can  be  determined.  We  are  left  to  conjecture  the  site 
of  the  country  they  inhabited  from  its  natural  features,  rudely  portrayed 
in  the  bas-reliefs,  or  from  notices  that  may^ereafter — on  a better  acquaint- 
ance with  the  cuneiform  character — be  found  in  the  great  inscriptions  on 
the  bulls  containing  the  history  of  the  wjis  of  the  Assyrian  king.  The 
mountains,  valleys,  and  streams,  the  vines#and  dwarf  oaks,  probably  indi- 
cate a region  north  of  Assyria,  in  Armenia,  Media,  or  Kurdistan,  countries 
we  know  to  have  been  invaded  by  the  royal  builder  of  the  palace.  The 
dress  of  the  men  consists  of  a short  tunic  ; that  of  the  women,  of  a shirt 
falling  to  the  ankles,  and  cut  low  in  front  of  the  neck.^ 

In  the  side  of  the  hall  sculptured  with  these  bas-reliefs  was  a wide  por- 
tal, formed  by  a pair  of  gigantic  human-headed  bulls. f They  had  suffered, 
like  all  those  previously  discovered,  from  the  fire,  and  the  upper  part,  the 
wings  and  human  head,  had  been  completely  destroyed.  The  lower  half 
had,  however,  escaped,  and  the  inscriptions  were  consequently  nearly  en- 
tire. Joined  to  the  forepart  of  the  bulls  were  four  small  figures,  two  on 
each  side,  ajid  one  above  the  other.  They  had  long  hair,  falling  in  large  and 
massive  curls  on  their  shoulders,  wore  short  tunics  descending  to  the  knee, 
and  held  a pole  topped  by  a kind  of  cone  in  one  hand,  raising  the  other  as 
in  act  of  adoration. $ At  right  angles  with  the  slabs  bearing  these  sculp- 
tures were  colossal  figures  carrying  the  oft-repeated  cone  and  basket. 

In  this  entrance  a well,  cut  through  the  large  pavement  slab  between 
the  bulls,  was  afterwards  discovered.  It  contained  broken  pottery,  not  one 
vase  having  been  taken  out  whole,  apparently  human  remains,  and  ‘some 
fragments  of  calcined  sculptured  alabaster,  evidently  detached  from  the 
bas-reliefs  on  the  walls.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  well  was  sunk  after 
the  Assyrian  ruins  had  been  buried,  or  whether  it  had  been  from  the  earliest 
times  a place  of  deposit  for  the  dead.  The  remains  of  bas-reliefs  found  in 
it,  at  a considerable  depth,  show  that  it  must  have  been  filled  up  after  the 
destruction  of  the  Assyrian  palace ; and,  as  no  such  wells  exist  in  similar  en- 
trances, I am  inclined  to  believe  that,  like  many  others  discovered  during  the 
excavations,  it  had  been  made  by  those  who  built  on  the  mound  above  the 
ancient  ruins.  When  sinking  the  shaft  they  probably  met  with  the  pave- 
ment slab,  a^d  cut  through  it.  It  appears  to  have  been  afterwards  choked 
by  the  falling  in  of  the  rubbish  through  which  it  had  been  carried,  and 
hence  the  fragments  of  sculptured  alabaster  mixed  with  the  broken  pot- 
tery. Being  unable  to  support  its  crumbling  sides,  I was  obliged  to  abandon 
the  attempt  after  digging  to  the  depth  of  about  fifteen  feet. 

* Two  plates  from  these  spirited  sculptures  are  given  in  the  2d  series  of  the 
Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plates  37,  38.  They  represent  the  battle,  and  part  of  the 
triumph.  t Entrance  k.  No.  VI.  Plan  I. 

t One  such  figure  has  been  placed  in  the  British  Museum,  and  see  2d  series  of  the 
Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  6. 


60 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IV. 


A small  doorway  to  the  right  of  the  portal  formed  by  the  winged  hulls, 
led  into  a further  chamber,*  in  which  an  entrance  had  been  found  into  a 
third  room,f  whose  walls  had  been  completely  uncovered.  Its  dimensions 
were  26  feet  by  23,  and  it  had  but  this  one  outlet,  flanked  on  either  side 
by  two  colossal  figures,  whose  lower  extremities  alone  remained,  the  upper 
part  of  the  slabs  having  been  destroyed  : one  appeared  to  have  been  eagle- 
headed, with  the  body  of  a man,  and  the  other  a monster,  with  human 
head  and  the  feet  of  a lion.  The  bas-reliefs  round  the  chamber  repre- 
sented the  siege  of  a castle  standing  on  an  artificial  mound,  surrounded  at 
its  base  by  houses.  The  besieged  defended  themselves  on  the  walls  and 
turrets  with  bows,  spears,  and  stones.  The  Assyrian  army  was  composed 
of  spearmen,  slingers,  and  bowmen,  some  of  whom  had  already  gained  the 
housetops.  Male  and  female  captives  had  been  taken  and  heads  cut  off; 
the  victorious  warriors  according  to  custom,  and  probably  to  claim  a re- 
ward,$ bringing  them  to  the  registrars.  The  led  horses  and  body-guard  of 
the  king  was  still  preserved,  but  that  part  of  the  bas-relief  containing  the 
monarch  himself,  probably  standing  in  his  chariot,  had  been  destroyed.  In 
the  back  ground  were  wooded  mountains ; vines  and  other  trees  formed  a 
distinct  band  in  the  middle  of  the  slabs ; and  a river  ran  at  the  foot  of  the 
mound.  The  dress  of  the  male  prisoners  consisted  either  of  a long  robe 
falling  to  the  ankles,  or  of  a tunic  reaching  to  the  knees,  over  which  was 
thrown  an  outer  garment,  apparently  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  and 
they  wore  greaves  laced  up  in  front.  The  women  were  clothed  in  a robe 
descending  to  the  feet,  with  an  outer  fringed  garment  thrown  over  the  shoul- 
ders ; a kind  of  hood  or  veil  covered  the  back  of  the  head,  and  fell  over  the 
neck.  Above  the  castle  was  the  fragment  of  an  inscription  in  two  lines, 
containing  the  name  of  the  city,  of  which  unfortunately  the  first  character 
is  wanting.  It  reads : “ The  city  of  . . . alammo  I attacked  and  cap- 
tured; I carried  away  its  spoil.”  No  name,  however,  corresponding  with 
it  has  yet  been  found  in  the  royal  annals,  and  we  can  only  infer,  from  the 
nature  of  the  country  represented,  that  the  place  was  in  a mountainous  dis- 
trict to  the  north  of  Assyria. § It  is  remarkable  that  in  this  chamber, 
as  in  others  afterwards  explored,  some  of  the  slabs  (those  adjoining  the  en- 
trance) had  been  purposely  defaced,  every  vestige  of  sculpture  having  been 
carefully  removed  by  a sharp  instrument. 

Returning  to  the  great  hall,  I found  that  a third  outlet  had  been  discover- 
ed, opening,  however,  to  the  west.  This  entrance  had  been  guarded  by  six  co- 
lossal figures,  three  on  each  side.  The  upper  part  of  all  of  them  had  been  de- 
stroyed. They  appear  to  have  been  eagle-headed  and  lion-headed  rnonsters.il 

* No.*  XIII.  Plan  I.  t No.  XIV.  same  plan. 

t It  is  still  the  custom  in  Persia,  and  was  §o  until  lately  in  Turkey,  for  soldiers  to 
bring  the  heads  of  the  slain  to  their  officers  after  a battle,  and  to  claim  a small  pecun- 
iary reward. 

$ As  much  of  the  bas-reliefs  as  could  be  moved  is  now  in  the  British  Museum ; see 
also  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  39. 

II  Entrance  i.  No.  VI.  Plan  I. 


SCULPTURES  DESCRIBED. 


61 


Chap.  IY.] 

This  doorway  led  into  a narrow  passage,  one  side  of  which  had  alone 
been  excavated ; on  it  was  represented  the  siege  of  a walled  city,  divided 
into  two  parts  by  a river.  One  half  of  the  place  had  been  captured  by  the 
Assyrians,  who  had  gained  possession  of  the  towers  and  battlements,  but 
that  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  stream  was  still  defended  by  slingers  and 
bowmen.  Against  its  walls  had  been  thrown  banks  or  mounds,  built  of 
stones,  bricks,  and  branches  of  trees.*  The  battering-rams,  covered  with 
skins  or  hides  looped  together,  had  been  rolled  up  these  inclined  ways,  and 
had  already  made  a breach  in  the  fortifications.  Archers  and  spearmen 
were  hurrying  to  the  assault,  whilst  others  were  driving  off  the  captives, 
and  carrying  away  the  idols  of  the  enemy.  The  dress  of  the  male  prison- 
ers consisted  of  a plain  under-shirt,  an  upper  garment  falling  belotv  the 
knees,  divided  in  the  front  and  buttoned  at  the  neck,  and  laced  greaves. 
Their  hair  and  beards  were  shorter  and  less  elaborately  curled  than  those 
of  the  Assyrians.  The  women  were  distinguished  by  high  rounded  turbans, 
ornamented  with  plaits  or  folds.  A veil  fell  from  the  back  of  this  head- 
dress over  the  shoulders.!  No  inscription  remained  to  record  the  name  of 
the  vanquished  nation.  Their  castles  stood  in  a wooded  and  mountainous 
country,  and  their  peculiar  costume,  and  the  river  passing  through  the  cen- 
tre of  their  chief  city,  may  help  hereafter  to  identify  them. 

The  opposite  side  of  this  narrow  chamber,  or  passage,  was  shortly  after- 
wards uncovered.  The  bas-reliefs  on  its  walls  represented  the  king  in  his 
chariot,  preceded  and  followed  by  his  warriors.  The  only  remarkable  feat- 
ure in  the  sculptures  was  the  highly  decorated  trappings  of  the  horses, 
whose  bits  were  in  the  form  of  a horse  at  full  speed. 

Such  were  the  discoveries  that  had  been  made  during  my  absence.  There 
could  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  all  the  chambers  hitherto  excavated  be- 
longed to  one  great  edifice,  built  by  one  and  the  same  king.  I have  already 
shown  how  the  bas-reliefs  of  Kouyunjik  differed  from  those  of  the  older  pal- 
aces of  Nimroud,  but  closely  resembled  those  of  Khorsabad  in  the  general 
treatment,  in  the  costumes  of  the  Assyrian  warriors,  as  well  as  of  the  na- 
tions with  whom  they  warred,  and  in  the  character  of  the  ornaments,  in- 
scriptions, and  details.  Those  newly  uncovered  were,  in  all  these  respects, 
like  the  bas-reliefs  found  before  my  departure,  and  upon  which  I had  ven- 
tured to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  respective  antiquity  and  origin  of  the  va- 
rious ruins  hitherto  explored  in  Assyria.  The  bas-reliefs  of  Nimroud,  the 
reader  may  remember,  were  divided  into  two  bands  or  friezes  by  inscrip- 
tions; the  subject  being  frequently  confined  to  one  tablet,  or  slab,  and  ar- 

* For  an  account  of  these  mounds  represented  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  illustrate  various  passages  in  Scripture,  see  my  Nineveh  and 
its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  367.  and  note. 

t Such  is  the  costume  of  the  women  in  ships  in  a bas-relief  discovered  during  my 
former  researches  (see  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  129.  and  Monuments  of 
Nineveh,  Plate  71.),  and  which,  I have  conjectured,  may  represent  the  capture  of 
Tyre  or  Sidon. 


62 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IV. 


ranged  with  some  attempt  at  composition,  so  as  to  form  a separate  picture. 
At  Kouyunjik  the  four  walls  of  a chamber  were  generally  occupied  by  one 
series  of  sculptures,  representing  a consecutive  history,  uninterrupted  by  in- 
scriptions, or  by  the  divisions  in  the  alabaster  panelling.  Figures,  smaller 
in  size  than  those  of  Nimroud,  covered  from  top  to  bottom  the  face  of  slabs, 
eight  or  nine  feet  high,  and  sometimes  of  equal  breadth. 

The  sculptor  could  thus  introduce  more  action,  and  far  more  detail,  into 
his  picture.  He  aimed  even  at  conveying,  by  rude  representations  of  trees, 
valleys,  mountains,  and  rivers,  a general  idea  of  the  natural  features  of  the 
country  in  which  the  events  recorded  took  place.  A chamber  thus  gener- 
ally contained  the  whole  story  of  a particular  war,  from  the  going  out  of 
the  king  to  his  triumphal  return.  These  pictures,  including  a kind  of  plan 
of  the  campaign,  add  considerably  to  the  interest  of  the  monuments,  and 
allow  us  to  restore  much  of  the  history  of  the  period.  They  will  probably 
also  enable  us  to  identify  the  sculptured  records  with  the  descriptive  ac- 
counts contained  in  the  great  inscriptions  carved  upon  the  bulls,  at  the  va- 
rious entrances  to  the  palace,  and  embracing  a general  chronicle  of  the 
reign  of  the  king.  At  Kouyunjik  there  were  probably  few  bas-reliefs,  par- 
ticularly those  containing  representations  of  castles  and  cities,  that  were 
not  accompanied  by  a short  epigraph  or  label,  giving  the  name  of  the  con- 
quered king  and  country,  and  even  the  names  of  the  principal  prisoners,  es- 
pecially if  royal  personages.  Unfortunately  these  inscriptions  having  been 
usually  placed  on  the  upper  part  of  the  slabs,  which  has  very  rarely  escaped 
destruction,  but  few  of  them  remain.  These  remarks  should  be  borne  in 
mind  to  enable  the  reader  to  understand  the  descriptions  of  the  excavated 
chambers  at  Kouyunjik,  which  will  be  given  in  the  following  pages  in  the 
order  that  they  were  discovered. 

I lost  no  time  in  making  arrangements  for  continuing  the  excavations 
with  as  much  activity  as  the  funds  granted  to  the  Trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  would  permit.  Toma  Shishman  was  placed  over  Kouyunjik  : 
Mansour,  Behnan  (the  marble  cutter),  and  Hannah  (the  carpenter),  again 
entered  my  service.  Ali  Rahal,  a sheikh  of  the  Jebours,  who,  hearing  of 
my  return,  had  hastened  to  Mosul,  was  sent  to  the  desert  to  collect  such 
of  my  old  workmen  from  his  tribe  as  were  inclined  to  re-enter  my  service. 
He  was  appointed  “ sheikh  of  the  mound,”  and  duly  invested  with  the  cus- 
tomary robe  of  honor  on  the  occasion. 

The  accumulation  of  soil  above  the  ruins  was  so  great,  that  I determined 
to  continue  the  tunnelling,  removing  only  as  much  earth  as  was  necessary 
to  show  the  sculptured  walls.  But  to  facilitate  the  labor  of  the  workmen, 
and  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  their  leaving  the  tunnels  to  empty  their  bask- 
ets, I made  a number  of  rude  triangles  and  wooden  pulleys,  by  which  the 
excavated  rubbish  could  he  raised  by  ropes  through  the  shafts,  sunk  at  in- 
tervals for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  to  admit  light  and  air.  One  or  two 
passages  then  sufficed  for  the  workmen  to  descend  into  the  subterranean 
galleries. 


RUINS  OF  KOUYUNJIK. 


63 


Chap.  IV.] 

Many  of  the  Nestorians  formerly  in  my  service  as  diggers,  having  also 
heard  of  my  intended  return,  had  left  their  mountains,  and  had  joined  me 
a day  or  two  after  my  arrival.  There  were  Jebours  enough  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood  of  the  town  to  make  up  four  or  five  gangs  of  excava- 
tors, and  I placed  parties  at  once  in  the  galleries  already  opened,  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  Kouyunjik  not  previously  explored,  and  at  a high  mound  in  the 
northwest  walls,  forming  one  side  of  the  great  inclosure  opposite  Mosul — a 
ruin  which  I had  only  partially  examined  during  my  previous  visit.* 

During  the  spring  of  this  year  Colonel  Williams,  the  British  commissioner 
for  the  settlement  of  the  disputed  boundaries  between  Turkey  and  Persia, 
had  visited  Mosul  on  his  way  to  Baghdad,  and  had  kindly  permitted  Lieu- 
tenant Glascott,  R.N.,  the  engineer  of  the  commission,  to  make  a careful 
survey  of  Kouyunjik.  His  plan,  into  which  the  excavations  subsequently 
made  have  been  introduced,  will  show  the  position  of  the  palace  and  the 
general  form  of  the  mound,  f The  shape  of  this  great  ruin  is  very  irregu- 
lar. ; nearly  square  at  the  S.W.  corner,  it  narrows  almost  to  a point  at  the 
N.E.  The  palace  occupies  the  southern  angle.  At  the  opposite,  or  north- 
ern, extremity  are  the  remains  of  the  village  of  Kouyunjik,  from  which  the 
mound  takes  its  name.f  From  this  spot  a steep  road  leads  to  the  plain, 
forming  the  only  access  to  the  summit  of  the  mound  for  loaded  animals  or 
carts.  Nearly  midway  between  the  ruined  village  and  the  excavations  is 
a small  whitewashed  Mussulman  tomb,  surmounted  by  a dome,  belonging 
to  some  sheikh,  or  holy  man,  whose  memory  and  name  have  long  passed 
away.  little  beyond  it,  to  the  south-west,  the  level  of  the  mound  rises 
above  that  of  any  other  part ; in  consequence  probably  of  the  ruins  of  an- 
cient buildings,  belonging  to  a period  preceding  the  Arab  conquest,  though 
still  erected  over  the  older  Assyrian  edifices.  Beyond  it,  to  the  north,  the 
level  is  considerably  below  that  part  of  the  mound  which  covers  the  re- 
mains of  the  excavated  palace.  To  the  south  of  the  tomb  the  platform 
suddenly  sinks,  leaving  a semicircular  ridge,  resembling  an  amphitheatre. 
There  are  ravines  on  all  sides  of  Kouyunjik,  except  that  facing  the  Tigris. 

If  not  entirely  worn  by  the  winter  rains,  they  have,  undoubtedly,  been 
deepened  and  increased  by  them.  They  are  strewed  with  fragments  of 
pottery,  bricks,  and  sometimes  storte  and  burnt  alabaster,  whilst  the  falling 
earth  frequently  discloses  in  their  sides  vast  masses  of  solid  brick  masonry, 
which  fall  in  when  undermined  by  the  rains.  Through  these  ravines  are 
carried  the  steep  and  narrow  pathways  leading  to  the  top  of  the  mound. 
As  they  reach  far  into  the  ruins,  frequently  laying  bare  the  very  founda- 
tions of  the  artificial  platform  of  earth  on  which  the  edifices  were  erected, 
they  afford  the  best  places  to  commence  experimental  tunnels. 

* See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  144.,  for  a description  of  the  discoveries  * 
previously  made  in  this  mound. 

t See  General  Plan  of  the  mound  of  Kouyunjik,  in  corner  of  Plan  I. 

t “ The  little  sheep.”  Kouyunjik  is,  however,  generally  known  to  the  Arabs  by 
the  name  of  Armousheeyah. 


64 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IV. 


The  Khauser  winds  round  the  eastern  base  of  Kouyunjik,  and  leaving 
it  near  the  angle  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  the  palace,  runs  in  a direct  line  to 
the  Tigris.  Although  a small  and  sluggish  stream,  it  has  worn  for  itself  a 
deep  bed,  and  is  only  fordable  near  the  mound  immediately  below  the 
southern  corner,  where  the  direct  road  from  Mosul  crosses  it,  and  at  the 
northern  extremity  where  a flour  mill  is  turned  by  its  waters.  After  rain 
it  becomes  an  impetuous  torrent,  overflowing  its  banks,  and  carrying  all 
before  it.  It  then  rises  very  suddenly,  and  as  suddenly  subsides.  The 
Tigris  now  flows  about  half  a mile  from  the  mound,  but  once  undoubtedly 
washed  its  base.  Between  them  is  a rich  alluvium  deposited  by  the  river 
during  its  gradual  retreat ; it  is  always  under  cultivation,  and  is  divided 
into  corn  fields,  and  melon  and  cucumber  beds.*  In  this  plain  stands  the 
small  modern  village  of  Kouyunjik,  removed  for  convenience  from  its  an- 
cient site  on  the  summit  of  the  mound.  Round  the  foot  of  the  platform 
are  thickly  scattered  fragments  of  pottery,  brick,  and  stone,  fallen  from  the 
ruins  above. 

In  Mosul  I had  to  call  upon  the  governor,  and  renew  my  acquaintance 
with  the  principal  inhabitants,  wdiose  good  will  was  in  some  way  necessary 
to  the  pleasant,  if  not  successful,  prosecution  of  my  labors.  Kiamil  Pasha 
had  been  lately  named  to  the  pashalic.  He  was  the  sixth  or  seventh  pasha 
who  had  been  appointed  since  I had  left,  for  it  is  one  of  the  banes  of  Turk- 
ish administration  that,  as  soon  as  an  officer  becomes  acquainted  with  the 
country  he  is  sent  to  govern,  and  obtains  any  influence  over  its  inhabitants, 
he  is  recalled  to  make  room  for  a new  ruler.  Kiamil  had  been  ambassador 
at  Berlin,  and  had  visited  several  European  courts.  His  manners  were 
eminently  courteous,  and  polished ; his  intelligence,  and,  what  is  of  far 
more  importance  in  a Turkish  governor,  his  integrity,  were  acknowledged. 
His  principal  defects  were  great  inactivity  and  indolence,  and  an  unfortu- 
nate irritability  of  temper,  leading  him  to  do  foolish  and  mischievous  things, 
of  which  he  generally  soon  found  cause  to  repent.  He  offered  a very  favor- 
able contrast  to  the  Pasha  who  received  me  on  my  visit  to  Mosul  in  1847, 
and  who,  by  the  way,  notwithstanding  a decree  of  the  supreme  council  • 
condemning  him  to  death  for  his  numerous  misdeeds,  but  not  carried  into 
execution  in  consequence  of  the  misdirected  humanity  of  the  Sultan,  had 
been  recently  appointed  to  a comfortable  pashalic  in  Asia  Minor,  far  from 
consuls  and  other  troublesome  checks  upon  his  tyranny  and  extortion.  Our 

* The  river  Tigris  flows  in  this  part  of  its  course,  and  until  it  reaches  Saimarrah, 
on  the  confines  of  Babylonia,  through  a valley  varying  from  one  to  two  miles  in  width, 
bounded  on  both  sides  by  low  limestone  and  conglomerate  hills.  Its  bed  has  been 
undergoing  a continual  and  regular  change.  When  it  reaches  the  hills  on  one  side, 
it  is  thrown  back  by  this  barrier,  and  creeps  gradually  to  the  opposite  side,  leaving 
a rich  alluvial  soil  quickly  covered  with  jungle.  This  process  it  has  been  repeating, 
backwards  and  forwards,  for  countless  ages,  and  will  continue  to  repeat  as  long  as 
it  drains  the  great  highlands  of  Armenia.  At  Nimroud  it  is  now  gradually  returning 
to  the  base  of  the  mound,  which  it  deserted  some  three  thousand  years  ago ; but 
centuries  must  elapse  before  it  can  work  its  way  that  far. 


SHEIKH  ADI  REVISITED 


Chap.  IV.] 


6f> 


right  to  excavate  was  now  too  well  established  to  admit  of  question,  and 
my  visit  to  the  Pasha  was  rather  one  of  friendship  than  of  duty.  I had 
known  him  at  the  capital,  where  he  held  a high  post  in  the  council  of 
state,  and  at  Belgrade,  when  governor  there  during  troublous  times. 

Soon  after  my  arrival,  my  old  friends  Sheikh  Abd-ur-rahman,  of  the 
Abou  Salman,  and  Abd-rubbou,  chief  of  the  Jebours,  rode  into  the  town  to 
see  me.  The  former  complained  bitterly  of  poverty  : his  claims  upon  Mo- 
hammed Pasha,  although  recognised  by  the  government,  had  not  been 
paid,  and  by  the  new  system  of  local  administration  introduced  into  the 
pashalic  since  my  departure,  his  old  pasture  grounds  near  Nimroud  had 
been  taken  from  his  tribe,  and  made  “ miri,”  or  public  property.  The 
Jebours,  under  Afid-rubbou,  were  encamping  in  the  desert  to  the  south 
of  Mosul.  He  offered  to  accompany  me  to  Kalah  Sherghat,  or  to  any 
other  ruin  I might  wish  to  examine,  and  a silk  robe  cemented  our  former 
friendship. 

I had  scarcely  settled  myself  in  the  town,  when  Cawal  Yusuf  came  in 
from  Baadri,  with  a party  of  Yezidi  Cawals,  to  invite  me,  on  the  part  of 
Hussein  Bey  and  Sheikh  Nasr,  to  the  annual  festival  at  Sheikh  Adi.  The 
invitation  was  too  earnest  to  be  refused,  nor  was  I sorry  to  have  this  oc- 
casion of  meeting  the  principal  chiefs  of  the  sect  assembled  together,  of  ex- 
plaining to  them  what  had  occurred  at  Constantinople,  and  of  offering  them 
a few  words  of  advice  as  to  their  future  conduct.  The  Jebour  workmen, 
too,  had  not  yet  moved  their  tents  to  Nimroud  or  Mosul,  and  the  excava- 
tions had  consequently  not  been  actively  resumed. 

I was  accompanied  in  this  visit  by  my  own  party,  with  the  addition  of 
Mr.  Rassam,  the  vice-consul,  and  his  dragoman.  We  rode  the  first  day  to 
Baadri,  and  were  met  on  the  road  by  Hussein  Bey  and  a large  company 
of  Yezidi  horsemen.  Sheikh  Nasr  had  already  gone  to  the  tomb,  to  make 
ready  for  the  ceremonies.  The  young  chief  entertained  us  for  the  night, 
and  on  the  following  morning,  an  hour  after  sunrise,  we  left  the  village  for 
Sheikh  Adi.  At  some  distance  from  the  sacred  valley  we  were  met  by 
Sheikh  Nasr,  Pir  Sino,  the  Cawals,  the  priests,  and  the  chiefs.  They  con- 
ducted us  to  the  same  building  in  the  sacred  grove  that  I had  occupied  on 
my  former  visit.  The  Cawals  assembled  around  us  and  welcomed  our 
coming  on  their  tambourines  and  flutes  ; and  soon  about  us  was  formed 
one  of  those  singularly  beautiful  and  picturesque  groups  which  I have  at- 
tempted to  describe  in  my  previous  account  of  the  Yezidi  festival.* 

The  Yezidis  had  assembled  in  less  numbers  this  year  than  when  I had 
last  met  them  in  the  valley.  Only  a few  of  the  best  armed  of  the  people 
of  the  Sinjar  had  ventured  to  face  the  dangers  of  the  road  now  occupied  by 
the  Bedouins.  Abde  Agha  and  his  adherents  were  fully  occupied  in  de- 
fending their  villages  against  the  Arab  marauders,  who,  although  repulsed 
after  we  quitted  Semil,  were  still  hanging  about  the  district,  bent  upon  re- 
venge. The  Kochers,  and  the  tribes  of  Dereboun,  were  kept  away  by  the 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  ch.  ix. 

E 


Valley  and  Tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi. 


SHEIKH  JINDI 


67 


Chap.  IV.] 

same  fears.  The  inhabitants  of  Kherzan  and  Redwan  were  harassed  by 
the  conscription.  Even  the  people  of  Baasheikhah  and  Baazani  had  been 
so  much  vexed  by  a recent  visit  from  the  Pasha  that  they  had  no  heart  for 
festivities.  His  Excellency  not  fostering  feelings  of  the  most  friendly  na- 
ture towards  Namik  Pasha,  the  new  commander-in-chief  of  Arabia,  who 
was  passing  through  Mosul  on  his  way  to  the  head-quarters  of  the  army  at 
Baghdad,  and  unwilling  to  entertain  him,  was  suddenly  taken  ill,  and  re- 
tired for  the  benefit  of  his  health  at  Baasheikhah.  On  the  morning  after 
his  arrival  he  complained  that  the  asses  by  their  braying  during  the  night 
had  allowed  him  no  rest ; and  the  asses  were  accordingly  peremptorily  ban- 
ished from  the  village.  The  dawn  of  the  next  day  was  announced,  to  the 
great  discomfort  of  his  Excellency,  who  had  no  interest  in  the  matter,  by 
the  cocks  ; and  the  irregular  troops  who  formed  his  body-guard  were  imme- 
diately incited  to  a general  slaughter  of  the  race.  The  third  night  his  sleep 
was  disturbed  by  the  crying  of  the  children,  who,  with  their  mothers,  were 
at  once  locked  up,  for  the  rest  of  his  sojourn,  in  the  cellars.  On  the  fourth 
he  was  awoke  at  daybreak  by  the  chirping  of  sparrows,  and  every  gun  in 
the  village  was  ordered  to  be  brought  out  to  wage  a war  of  extermination 
against  them.  But  on  the  fifth  morning  his  rest  was  sorely  broken  by  the 
flies,  and  the  enraged  Pasha  insisted  upon  their  instant  destruction.  The 
Kiayah,  who,  as  chief  of  the  village,  had  the  task  of  carrying  out  the  Gov- 
ernor’s orders,  now  threw  himself  at  his  Excellency’s  feet,  exclaiming, 
“ Your  Highness  has  seen  that  all  the  animals  here,  praise  be  to  God,  obey 
our  Lord  the  Sultan ; the  infidel  flies  alone  are  rebellious  to  his  authority. 
I am  a man  of  low  degree  and  small  power,  and  can  do  nothing  against 
them  ; it  now  behoves  a great  Vizir  like  your  Highness  to  enforce  the  com- 
mands of  our  Lord  and  Master.”  The  Pasha,  who  relished  a joke,  forgave 
the  flies,  but  left  the  village. 

I have  already  so  fully  described  the  general  nature  of  the  annual  festi- 
val at  Sheikh  Adi,  and  the  appearance  of  the  valley  on  that  occasion,  that 
1 shall  confine  myself  to  an  account  of  such  ceremonies  as  I was  now  per- 
mitted to  witness  for  the  first  time. 

About  an  hour  after  sunset,  Cawal  Yusuf  summoned  Hormuzd  and  my- 
self, who  were  alone  allowed  to  be  present,  to  the  inner  yard,  or  sanctuary, 
of  the  Temple.  We  were  placed  in  a room  from  the  windows  of  which  we 
could  see  all  that  took  place  in  the  court.  The  Cawals,  Sheikhs,  Fakirs, 
and  principal  chiefs  were  already  assembled.  In  the  centre  of  the  court 
was  an  iron  lamp,  with  four  burners — a simple  dish  with  four  lips  for  the 
wicks,  supported  on  a sharp  iron  rod  driven  into  the  ground.  Near  it  stood 
a Fakir,  holding  in  one  hand  a lighted  torch,  and  in  the  other  a large  ves- 
sel of  oil,  from  which  he,  from  time  to  time,  replenished  the  lamp,  loudly  in- 
voking Sheikh  Adi.  The  Cawals  stood  against  the  wall  on  one  side  of  the 
court,  and  commenced  a slow  chant,  some  playing  on  the  flute,  others  on 
the  tambourine,  and  accompanying  the  measure  with  their  voices.  The 
Sheikhs  and  chiefs  now  formed  a procession,  walking  two  by  two.  At 


Sheikh  Nasr,  High  Priest  of  the  Yezidis. 

came  after.  Their  long  robes  were  all  of  the  purest  white.  As  they  walked 
slowly  round,  sometimes  stopping,  then  resuming  their  measured  step,  they 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IV. 


their  head  was  Sheikh  Jindi.  He  wore  a tall  shaggy  black  cap,  the  hair  of 
which  hung  far  over  the  upper  part  of  his  face.  A long  robe,  striped  with 
horizontal  stripes  of  black  and  dark  red,  fell  to  his  feet.  A countenance 
more  severe,  and  yet  more  imposing,  than  that  of  Sheikh  Jindi  could  not 
well  be  pictured  by  the  most  fanciful  imagination.  A beard,  black  as  jet. 
waved  low  on  his  breast  ; his  dark  piercing  eyes  glittered  through  ragged 
eyebrows,  like  burning  coals  through  the  bars  of  a grate.  The  color  of  his 
face  was  of  the  deepest  brown,  his  teeth  white  as  snow,  and  his  features, 
though  stern  beyond  measure,  singularly  noble  and  well  formed.  It  was  a 
by -word  with  us  that  Sheikh  Jindi  had  never  been  seen  to  smile.  To  look 
at  him  was  to  feel  that  a laugh  could  not  be  born  in  him.  As  he  moved, 
with  a slow  and  solemn  step,  the  flickering  lamp  deepening  the  shadows  of 
his  solemn  and  rugged  countenance,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  con- 
ceive a being  more  eminently  fitted  to  take  the  lead  in  ceremonies  conse- 
crated to  the  evil  one.  He  is  the  Peesli-?iamaz , “ the  leader  of  prayer”  to 
the  Yezidi  sect.  Behind  him  were  two  venerable  sheikhs.  They  were 
followed  by  Hussein  Bey  and  Sheikh  Iv  asr,  and  the  other  chiefs  and  Sheikhs 


AN  ASSEMBLY  OP  YEZIDIS. 


69 


Chap.  IV.] 

chanted  prayers  in  glory  and  honor  of  the  Deity.  The  Cawals  accompanied 
the  chant  with  their  flutes,  beating  at  intervals  the  tambourines.  Round 
the  burning  lamp,  and  within  the  circle  formed  by  the  procession,  danced 
the  Fakirs  in  their  black  dresses,  with  solemn  pace  timed  to  the  music, 
raising  and  swinging  to  and  fro  their  arms  after  the  fashion  of  Eastern 
dancers,  and  placing  themselves  in  attitudes  not  less  decorous  than  elegant. 
To  hymns  in  praise  of  the  Deity  succeeded  others  in  honor  of  Melek  Isa 
and  Sheikh  Adi.  The  chants  passed  into  quicker  strains,  the  tambourines 
were  beaten  more  frequently,  the  Fakirs  became  more  active  in  their  mo- 
tions, and  the  women  made  the  loud  talilel , the  ceremonies  ending  with 
that  extraordinary  scene  of  noise  and  excitement  that  I have  attempted  to 
describe  in  relating  my- first  visit.  When  the  prayers  were  ended,  those 
who  marched  in  procession  kissed,  as  they  passed  by,  the  right  side  of  the 
doorway  leading  into  the  temple,  where  a serpent  is  figured  on  the  wall ; 
but  not,  as  I was  assured,  the  image  itself,  which  has  no  typical  or  other 
meaning,  according  to  Sheikh  Nasr  and  Cawal  Yusuf.  Hussein  Bey  then 
placing  himself  on  the  step  at  this  entrance,  received  the  homage  of  the 
Sheikhs  and  elders,  each  touching  the  hand  of  the  young  chief  with  his 
own,  and  raising  it  to  his  lips.  All  present,  afterwards,  gave  one  another 
the  kiss  of  peace. 

The  ceremonies  having  thus  been  brought  to  a close,  Hussein  Bey  and 
Sheikh  Nasr  came  to  me,  and  led  me  into  the  inner  court.  Carpets  had 
been  spread  at  the  doorway  of  the  temple  for  myself  and  the  two  chiefs  ; 
The  Sheikhs,  Cawals,  and  principal  people  of  the  sect,  seated  themselves, 
or  rather  crouched,  against  the  walls.  By  the  light  of  a lamp,  dimly 
breaking  the  gloom  within  the  temple,  I could  see  Sheikh  Jindi  unrobing. 
During  the  prayers,  priests  were  stationed  at  the  doorway,  and  none  were 
allowed  to  enter  except  a few  women  and  girls  : the  wives  and  daughters 
of  sheikhs  and  cawals  had  free  access  to  the  building,  and  appeared  to  join 
in  the  ceremonies.  The  Vice-Consul  and  Khodja  Toma  were  now  admit- 
ted, and  took  their  places  with  us  at  the  upper  end  of  the  court.  Cawal 
Yusuf  was  then  called  upon  to  give  a full  account  of  the  result  of  his  mis- 
sion to  Constantinople,  which  he  did  with  the  same  detail,  and  almost  in 
the  same  words,  that  he  had  used  so  frequently  during  our  journey.  After 
he  had  concluded,  I endeavored  to  point  out  to  the  chiefs  that  by  the  new 
concessions  made  to  them,  liberty  of  conscience  and  the  enjoyment  of  prop- 
erty were,  if  not  completely  secured,  at  least  fully  recognised  as  their  right, 
and  that  the  great  burdens  to  which  the  Yezidis  had  long  been  exposed 
were  abolished.  Their  children  could  no  longer  be  taken  as  slaves,  and 
the  Sultan  had  even  ordered  the  liberation  of  those  who  were  already  in 
bondage.*  Henceforward  none  would  suffer  torture  or  death  for  their  re- 

a 

* During  my  subsequent  residence  in  Mosul,  I was  able,  with  the  assistance  of 
Mr.  Rassam,  the  Vice-Consul,  who  always  exerted  himself  zealously  and  disinterest- 
edly in  the  cause  of  humanity,  to  take  from  the  very  harem  of  the  Cadi,  a Yezidi  girl, 
who  had  been  torn  from  her  parents  some  time  before,  and  had  been  compelled  to 


70 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  IV. 


ligion’s  sake.  Whatever  their  objections  to  the  conscription  and  military 
service,  it  was  but  reasonable  that,  as  subjects  of  the  Sultan,  and  as  exempt 
from  the  capitation  tax  paid  by  Christians,  they  should  be  placed  under 
the  same  laws  as  Mussulmans,  and  should  serve  the  state.  Such  practices 
and  food  as  were  repugnant  to  them,  the  Grand  Vizir  had  promised  should 
not  be  forced  upon  those  who  were  enrolled  in  the  regular  army.  For  the 
first  time  the  Yezidis  had  been  in  direct  communication  with  the  Sultan’s 
ministers,  and  had  been  formally  recognised  as  one  of  the  sects  of  the  em- 
pire. They  were  to  justify  the  good  intentions  of  the  Porte  towards  them 
by  proving  themselves  loyal  and  faithful  subjects.  But,  above  all,  they 
were  to  eschew  internal  quarrels,  and  to  maintain  peace  and  unity  among 
the  tribes,  by  which  means  alone  they  could  defy  their  enemies.  Their  in- 
dustry had  already  raised  them  above  their  Mohammedan  and  Christian 
neighbours,  and  now  that  additional  protection  was  extended  to  them  they 
might  fairly  hope  to  be  wealthy  and  prosperous.  It  was  finally  agreed 
that  letters  of  thanks,  sealed  by  all  the  chiefs  of  the  Yezidis,  should  be 
sent  to  the  Grand  Vizir,  Reshid  Pasha,  for  the  reception  given  to  the  Yez- 
idi  deputation,  and  to  Sir  Stratford  Canning  for  his  generous  intercession 
in  their  behalf. 

The  private  and  domestic  affairs  of  the  sect  were  then  discussed,  and  va- 
rious reforms  proposed.  The  mode  of  contracting  marriages  required  some 
change.  The  large  sums  of  money  demanded  by  parents  for  their  daugh 
ters  had  been  the  cause  that  many  girls  remained  unmarried,  a state  of 
things  rarely  found  in  Eastern  countries,  and  the  source  of  loud  complaints 
amongst  the  yotinger  members  of  the  community.  Rassam  suggested  that 
the  price  paid  to  the  father  should  be  reduced,  or  he  should  encourage  elope- 
ments, and  give  the  fugitives  the  benefit  of  his  protection.  The  proposed 
alternative  caused  much  merriment ; but  one  of  the  old  Sheikhs  of  Baaz- 
ani  at  once  consented  to  take  300  piasters  (about  21.  10s.)  for  his  daugh- 
ter, instead  of  3000,  which  he  had  previously  asked.  This  led  to  several 
betrothals  on  the  spot,  amidst  much  mirth  and  great  applause  on  the  part 
of  such  young  Cawals  as  were  anxious  to  get  married.  It  was  nearly  mid- 
night before  the  assembly  broke  up.  We  then  went  into  the  outer  court, 
where  dances  were  kept  up  until  late  in  the  morning,  by  the  light  of  torch- 
es, all  the  young  men  and  women  joining  in  the  Debka. 

Soon  after  sunrise  on  the  following  morning  the  Sheikhs  and  Cawals  of- 
fered up  a short  prayer  in  the  court  of  the  temple,  but  without  any  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  previous  evening.  Some  prayed  in  the  sanctuary,  fre- 
quently kissing  the  threshold  and  holy  places  within  the  building.  When 
they  had  ended  they  took  the  green  cloth  covering  from  the  tomb  of  Sheikh 
Adi,  and,  followed  by  the  Cawals  playing  on  their  tambourines  and  flutes, 
walked  with  it  round  the  outer  court.  The  people  flocked  about  them, 
and  reverently  carried  the  corner  of  the  drapery  to  their  lips,  making  after- 
embrace the  Mohammedan  religion.  Such  an  unusual  proceeding  had  a great  effect 
in  the  town. 


Yezidi  Dance  at  Sheikh 


72 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  IV. 


wards  a small  offering  of  money.  After  the  cover  had  been  again  thrown 
over  the  tomb,  the  chiefs  and  priests  seated  themselves  round  the  inner 
court.  The  Fakirs  and  Sheikhs  especially  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary,  who  are  called  Kotcheks,  now  issued  from  the  kitchens  of  the 
temple  bearing  large  platters  of  smoking  harisa ,*  which  they  placed  on 
the  ground.  The  company  collected  in  hungry  groups  round  the  messes, 
and  whilst  they  were  eating,  the  Kotcheks,  standing  by  called  upon  them 
continually  in  a loud  voice  to  partake  of  the  hospitality  of  Sheikh  Adi. 
After  the  empty  plates  had  been  removed,  a collection  was  made  towards 
the  support  of  the  temple  and  tomb  of  the  saint.  It  is  also  customary  for 
all  families  who  come  to  the  annual  festival  to  send  some  dish  as  an  offer- 
ing to  Sheikh  Nasr.  He  merely  tastes  these  contributions  to  show  his  ac- 
ceptance of  them,  and  they  are  then  shared  by  the  servants  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. 

These  ceremonies  occupied  us  until  nearly  mid-day  ; we  then  sat  by  the 
fountain  in  the  valley,  and  the  men  and  women  danced  before  us,  the  boys 
climbing  into  the  trees  and  hanging  on  the  boughs  to  see  the  dancers. 
Sugar,  dates,  and  raisins  were  afterwards  scrambled  amongst  the  children. 
The  men  soon  took  part  in  the  amusements.  A party  of  Kurds,  bringing 
grapes  from  the  mountains  to  sell  at  the  festival,  were  maliciously  pointed 
out  as  good  objects  for  a joke.  The  hint  was  no  sooner  given  than  they, 
their  donkeys,  and  their  grapes,  were  all  rolled  into  one  heap  under  a 
mountain  of  human  beings.  The  Kurds,  who  were  armed,  resisted  man- 
fully ; and,  ignorant  of  our  intentions,  might  have  revenged  themselves 
on  their  assailants,  but  were  soon  restored  to  good  humour  when  they 
found  that  they  were  to  receive  ample  compensation  for  their  losses  and 
personal  injuries.  A fat  bakkal,  a peddling  dealer  in  nuts,  raisins,  and 
dates  from  Mosul,  was  then  thrown  with  all  his  stores  into  a pond,  and 
was  well-nigh  drowned  by  the  crowd  of  hoys  who  dived  into  the  reservoir 
on  the  chance  of  sharing  in  the  contents  of  his  panniers.  The  young  chief 
mingled  heartily  in  the  sport,  stripping  off  his  gay  robes  and  inciting  the 
people  to  mischief.  There  was  general  laughing  in  the  valley,  and  the 
Yezidis  will  long  remember  these  days  of  simple  merriment  and  happiness. 

In  the  afternoon  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  chiefs  and  Cawals  call- 
ed upon  me.  The  families  of  the  Cawals,  evidently  descended  from  the 
same  stock,  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  both  of  the  men  and  women,  all 
of  whom  are  strikingly  like  one  another.  Their  complexion  is,  perhaps, 
too  dark,  but  their  features  are  regular  and  admirably. formed.  The  dresses 

* A mixture  of  bruised  wheat,  chopped  meat,  milk  and  curds,  boiled  into  a thick 
pulpy  mass,  over  which  melted  butter  is  poured.  It  is  a favorite  dish  in  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia,  and  is  cooked  by  families  on  great  festivals,  or  on  certain  days  of  the 
year,  in  consequence  of  vows  made  during  sickness  or  in  travel.  On  these  occasions 
it  is  sent  round  to  friends,  and  distributed  amongst  the  poor.  The  wealthy  sprinkle 
it  with  cinnamon  and  sugar,  and  it  is  then  agreeable  to  the  taste,  and  palatable  enough. 
It  is  sold  early  in  the  morning  in  the  bazars  of  many  Eastern  towns. 


CURIOUS  CEREMONY 


73 


Chap.  IV.J 

of  the  girls  were  elegant,  and  as  rich  as  the  material  they  could  obtain 
would  allow.  Some  wove  flowers  into  their  hair,  others  encircled  their 
black  turbans  with  a single  wreath  of  myrtle,  a simple  and  elegant  orna- 
ment. They  all  wore  many  strings  of  coins,  amber,  coral,  agate,  and  glass 
beads  round  their  necks,  and  some  had  the  black  skull  cap  completely  cov- 
ered with  gold  and  silver  money.  A kind  of  apron  of  grey  or  yellowish 
cneck,  like  a Scotch  plaid,  tied  over  one  shoulder,  and  falling  in  front  over 
the  silk  dress,  is  a peculiar  feature  in  the  costume  of  the  Yezidi  girls,  and 
of  some  Christians  from  the  same  district.  Unmarried  women  have  the 
neck  bare,  the  married  conceal  it  with  a white  kerchief,  which  passes  un- 
der the  chin,  and  is  tied  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  brightest  colors  are 
worn  by  the  girls,  but  the  matrons  are  usually  clothed  in  plain  white. 
The  females  of  the  Cawal  families  always  wear  black  turbans  and  skull 
caps.  Cawal  Yusuf,  to  show  how  the  Frank  ladies  he  had  seen  at  Con- 
stantinople were  honored  by  their  husbands,  made  his  young  wife  walk  arm 
in  arm  with  him  before  us,  to  the  great  amusement  of  the  bystanders. 

At  night  the  same  religious  ceremonies  were  repeated  in  the  temple, 
and  I was  allowed  to  sleep  in  the  room  overlooking  the  inner  court  from 
whence  I had  witnessed  them  on  the  previous  evening.  After  all  had  re- 
tired to  rest,  the  Yezidi  Mullah  recited,  in  a low  chanting  tone,  a religious 
history,  or  discourse,  consisting  of  the  adventures  and  teachings  of  a certain 
Mirza  Mohammed.  He  stood  before  the  burning  lamp,  and  around  him 
were  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  stone  pavement,  and  covered  by  their 
white  cloaks,  the  sleeping  Sheikhs  and  Cawals.  The  scene  was  singularly 
picturesque  and  impressive. 

Next  morning  I visited,  with  Mr.  Hassam  and  Mr.  Cooper,  the  rock- 
sculptures  of  B avian,  which  are  not  more  than  six  miles  from  the  valley 
of  Sheikh  Adi  in  the  same  range  of  hills ; but  I will  defer  a description  of 
these  remarkable  monuments  until  I come  to  relate  my  second  journey  to 
the  spot. 

The  Kaidi,  a Yezidi  tribe,  perform  at  the  annual  festival,  the  following 
curious  ceremony,  said  to  be  of  great  antiquity,  which  we  witnessed  on  the 
day  of  our  departure  from  Sheikh  Adi.  They  ascend,  in  company  with 
all  those  who  have  fire-arms,  the  rocks  overhanging  the  temple,  and,  plac- 
ing small  oak  twigs  into  the  muzzles  of  their  guns,  discharge  them  into  the 
air.  After  having  kept  up  a running  fire  for  nearly  half  an  hour,  they  de- 
scend into  the  outer  court  and  again  let  off  their  pieces.  When  entering 
the  inner  court  they  go  through  a martial  dance,  before  Hussein  Bey,  who 
stands  on  the  steps  of  the  sanctuary  amidst  the  assembled  priests  and  elders. 
The  dance  being  ended,  a bull,  presented  by  the  Yezidi  chief,  is  led  out 
from  the  temple.  The  Kaidi  rush  upon  the  animal  with  shouts,  and  seizing 
it,  lead  it  off  in  triumph  to  Sheikh  Mirza,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  sect,  from 
whom  they  also  receive  a present,  generally  consisting  of  sheep.  During 
these  ceremonies  the  assembled  crowd  of  men,  women,  and  children  form 
groups  on  the  steep  sides  of  the  ravine,  some  standing  on  the  well-wooded 


74 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IY 


terraces,  others  on  projecting  rocks  and  ledges,  whilst  the  boys  clamber  into 
the  high  trees,  from  whence  they  can  obtain  a view  of  the  proceedings. 
The  women  make  the  taJdel  without  ceasing,  and  the  valley  resounds  with 
the  deafening  noise.  The  long  white  garments  fluttering  amongst  the 
trees,  and  the  gay  costumes  of  some  of  the  groups,  produce  a very  beautiful 
and  novel  e fleet. 

The  Kaidi  were  formerly  a powerful  tribe,  sending  as  many  as  six  hund- 
red matchlock-men  to  the  great  feast.  They  have  been  greatly  reduced 
in  numbers  and  wealth  by  wars  and  oppression. 

Cawal  Yusuf  had  promised,  on  the  occasion  of  the  festival,  to  show  me 
the  sacred  book  of  the  Yezidis.  He  accordingly  brought  a volume  to  me 
one  morning,  accompanied  by  the  secretary  of  Sheikh  Xasr.  the  only  Yezidi. 
as  far  as  I am  aware,  who  could  read  it.  It  consisted  of  a few  tattered 
leaves,  of  no  ancient  date,  containing  a poetical  rhapsody  on  the  merits  and 
attributes  of  Sheikh  Adi,  who  is  identified  with  the  Deity  himself,  as  the 
origin  and  creator  of  all  things,  though  evidently  distinguished  from  the 
Eternal  Essence  by  being  represented  as  seeking  the  truth,  and  as  reach- 
ing through  it  the  highest  place,  which  he  declares  to  be  attainable  by  all 
those  who  like  him  shall  find  the  truth.  I will,  however,  give  a trans- 
lation of  this  singular  poem,  for  which  I am  indebted  to  Mr.  Hormuzd 
Eassam.# 


Tee  Recitation  (oe  Poem)  of  Sheieh  Adi — Peace  be  upon  him  ! 

1.  My  understands g surrounds  the  truth  of  things, 

2.  And  my  truth  is  mixed  up  in  me. 

3.  And  the  truth  of  my  descent  is  set  forth  by  itself  :t 

4.  And  when  it  was  known  it  was  altogether  in  me.i 

5.  All  who  are  in  the  universe  are  under  me, 

6.  And  all  the  habitable  parts  and  the  deserts,^ 

7.  And  every  thing  created  is  under  me.I 

8.  And  I am  the  ruling  power  preceding  all  that  exists. 

9.  And  I am  he  who  spake  a true  saying. 

10.  And  I am  the  just  judge,  and  the  ruler  of  the  earth  (Bat  "ha) 

11.  And  I am  he  whom  men  worship  in  my  glory, 

*■  The  year  after  my  visit  to  Sheikh  Adi  this  poem  was  shown,  through  Mr.  C.  Ras- 
sam,  to  the  Rev.  Air.  Badger,  who  has  also  given  a translation  of  it  in  the  first  volume 
of  his  “ Xestorians  and  their  Rituals.”  The  translation  in  the  text  was,  however, 
made  before  Mr.  Badger  s work  was  published.  That  gentleman  is  mistaken  in  stat- 
ins that  “ Sheikh  Adi  is  one  of  the  names  of  the  Deity  in  the  theology  of  the  Yezi- 
dis.”  and  “that  be  is  held  by  them  to  be  the  good  deity.”  for  in  the  fifty-eighth  verse 
the  Sheikh  is  expressly  made  to  say,  “ The  AU-merafuI  has  distinguished  me  with 
names and  the  Yezidis  always  admit  him  to  be  but  a great  prophet,  or  Vicegerent 
of  the  Almighty. 

t Or,  “ I am  come  of  myself” 

t According  to  Air.  Badger,  u I have  not  known  evil  to  be  with  me,”  but  the  verse 
seems  to  have  reference  to  the  Sheikh's  self-existence. 

$ Or,  “ And  who  are  in  distress  and  in  a thicket.” 

I Or,  “And  in  every  good  action  I take  delight.” 


POEM  OF  SHEIKH  ADI. 


75 


Chap.  IV.] 

12.  Coming  to  me  and  kissing  my  feet. 

13.  And  I am  he  who  spread  over  the  heavens  their  height. 

14.  And  I am  he  who  cried  in  the  beginning  (or  in  the  wilderness,  A1  bidaee). 

15.  And  I am  the  Sheikh,  the  one  and  only  one. 

16.  And  I am  he  who  of  myself  revealeth  all  things. 

17.  And  I am  he  to  whom  came  the  book  of  glad  tidings, 

18.  From  my  Lord  who  burneth  (or  cleaveth)  the  mountains. 

19.  And  I am  he  to  whom  all  created  men  come, 

20.  In  obedience  to  kiss  my  feet. 

21.  I bring  forth  fruit  from  the  first  juice  of  early  youth, 

22.  By  my  presence,  and  turn  towards  me  my  disciples-.* 

23.  And  before  his  light  the  darkness  of  the  morning  cleared  away. 

24.  I guide  him  who  asketh  for  guidance. 

25.  And  I am  he  that  caused  Adam  to  dwell  in  Paradise, 

26.  And  Nimrod  to  inhabit  a hot  burning  (or  hell)  fire. 

27.  And  I am  he  who  guided  Ahmed  the  Just, 

28.  And  led  him  into  my  path  and  way. 

29.  And  I am  he  unto  whom  all  creatures 

30.  Come  unto  for  my  good  purposes  and  gifts.f 

31.  And  I am  he  who  visited  all  the  heights  (or,  who  hath  all  majesty), 

32.  And  goodness  and  charity  proceed  from  my  mercy. 

33.  And  I am  he  who  made  all  hearts  to  fear 

34.  My  purpose,  and  they  magnified  the  power  and  majesty  of  my  awfulness.J 

35.  And  I am  he  to  whom  the  destroying  lion  came, 

36.  Raging,  and  I shouted  against  him  and  he  became  stone. 

37.  And  I am  he  to  whom  the  serpent  came, 

38.  And  by  my  will  I made  him  dust. 

39.  And  I am  he  who  struck  the  rock  and  made  it  tremble, 

40.  And  made  to  burst  from  its  side  the  sweetest  of  waters. 

41.  And  I am  he  who  sent  down  the  certain  truth. 

42.  From  me  (is)  the  book  that  comforteth  the  oppressed. 

43.  And  I am  he  who  judged  justly ; 

44.  And  when  I judged  it  was  my  right. 

45.  And  I am  he  who  made  the  springs  to  give  water, 

46.  Sweeter  and  pleasanter  than  all  waters. 

47.  And  I am  he  that  caused  it  to  appear  in  my  mercy, 

48.  And  by  my  power  I called  it  the  pure  (or  the  white). 

49.  And  I am  he  to  whom  the  Lord  of  Heaven  hath  said, 

50.  Thou  art  the  Just  Judge,  and  the  ruler  of  the  earth  (Bat'hai). 

51.  And  I am  he  who  disclosed  some  of  my  wonders. 

52.  And  some  of  my  virtues  are  manifested  in  that  which  exists. 

53.  And  I am  he  who  caused  the  mountains  to  bow, 

* The  Rev.  Mr.  Badger  translates  the  21st  and  22d  verses  differently : — 

“ I am  the  mouth,  the  moisture  of  whose  spittle 
Is  as  honey,  wherewith  I constitute  my  confidants 
referring  to  the  mode  of  initiation  amongst  Mussulman  dervishes,  who  drink  a bowl 
of  milk  into  which  a Sheikh  has  spat. 

+ Or,  “ Mine  are  all  created,  or  existing  things ; 

They  are  my  gifts,  and  for  my  purposes.” 
t “ And  I am  he  that  entereth  the  heart  in  my  zeal, 

And  I shine  through  the  power  of  my  awfulness  and  majesty.” 

Mr.  Badger. 


76 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  IV. 


54.  To  move  under  me,  and  at  my  will. 

55.  And  I am  he  before  whose  awful  majesty  the  wild  beasts  cried ; 

56.  They  turned  to  me  worshipping,  and  kissed  my  feet. 

57.  And  I am  Adi  Es-shami  (or,  of  Damascus),  the  son  of  Moosafir.* 

58.  Verily  the  All-Merciful  has  assigned  unto  me  names, 

59.  The  heavenly  throne,  and  the  seat,  and  the  seven  (heavens)  and  the  earth.4 

60.  In  the  secret  of  my  knowledge  there  is  no  God  but  me. 

61.  These  things  are  subservient  to  my  power. 

62.  And  for  which  state  do  you  deny  my  guidance. i 

63.  Oh  men  ! deny  me  not,  but  submit ; 

64.  In  the  day  of  Judgment  you  will  be  happy  in  meeting  me. 

65.  Who  dies  in  my  love  I will  cast  him 

66.  In  the  midst  of  Paradise  by  my  will  and  pleasure  ; 

67.  But  he  who  dies  unmindful  of  me, 

68.  Will  be  thrown  into  torture  in  misery  and  affliction. § 

69.  I say  that  I am  the  only  one  and  the  exalted  ; 

70.  I create  and  make  rich  those  whom  I will. 

71.  Praise  be  to  myself,  and  all  things  are  by  my  will 

72.  And  the  universe  is  lighted  by  some  of  my  gifts. 

73.  I am  the  King  who  magnifies  himself ; 

74.  And  all  the  riches  of  creation  are  at  my  bidding. 

75.  I have  made  known  unto  you,  O people,  some  of  my  ways, 

76.  Who  desireth  me  must  forsake  the  world. 

77.  And  I can  also  speak  the  true  saying. 

78.  And  the  garden  on  high  is  for  those  who  do  my  pleasure. 

79.  I sought  the  truth,  and  became  a confirming  truth  ; 

80.  And  by  the  like  truth  shall  they  possess  the  highest  place  like  me. 

This  was  the  only  written  work  that  I was  able  to  obtain  from  the  Yez- 
idis  ; their  Cawals  repeated  several  prayers  and  hymns  to  me,  which  were 
purely  laudatory  of  the  Deity,  and  unobjectionable  in  substance.  Numer- 
ous occupations  during  the  remainder  of  my  residence  in  Assyria  prevented 
me  from  prosecuting  my  inquiries  much  further  on  this  subject.  Cawal 
Yusuf  informed  me  that  before  the  great  massacre  of  the  sect  by  the  Bey 
of  Rahwanduz  they  possessed  many  books  which  were  lost  during  the  gen- 
eral panic,  or  destroyed  by  the  Kurds.  He  admitted  that  this  was  only  a 
fragmentary  composition,  and  by  no  means  “ the  Book”  which  contained 
the  theology  and  religious  laws  of  the  Yezidi.  He  even  hinted  that  the 
great  work  did  still  exist,  and  I am  by  no  means  certain  that  there  is  not 
a copy  at  Baasheikhah  or  Baazani.  The  account  given  by  the  Cawal 

* There  is  some  doubt  about  this  passage  ; Mr.  Badger  has  translated  it, 

“ I am  Adi  of  the  mark,  a wanderer.” 

Guided  by  the  spirit  of  the  passage,  I prefer,  however,  Mr.  Rassam’s  version  which 
agrees  with  the  common  tradition  amongst  the  Yezidis,  with  whom  Sheikh  Moosafir 
is  a venerated  personage.  His  mother  was  a woman  of  Busrah.  He  was  never 
married. 

t “ And  my  seat  and  throne  are  the  wide-spread  earth.” — Mr.  Badger. 

t Or,  “ 0 mine  enemies,  why  do  you  deny  me?” 

<)  Or,  “ Shall  be  punished  with  my  contempt  and  rod.” — Mr.  Badger 


CREED  OP  THE  YEZIDIS. 


77 


Chap.  IV.] 

seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  allusion  made  in  the  above  poem  to  the 
“ Book  of  Glad  Tidings,”  and  “ the  Book  that  comforteth  the  oppressed,” 
which  could  scarcely  have  been  inserted  for  any  particular  purpose,  such 
as  to  deceive  their  Mohammedan  neighbours. 

I have  given  in  an  appendix  three  chants  of  the  Yezidis,  which  were 
noted  down  by  M.  Lowy  as  Cawal  Yusuf  played  on  his  flute  when  with 
me  at  Constantinople.*  Two  of  them  were  not  without  originality  and 
melody. 

I will  here  add  a few  notes  concerning  the  Yezidis  and  their  faith  to 
those  contained  in  my  former  work ; they  were  chiefly  obtained  from  Cawal 
Yusuf. 

They  believe  that  Christ  will  come  to  govern  the  world,  but  that  after 
him  Sheikh  Medi  will  appear,  to  whom  will  be  given  special  jurisdiction 
over  those  speaking  the  Kurdish  language,  including  the  Yezidis  (this  is 
evidently  a modern  interpolation  derived  from  Mussulman  sources,  perhaps 
invented  to  conciliate  the  Mohammedans). 

All  who  go  to  heaven  must  first  pass  an  expiatory  period  in  hell,  but  no 
one  will  be  punished  eternally.  Mohammedans  they  exclude  from  all  fu- 
ture life,  but  not  Christians.  (This  may  have  been  said  to  avoid  giving 
offence.) 

The  Yezidis  will  not  receive  converts  to  their  faith  ; circumcision  is  op- 
tional. When  a child  is  born  near  enough  to  the  tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi,  to  be 
taken  there  without  great  inconvenience  or  danger,  it  should  be  baptized  as 
early  as  possible  after  birth.  The  Cawals  in  their  periodical  visitations 
carry  a bottle  or  skin  filled  with  the  holy  water,  to  baptize  those  children 
who  cannot  be  brought  to  the  shrine. 

There  are  forty  days  fast  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  but  they  are  observed 
by  few ; one  person  in  a family  may  fast  for  the  rest.f  They  should  ab- 
stain during  that  period  as  completely  as  the  Chaldeeans  from  animal 
food.  Sheikh  Nasr  fasts  rigidly  for  one  month  in  the  year,  eating  only 
once  in  twenty-four  hours  and  immediately  after  sunset. 

Only  one  wife  is  strictly  lawful,  although  the  chief  takes  more  ; but  con- 
cubines are  not  forbidden.  The  wife  may  be  turned  away  for  great  mis- 
conduct, and  the  husband,  with  the  consent  of  the  Sheikhs,  may  marry 
again  ; but  the  discarded  wife  never  can.  Even  such  divorces  ought  only 
to  be  given  in  cases  of  adultery  ; for  formerly,  when  the  Yezidis  adminis- 
tered their  own  temporal  laws,  the  wife  was  punished  with  death,  and  the 
husband  of  course  was  then  released. 

The  religious,  as  well  as  the  political  head  of  all  the  Yezidis,  wherever 
they  may  reside,  is  Hussein  Bey,  who  is  called  the  Kalifa,  and  he  holds  this 

* The  flute  of  the  Yezidis  consists  of  a reed  blown  at  one  end.  The  tone  is  ex- 
ceedingly sweet  and  mellow,  and  some  of  their  melodies  very  plaintive. 

t This  reminds  me  of  the  Bedouins,  who,  when  they  come  into  a town  in  a party, 
send  one  of  their  number  to  the  mosque  to  pray  for  his  companions  as  well  as  him- 
self. 


78 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IV 


position  by  inheritance.  As  he  is  young  and  inexperienced,  he  deputes  his 
religious  duties  to  Sheikh  Nasr.  He  should  be  the  Peesh- Namaz,  or  lead- 
er of  the  prayers,  during  sacred  ceremonies  ; but  as  a peculiar  dress  is  worn 
on  this  occasion,  and  the  Bey  is  obliged  to  be  in  continual  intercourse  with 
the  Turkish  authorities,  these  robes  might  fall  into  their  hands,  and  they 
are,  therefore,  entrusted  to  Sheikh  Jindi,  who  officiates  for  the  young  chief.* 
Sheikh  Nasr  is  only  the  chief  of  the  Sheikhs  of  the  district  of  Sheikhan. 
The  Cawals  are  all  of  one  family,  and  are  under  the  orders  of  Hussein  Bey, 
who  sends  them  periodically  to  collect  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the 
various  tribes.  The  amount  received  by  them  is  divided  into  two  equal 
parts,  one  of  which  goes  to  the  support  of  the  tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi,  and 
half  of  the  other  to  Hussein  Bey,  the  remainder  being  equally  shared  by 
the  Cawals.  Neither  the  priests  nor  Hussein  Bey  ever  shave  their  beards. 
They  ought  not  to  marry  out  of  their  own  order,  and  though  the  men  do 
not  observe  this  rule  very  strictly,  the  women  are  never  given  in  marriage 
to  one  out  of  the  rank  of  the  priesthood.  Hussein  Bey  ought  to  take  his 
wife  from  the  family  of  Chul  Beg. 

After  death,  the  body  of  a Yezidi,  like  that  of  a Mohammedan,  is  washed 
in  running  water,  and  then  buried  with  the  face  turned  towards  the  north 
star.  A Cawal  should  be  present  at  the  ceremony,  but  if  one  cannot  be 
found,  the  next  who  visits  the  neighbourhood  should  pray  over  the  grave. 
I have  frequently  seen  funeral  parties  of  Yezidis  in  their  villages.  The 
widow  dressed  in  white,  throwing  dust  over  her  head,  which  is  also  well 
smeared  with  clay,  and  accompanied  by  her  female  friends,  will  meet  the 
mourners  dancing,  with  the  sword  or  shield  of  her  husband  in  one  hand 
and  long  locks  cut  from  her  own  hair  in  the  other. 

I have  stated  that  it  is  unlawful  amongst  the  Yezidis  to  know  how  t( 
read  or  write.  This,  I am  assured,  is  not  the  case,  and  their  ignorance 
arises  from  want  of  means  and  proper  teachers.  Formerly  a Chaldsean 
deacon  used  to  instruct  the  children. 

Cawal  Yusuf  mentioned  accidentally,  that,  amongst  the  Yezidis,  the  an- 
cient name  for  God  was  Azed,  and  from  it  he  derived  the  name  of  his  sect. 
He  confirmed  to  me  the  fact  of  the  small  Ziareh  at  Sheikh  Adi  being  dedi- 
cated to  the  sun,  who,  he  says,  is  called  by  the  Yezidis  “ Wakeel  el  Ardth” 
(the  Lieutenant  or  Governor  of  the  world).  They  have  no  particular  rev- 
erence for  fire  ; the  people  pass  their  hands  through  the  flame  of  the  lamps 
at  Sheikh  Adi,  merely  because  they  belong  to  the  tomb.  Their  Kublah, 
he  declared,  was  the  polar  star  and  not  the  east. 

On  my  way  to  Mosul  from  Sheikh  Adi,  I visited  the  ruins  of  Jerraiyah, 
where  excavations  had  been  again  carried  on  by  one  of  my  agents.  No 
ancient  buildings  were  discovered.  The  principal  mound  is  lofty  and  con- 
ical in  shape,  and  the  base  is  surrounded  by  smaller  mounds,  and  irregular- 

* Ali  Bey,  Hussein’s  father,  was  initiated  in  the  performance  of  all  the  ceremonies 
of  the  faith. 


JERRAIYAH. 


79 


Chap.  IV.] 

ities  in  the  soil  which  denote  the  remains  of  houses.  I had  not  leisure 
during  my  residence  in  Assyria  to  examine  the  spot  as  fully  as  it  may  de- 
serve. 


Yezidi  Cawals. 


Mound  of  Nimroud. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

RENEWAL  OF  EXCAVATIONS  AT  KOUYUNJIK. FIRST  VISIT  TO  NIMROUD. STATE  OF  RUINS 

RENEW  EXCAVATIONS  IN  MOUND. THE  ABOU  SALMAN  ARABS. VISIT  OF  COLONEL 

RAWLINSON. LATIFF  AGHA. MR.  H.  RASSAM. THE  JEBOUR  WORKMEN  AT  KOUYUNJIK 

DISCOVERIES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. SCULPTURES  REPRESENTING  MOVING  OF  GREAT  STONES 

AND  WINGED  BULLS. METHODS  ADOPTED. SIMILAR  SUBJECT  ON  EGYPTIAN  MONU- 
MENT.  EPIGRAPHS  ON  BAS-RELIEFS  OF  MOVING  BULLS. SCULPTURES  REPRESENTING 

INVASION  OF  MOUNTAINOUS  COUNTRY,  AND  SACK  OF  CITY. DISCOVERY  OF  GATEWAY. 

EXCAVATION  IN  HIGH  CONICAL  MOUND  AT  NIMROUD. DISCOVERY  OF  WALL  OF  STONE. 

FEAST  TO  THE  YEZIDIS  AT  MOSUL. VISIT  TO  KHORSABAD. DISCOVERY  OF  SLAB. 

STATE  OF  THE  RUINS. FUTHLIYAH. BAAZANI. BAASHEIKHAH. 

We  were  again  in  Mosul  by  the  12th  of  October.  The  Jebours,  my  old 
Workmen,  had  now  brought  their  families  to  the  town.  I directed  them  to 
cross  the  river,  and  to  pitch  their  tents  over  the  excavations  at  Kouyunjik, 
as  they  had  formerly  done  around  the  trenches  at  Nimroud.  The  Bedou- 
ins, unchecked  in  their  forays  by  the  Turkish  authorities,  had  become  so 
bold,  that  they  ventured  to  the  very  walls  of  Mosul,  and  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Tigris  had  plundered  the  cattle  belonging  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  village  of  the  tomb  of  Jonah.  On  one  occasion  I saw  an  Arab  horse- 
man of  the  desert  dart  into  the  high  road,  seize  a mule,  and  drive  it  off 
from  amidst  a crowd  of  spectators.  This  state  of  things  made  it  necessary 
to  have  a strong  party  on  the  ruins  for  self-defence.  The  Jebours  were, 
however,  on  good  terms  with  the  Bedouins,  and  had  lately  encamped 
amongst  them.  Indeed,  it  was  suspected,  that  whilst  Abd-rubbou  and  his 
tribe  were  more  than  usually  submissive  in  their  dealings  with  the  local 
government,  they  were  the  receivers  of  goods  carried  off  by  their  friends, 
their  intercourse  with  the  town  enabling  them  to  dispose  of  such  property 
to  the  best  advantage  in  the  market-place. 

About  one  hundred  workmen,  divided  into  twelve  or  fourteen  parties, 
were  employed  at  Kouyunjik.  The  Arabs,  as  before,  removed  the  earth 
and  rubbish,  whilst  the  more  difficult  labor  with  the  pick  was  left  entire- 
ly to  the  Nestorian  mountaineers.  My  old  friend,  Yakoub,  the  Rais  of 
Asheetha,  made  his  appearance  one  morning,  declaring  that  things  were 


Chap.  V.] 


RETURN  TO  NIMROUD 


81 


going  on  ill  in  the  mountains  ; and  that,  although  the  head  of  a village,  he 
hoped  to  spend  the  winter  more  profitably  and  more  pleasantly  in  my 
service.  He  was  accordingly  named  superintendent  of  the  Tiyari  work- 
men, for  whom  I built  mud  huts  near  the  foot  of  the  mound. 

The  work  having  been  thus  began  at  Kouyunjik,  I rode  with  Hormuzd 
to  Nimroud  for  the  first  time  on  the  18th  of  October.  It  seemed  but  yes- 
terday that  we  had  followed  the  same  track.  We  stopped  at  each  village, 
and  found  in  each  old  acquaintances  ready  to  welcome  us.  From  the  crest 
of  the  hill  half  way,  the  first  view  of  Nimroud  opened  upon  us  ; the  old 
mound,  on  which  I had  gazed  so  often  from  this  spot,  and  with  which  so 
many  happy  recollections  were  bound  up,  rising  boldly  above  the  Jaif,  the 
river  winding  through  the  plain,  the  distant  wreaths  of  smoke  marking  the 
villages  of  Naifa  and  Nimroud.  At  Selamiyah  we  sought  the  house  of  the 
Kiayah,  where  I had  passed  the  first  winter  whilst  excavating  at  Nim- 
roud ; but  it  was  now  a house  of  mourning.  The  good  old  man  had  died 
two  days  before,  and  the  wails  of  the  women,  telling  of  a death  within, 
met  our  ears  as  we  approached  the  hovel.  Turning  from  the  scene  of  woe, 
we  galloped  over  the  plain,  and  reached  Nimroud  as  the  sun  went  down. 
Saleh  Shahir,  with  the  elders  of  the  village,  was  there  to  receive  us.  I 
dismounted  at  my  old  house,  which  was  still  standing,  though  somewhat 
in  ruins,  for  it  had  been  the  habitation  of  the  Kiayah  during  my  absence. 
Toma  Shishman  had,  however,  been  sent  down  the  day  before,  and  had 
made  such  preparations  for  our  reception  as  the  state  of  the  place  would 
permit.  To  avoid  the  vermin  swarming  in  the  rooms,  my  tent  was  pitched 
in  the  courtyard,  and  I dwelt  entirely  in  it. 

The  village  had  still,  comparatively  speaking,  a flourishing  appearance, 
and  had  not  diminished  in  size  since  my  last  visit.  The  tanzimat , or  re- 
formed system  of  local  administration,  had  been  introduced  into  the  pashalic 
of  Mosul,  and  although  many  of  its  regulations  were  evaded,  and  arbitrary 
acts  were  still  occasionally  committed,  yet  on  the  whole  a marked  improve- 
ment had  taken  place  in  the  dealings  of  the  authorities  with  the  subjects 
of  the  Sultan.  The  great  cause  of  complaint  was  the  want  of  security. 
The  troops  under  the  command  of  the  Pasha  were  not  sufficient  in  number 
to  keep  the  Bedouins  in  check,  and  there  was  scarcely  a village  in  the  low 
country  which  had  not  suffered  more  or  less  from  their  depredations.  Nim- 
roud was  particularly  exposed  to  their  incursions,  and  the  inhabitants  lived 
in  continual  agitation  and  alarm. 

The  evening  was  spent  with  the  principal  people  of  the  village,  talking 
with  them  of  their  prospects,  taxes,  harvests,  and  the  military  conscription, 
now  the  great  theme  of  discontent  in  Southern  Turkey,  where  it  had  been 
newly  introduced. 

By  sunrise  I was  amongst  the  ruins.  The  mound  had  undergone  no 
change.  There  it  rose  from  the  plain,  the  same  sun-burnt  yellow  heap  that 
it  had  stood  for  twenty  centuries.  The  earth  and  rubbish,  which  had  been 
heaped  over  the  excavated  chambers  and  sculptured  slabs,  had  settled,  and 

F 


S2 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


had  left  uncovered  in  sinking  the  upper  part  of  several  bas-reliefs.  A few 
colossal  heads  of  winged  figures  rose  calmly  above  the  level  of  the  soil,  and 
with  two  pairs  of  winged  bulls,  which  had  not  been  reburied  on  account  of 
their  mutilated  condition,  was  all  that  remained  above  ground  of  the  north- 
west palace,  that  great  storehouse  of  Assyrian  history  and  art.  Since  my 
departure  the  surface  of  the  mound  had  again  been  furrowed  by  the  plough, 
and  ample  crops  had  this  year  rewarded  the  labors  of  the  husbandman. 
The  ruins  of  the  south-west  palace  were  still  uncovered.  The  Arabs  had 
respected  the  few  bas-reliefs  which  stood  against  the  crumbling  walls,  and 
Saleh  Shaliir  pointed  to  them  as  a proof  of  the  watchfulness  of  his  people 
during  my  long  absence. 

Collecting  together  my  old  excavators  from  the  Shemutti  and  Jehesh 
(the  Arab  tribes  who  inhabit  Nimroud  and  Naifa),  and  from  the  tents  of 
a few  Jebours  who  still  lingered  round  the  village  to  glean  a scanty  sub- 
sistence after  the  harvest,  I placed  workmen  in  different  parts  of  the  mound 
The  north-west  palace  had  not  been  fully  explored.  Most  of  the  chambers 
which  did  not  contain  sculptured  slabs,  but  were  simply  built  of  sundried 
bricks,  had  been  left  unopened.  I consequently  directed  a party  of  workmen 
to  resume  the  excavations  where  they  had  been  formerly  abandoned.* 
New  trenches  were  also  opened  in  the  ruins  of  the  centre  palace,  where,  as 
yet,  no  sculptures  had  been  discovered  in  their  original  position  against  the 
walls.  The  high  conical  mound  forming  the  north-west  corner  of  Nim- 
roud,  the  pyramid  as  it  has  usually  been  called,  had  always  been  an  object 
of  peculiar  interest,  which  want  of  means  had  hitherto  prevented  me  fully 
examining.  With  the  exception  of  a shaft,  about  forty  feet  deep,  sunk 
nearly  in  the  centre,  and  passing  through  a solid  mass  of  sundried  bricks, 
no  other  opening  had  been  made  into  this  singular  ruin.  I now  ordered  a 
tunnel  to  be  carried  into  its  base  on  the  western  face,  and  on  a level  with 
the  conglomerate  rock  upon  which  it  rested. 

Whilst  riding  among  the  ruins  giving  directions  to  the  workmen,  we  had 
not  escaped  the  watchful  eyes  of  the  Abou-Salman  Arabs,  whose  tents  were 
scattered  over  the  Jaif.  Not  having  heard  of  my  visit,  and  perceiving 
horsemen  wandering  over  the  mound,  they  took  us  for  Bedouin  marauders, 
and  mounting  their  ever-ready  mares,  sallied  forth  to  reconnoitre.  Seeing 
Arabs  galloping  over  the  plain  I rode  down  to  meet  them,  and  soon  found 
myself  in  the  embrace  of  Schloss,  the  nephew  of  Sheikh  A1  L-ur-Rahman. 
We  turned  together  to  the  tent  of  the  chief,  still  pitched  on  the  old  en- 
camping ground.  The  men,  instead  of  fighting  with  Bede  ins,  now  gath- 
ered round  us  in  the  muzeef, f and  a sheep  was  slain  to  ci-'ebrate  my  re- 
turn. The  Sheikh  himself  was  absent,  having  been  thrown  into  prison  by 
the  Pasha  for  refusing  to  pay  some  newly-imposed  taxes.  I was  able  to 
announce  his  release,  at  my  intercession,  to  his  wife,  who  received  me  as  his 
guest.  The  Sheikh  of  the  Haddedeen  Arabs,  hearing  that  I was  at  the 

* To  the  south  of  Chamber  X.  Plan  III.  “ Nineveh  and  its  Remains,”  vol.  i.  p.  62 

t The  muzeef  is  that  part  of  an  Arab  tent  in  which  guests  are  received. 


AN  UNEXPECTED  MEETING. 


83 


Chap.  V.] 

Ahou-Salman  camp,  rode  over  with  his  people  to  see  me.  His  tents  stood 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  and  he  had  united  with  Abd-ur-Rahman  for 
mutual  defence  against  the  Bedouins. 

As  we  returned  to  Nimroud  in  the  evening,  we  stopped  at  a small  en- 
campment in  the  Jaif,  and  buried  beneath  a heap  of  old  felts  and  sacks 
found  poor  Khalaf-el-Hussein,  who  had,  in  former  times,  been  the  active 
and  hospitable  Sheikh  of  my  Jebour  workmen  at  the  mound.  The  world 
had  since  gone  ill  with  him.  Struck  down  by  fever,  he  had  been  unable 
to  support  himself  and  his  family  by  labor,  or  other  means  open  to  an  Arab. 
He  was  in  great  poverty,  and  still  helpless  from  disease.  He  rose  up  as 
we  rode  to  his  tent,  and  not  having  heard  of  our  arrival  was  struck  with 
astonishment  and  delight  as  he  saw  Hormuzd  and  myself  as  its  entrance. 
We  gave  him  such  help  as  was  in  our  power,  and  he  declared  that  the 
prospect  of  again  being  in  my  service  would  soon  prove  the  best  remedy  for 
his  disease. 

As  I ascended  the  mound  next  morning  I perceived  a group  of  travellers 
on  its  summit,  their  horses  picketted  in  the  stubble.  Ere  I could  learn 
what  strangers  had  thus  wandered  to  this  remote  region,  my  hand  was 
seized  by  the  faithful  Bairakdar.  Beneath,  in  an  excavated  chamber, 
wrapped  in  his  travelling  cloak,  was  Rawlinson  deep  in  sleep,  wearied  by 
a long  and  harassing  night’s  ride.  For  the  first  time  we  met  in  the  As- 
syrian ruins,  and  besides  the  greetings  of  old  friendship  there  was  much  to 
be  seen  together,  and  much  to  be  talked  over.  The  fatigues  of  the  jour- 
ney had,  however,  brought  on  fever,  and  we  were  soon  compelled,  after 
visiting  the  principal  excavations,  to  take  refuge  from  the  heat  of  the  sun 
in  the  mud  huts  of  the  village.  The  attack  increasing  in  the  evening,  it 
was  deemed  prudent  to  ride  into  Mosul  at  once,  and  we  mounted  our  horses 
in  the  middle  of  the  night. 

During  two  days  Col.  Rawlinson  was  too  ill  to  visit  the  excavations  at 
Kouyunjik.  On  the  third  we  rode  together  to  the  mound.  After  a hasty 
survey  of  the  ruins  we  parted,  and  he  continued  his  journey  to  Constanti- 
nople and  to  England,  to  reap  the  laurels  of  a well-earned  fame.* 

I had  now  nearly  ^11  my  old  adherents  and  workmen  about  me;  The 
Bairakdar,  who  had  hastened  to  join  me  as  soon  as  he  had  heard  of  my  re- 
turn, was  named  principal  cawass,  and  had  the  general  management  of 
my  household.  One  LatifF  Agha,  like  the  Bairakdar,  a native  of  Scio,  car- 
ried off  as  a slave  after  the  massacre,  and  brought  up  in  the  Mussulman 
creed,  was  appointed  an  overseer  over  the  workmen.  He  had  been  strongly 

* Shortly  after  Col.  Rawlinson’s  departure,  Capt.  Newbold,  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany’s service,  spent  a few  days  with  me  at  Mosul.  Although,  alas  ! I can  no  longer 
recall  to  his  recollection  the  happy  hours  we  passed  together,  let  me  pay  a sincere 
tribute  to  the  memory  of  one  who,  in  spite  of  hopeless  disease,  and  sufferings  of  no 
common  kind,  maintained  an  almost  unrivalled  sweetness  of  disposition,  and  never 
relaxed  from  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  and  the  love  of  science.  Those  who  enjoyed 
tiis  intimacy,  and  profited  by  his  learning,  will  know  that  this  testimony  to  his  worth 
is  not  the  exaggerated  praise  of  partial  friendship. 


84 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


recommended  to  me  by  the  British  consul  at  Kaiseriyah,  and  fully  justified 
in  my  service  by  his  honesty  and  fidelity  the  good  report  I had  received  of 
him. 

My  readers  would  be  wearied  were  I to  relate,  day  by  day,  the  progress 
of  the  excavations,  and  to  record,  as  they  were  gradually  made,  the  discov- 
eries in  the  various  ruins.  It  will  give  a more  complete  idea  of  the  results 
of  the  researches  to  describe  the  sculptured  walls  of  a whole  chamber  when 
entirely  explored,  instead  of  noting,  one  by  one,  as  dug  out,  bas-reliefs 
which  form  but  part  of  the  same  subject.  I will,  therefore,  merely  men- 
tion that,  during  the  months  of  October  and  November,  my  time  was  spent 
between  Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud,  and  that  the  excavations  were  carried  on 
at  both  places  without  interruption.  Mr.  Cooper  was  occupied  in  drawing 
the  bas-reliefs  discovered  at  Kouyunjik,  living  in  Mosul,  and  riding  over 
daily  to  the  ruins.  To  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  who  usually  accompanied  me 
in  my  journeys,  were  confided,  as  before,  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
operations,  the  payment  of  the  workmen,  the  settlement  of  disputes,  and 
various  other  offices,  which  only  one,  as  well  acquainted  as  himself  with 
the  Arabs  and  men  of  various  sects  employed  in  the  works,  and  exercising 
so  much  personal  influence  amongst  them,  could  undertake.  To  his  un- 
wearied exertions,  and  his  faithful  and  punctual  discharge  of  all  the  du- 
ties imposed  upon  him,  to  his  inexhaustible  good  humour,  combined  with 
necessary  firmness,  to  his  complete  knowledge  of  the  Arab  character,  and 
the  attachment  with  which  even  the  wildest  of  those  with  whom  we  were 
brought  in  contact  regarded  him,  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  owe 
not  only  much  of  the  success  of  these  researches,  but  the  economy  with 
which  I was  enabled  to  carry  them  through.  Without  him  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  accomplish  half  what  has  been  done  with  the  means 
placed  at  my  disposal. 

The  Arab  workmen,  as  I have  already  observed,  lived  in  tents  amongst 
the  ruins.  The  overseers  of  the  works  of  Kouyunjik  resided  either  in  the 
village  near  the  foot  of  the  mound,  or  in  Mosul,  and  crossed  the  river  every 
morning  before  the  labors  of  the  day  began.  The  workmen  were  divided 
into  several  classes,  and  their  wages  varied  according  to  their  respective 
occupations,  as  well  as  according  to  the  time  of  year.  They  were  gener- 
ally paid  weekly  by  Hormuzd.  The  diggers,  who  were  exposed  to  very  se- 
vere labor,  and  even  to  considerable  risk,  received  from  two  piastres  and  a 
half  to  three  piastres  (from  5d.  to  6d.)  a-day  ; those  who  filled  the  baskets 
from  two  piastres  to  two  and  a half ; and  the  general  workmen  from  one 
and  a half  to  two  piastres.  The  earth,  when  removed,  was  sifted  by  boys, 
who  earned  about  one  piastre  for  their  day’s  labor.  These  wages  may  ap- 
pear low,  but  they  are  amply  sufficient  for  the  support  of  a family  in  a 
country  where  the  camel-load  of  wheat  (nearly  480  lbs.)  is  sold  for  about 
four  shillings,  and  where  no  other  protection  from  the  inclemencies  of  the 
weather  is  needed  than  a linen  shirt  and  the  black  folds  of  an  Arab  tent.* 

* At  Mosul,  a bullock,  very  small  certainly  when  compared  with  our  high-fed  cat- 


CHAMBERS  DESCRIBED. 


85 


Chap.  V.] 

The  Kouyunjik  workmen  were  usually  paid  in  the  subterraneous  galle- 
ries. some  convenient  space  where  several  passages  met  being  chosen  for 
the  purpose  ; those  of  Nimroud  generally  in  the  village.  A scene  of  wild 
confusion  ensued  on  these  occasions,  from  which  an  inexperienced  observer 
might  argue  a sad  want  of  order  and  method.  This  was,  however,  but 
the  way  of  doing  business  usual  in  the  country.  When  there  was  a dif- 
ference of  opinion,  he  who  cried  the  loudest  gained  the  day,  and  after  a 
desperate  struggle  of  voices  matters  relapsed  into  their  usual  state,  every 
one  being  perfectly  satisfied.  Screaming  and  gesticulation  with  Easterns 
by  no  means  signify  ill  will,  or  even  serious  disagreement.  Without  them, 
except  of  course  amongst  the  Turks,  who  are  staid  and  dignified  to  a prov- 
erb, the  most  ordinary  transactions  cannot  be  carried  on,  and  they  are  fre- 
quently rather  symptoms  of  friendship  than  of  hostility.  Sometimes  the 
Arabs  employed  at  Kouyunjik  would  cross  the  river  to  Mosul  to  receive 
their  pay.  They  would  then  walk  through  the  town  in  martial  array, 
brandishing  their  weapons  and  chanting  their  war  cries  in  chorus,  to  the 
alarm  of  the  authorities  and  the  inhabitants,  who  generally  concluded  that 
the  place  had  been  invaded  by  the  Bedouins.  It  was  Mr.  Hormuzd  Ras- 
sam’s  task  to  keep  in  check  these  wild  spirits. 

By  the  end  of  November  several  entire  chambers  had  been  excavated 
at  Kouyunjik,  and  many  bas-reliefs  of  great  interest  had  been  discovered. 
The  four  sides  of  the  hall,  part  of  which  has  already  been  described,*  had 
now  been  explored,  f In  the  centre  of  each  side  was  a grand  entrance, 
guarded  by  colossal  human-headed  bulls.  $ This  magnificent  hall  was  no 
less  than  124  feet  in  length  by  90  feet  in  breadth,  the  longest  sides  being  those 
to  the  north  and  south.  It  appears  to  have  formed  a centre,  around  which 
the  principal  chambers  in  this  part  of  the  palace  were  grouped.  Its  walls 
had  been  completely  covered  with  the  most  elaborate  and  highly-finished 
sculptures.  Unfortunately  all  the  bas-reliefs,  as  well  as  the  gigantic  mon- 
sters at  the  entrances,  had  suffered  more  or  less  from  the  fire  which  had 
destroyed  the  edifice  ; but  enough  of  them  still  remained  to  show  the  sub- 
ject, and  even  to  enable  me  in  many  places  to  restore  it  entirely. 

The  narrow  passage  leading  from  the  great  hall  at  the  southwest  corner 

tie,  is  sold  for  forty  or  fifty  piastres  (85.  or  10s.) ; a fat  sheep  for  about  4s. ; a lamb 
for  2s.  or  2s.  6 d.  Other  articles  of  food  are  proportionally  cheap.  The  camel-load 
of  barley  was  selling  at  my  departure  for  ten  or  twelve  piastres  (2s.  or  2s.  6 d.).  A 
common  horse  is  worth  from  SI.  to  51. ; a donkey  about  10s. ; a camel  about  the  same 
as  a horse. 

* See  p.  59. 

t It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  was  necessary  to  carry  tunnels  round  the  cham- 
bers, and  along  the  walls,  leaving  the  centre  buried  in  earth  and  rubbish,  a very  la- 
borious and  tedious  operation  with  no  more  means  at  command  than  those  afforded 
by  the  country. 

t All  these  entrances  were  formed  in  the  same  way  as  that  in  the  south-eastern 
side,  described  p.  60,  namely,  by  a pair  of  human-headed  bulls,  flanked  on  each  side 
bv  a winged  giant,  and  two  smaller  figures  one  above  the  other. 


S6 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  V 


had  been  completely  explored.  Its  sculptures  have  already  been  described.* 
It  opened  into  a chamber  24  feet  by  19,  from  which  branched  two  other 
passages. t The  one  to  the  west  was  entered  by  a wide  doorway,  in  wrhich 
stood  two  plain  spherical  stones  about  three  feet  high,  having  the  appear- 
ance of  the  bases  of  columns,  although  no  traces  of  any  such  architectural 
ornament  could  be  found.  This  was  the  entrance  into  a broad  and  spa- 
cious gallery,  about  218  feet  long  and  25  wide.:}:  A tunnel  at  its  western 

end,  cut  through  the  solid  wall,  as  there  was  no  doorway  on  this  side  of 
the  gallery,  led  into  the  chambers  excavated  by  Mr.  Hoss,$  thus  connect- 
ing them  with  the  rest  of  the  building.  Opposite  this  tunnel  the  gallery 
turned  to  the  right,  but  was  not  explored  until  long  after.  From  this  part 
of  the  excavations  an  inclined  way,  dug  from  the  surface  of  the  mound, 
was  used  by  the  Arabs  in  descending  to  the  subterraneous  works. 

I have  already  described  the  bas-reliefs  representing  the  conquest  of  a 
mountainous  country  on  the  southern  side  of  the  great  hall.  ||  The  same 
subject  was  continued  on  the  western  wall,  without  much  variety  in  the 
details.  But  on  the  northern,  the  sculptures  differed  from  any  others  yet 
discovered,  and  from  their  interest  and  novelty  merit  a particular  notice. 
They  were  in  some  cases  nearly  entire,  though  much  cracked  and  calcined 
by  fire,  and  represented  the  process  of  transporting  the  great  human-headed 
bulls  to  the  palaces  of  which  they  formed  so  remarkable  a feature.  But 
before  giving  a particular  description  of  them,  I must  return  to  the  long 
gallery  to  the  west  of  the  great  hall,^T  as  the  sculptures  still  preserved  in 
it  form  part  of  and  complete  this  important  series. 

The  slabs  on  one  side  of  this  gallery  had  been  entirely  destroyed,  except 
at  the  eastern  end  ; and  from  the  few  which  still  remained,  every  trace  of 
sculpture  had  been  carefully  removed  by  some  sharp  instrument.  Along 
the  opposite  wall  (that  to  the  right  on  leaving  the  great  hall)  only  eight 
bas-reliefs  still  stood  in  therr  original  position,  and  even  of  these  only  the 
lower  part  was.  preserved.  Detached  fragments  of  others  were  found  in 
the  rubbish,  and  from  them  I ascertained  that  the  whole  gallery  had  been 
occupied  by  one  continuous  series,  representing  the  different  processes  adopt- 
ed by  the  Assyrians  in  moving  and  placing  various  objects  used  in  their 
buildings,  and  especially  the  human-headed  bulls,  from  the  first  transport 
of  the  huge  stone  in  the  rough  from  the  quarry,  to  the  raising  of  these  gi- 
gantic sculptures  in  the  gateways  of  the  palace-temples.  On  these  frag- 
ments were  seen  the  king  in  his  chariot,  superintending  the  operations,  and 
workmen  carrying  cables,  or  dragging  carts  loaded  with  coils  of  ropes,  and 
various  implements  for  moving  the  colossi.  Enough,  however,  did  not  re- 
main to  restore  any  one  series  of  bas-reliefs,  but  fortunately,  on  the  slabs 

* P.  61.  t Nos.  XLVIII.  and  XLII.  Plan  I. 

% No.  XLIX.  same  Plan.  $ Nos.  LI.  and  LII.  same  Plan. 

II  P.  59.  I assume  the  building  to  be  due  north  and  south,  although  it  is  not  so. 
It  faces  nearly  north-east  and  south-west. 

«T  No.  XLIX.  Plan  I. 


MOVING  THE  BULLS. 


87 


Chap.  V.] 

still  standing,  was  represented  the  first  process,  that  of  bringing  the  stone 
from  the  quarry,  whilst  those  on  the  northern  walls  of  the  great  hall  fur- 
nished many  of  the  subjects  which  were  here  wanting.  Amongst  the  scat- 
tered fragments  was  the  figure  of  a lion-headed  man  raising  a sword,* 
which  does  not  appear  to  have  belonged  to  this  gallery,  unless  it  had  been 
used  to  break  the  monotony  of  one  long  line  of  elaborate  bas-reliefs  repre- 
senting nearly  the  same  subject.  Similar  figures  only  occur  at  entrances 
in  the  ruins  of  Kouyunjik. 

I will  commence,  then,  by  a description  of  the  sculptures  still  standing 
in  their  original  position  in  the  gallery.  A huge  block  of  stone  (probably 
of  the  alabaster  used  in  the  Assyrian  edifices),  somewhat  elongated  in  form 
so  as  to  resemble  an  obelisk  in  the  rough, t is  lying  on  a low  flat-bottomed 
boat  floating  on  a river.  It  has  probably  been  towed  down  the  Tigris  from 
some  quarry,  and  is  to  be  landed  near  the  site  of  the  intended  palace,  to  be 
carved  by  the  sculptor  into  the  form  of  a colossal  bull.  It  exceeds  the  boat 
considerably  in  length,  projecting  beyond  both  the  head  and  stern,  and  is 
held  by  upright  beams  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  kept  firm  in 
their  places  by  wooden  wedges.  Two  cables  are  passed  through  holes  cut 
in  the  stone  itself,  and  a third  is  tied  to  a strong  pin  projecting  from  the 
head  of  the  boat.  Each  cable  is  held  by  a large  body  of  men,  who  pull 
by  means  of  small  ropes  fastened  to  it  and  passed  round  their  shoulders. 
Some  of  these  trackers  walk  in  the  water,  others  on  dry  land.  The  num- 
ber altogether  represented  must  have  been  nearly  300,  about  100  to  each 
cable,  and  they  appear  to  be  divided  into  distinct  bands,  each  distin- 
guished by  a peculiar  costume.  Some  wear  a kind  of  embroidered  turban, 

through  which  their  long  hair  is  gath- 
ered behind  ; the  heads  of  others  are 
encircled  by  a fringed  shawl,  whose 
ends  hang  over  the  ears  and  neck, 
leaving  the  hair  to  fall  in  long  curls 
upon  the  shoulders.  Many  are  repre- 
sented naked,  but  the  greater  number 

Head-dress  of  Captives  employed  by  Assyrians  3Te  dressed  in  short  chequered  tuniCS, 
in  moving  Bali  (Kouyunjik).  with  a long  fringe  attached  to  the  gir- 

dle. They  are  urged  on  by  taskmasters  armed  with  swords  and  staves. 
The  boat  is  also  pushed  by  men  wading  through  the  stream.  An  overseer, 
who  regulates  the  whole  proceedings,  is  seated  astride  on  the  fore-part  of 
the  stone.  His  hands  are  stretched  out  in  the  act  of  giving  commands. 
The  upper  part  of  all  the  bas-reliefs  having  unfortunately  been  destroyed, 

* This  sculpture  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  engraving  on  the  following 
page,  from  a sketch  by  the  able  pencil  of  the  Rev.  S.  C.  Malan,  will  show  in  what 
state  these  fragments  were  discovered. 

t It  is  just  possible  that  this  object  may  really  represent  an  obelisk,  similar  to  that 
brought,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (lib.  ii.  c.  1.),  by  Semiramis,  from  Armenia  to 
Babylon  ; but  I think  it  far  more  probable,  for  several  reasons,  that  it  is  a block  in  the 
rough  from  the  quarry,  to  be  sculptured  into  the  form  of  a winged  bull. 


MOVING  THE  BULLS. 


89 


Chap.  V.] 

it  cannot  be  ascertained  what  figures  were  represented  above  the  trackers  ; 
probably  Assyrian  warriors  drawn  up  in  martial  array,  or  may  be  the  king 
himself  in  his  chariot,  accompanied  by  his  body-guard,  and  presiding  over 
the  operations.* 

The  huge  stone  having  been  landed,  and  carved  by  the  Assyrian  sculp- 
torin  to  the  form  of  a colossal  human-headed  bull,  is  to  be  moved  from  the 
bank  of  the  river  to  the  site  it  is  meant  to  occupy  permanently  in  the  pal- 
ace-temple. This  process  is  represented  on  the  walls  of  the  great  hall. 
From  these  bas-reliefs,  as  well  as  from  discoveries  to  be  hereafter  mention- 
ed, it  is  therefore  evident  that  the  Assyrians  sculptured  their  gigantic  figures 
before,  and  not  after,  the  slabs  had  been  raised  in  the  edifice,  although  all 
the  details  and  the  finishing  touches  were  not  put  in,  as  it  will  be  seen, 
until  they  had  been  finally  placed. f I am  still,  however,  of  opinion,  that 
the  smaller  bas-reliefs  were  entirely  executed  after  the  slabs  had  been  at- 
tached to  the  walls. 

In  the  first  bas-relief  I shall  describe,  the  colossal  bull  rests  horizontally 
on  a sledge  similar  in  form  to  the  boat  containing  the  rough  block  from  the 
quarry,  but  either  in  the  carving  the  stone  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  size, 
or  the  sledge  is  much  larger  than  the  boat,  as  it  considerably  exceeds  the 
sculpture  in  length.  The  bull  faces  the  spectator,  and  the  human  head 
rests  on  the  fore  part  of  the  sledge,  which  is  curved  upwards  and  strength- 
ened by  a thick  beam,  apparently  running  completely  through  from  side  to 
side.  The  upper  part,  or  deck,  is  otherwise  nearly  horizontal ; the  under, 
or  keel,  being  slightly  curved  throughout.  Props,  probably  of  wood,  are 
placed  under  different  parts  of  the  sculpture  to  secure  an  equal  pressure. 
The  sledge  was  dragged  by  cables,  and  impelled  by  levers.  The  cables  are 
four  in  number  ; two  fastened  to  strong  projecting  pins  in  front,  and  two  to 
similar  pins  behind.  They  are  pulled  by  small  ropes  passing  over  the 
shoulders  of  the  men,  as  in  the  bas-reliefs  already  described.  The  numbers 
of  the  workmen  may  of  course  be  only  conventional,  the  sculptor  introduc- 
ing as  many  as  he  found  room  for  on  the  slab.  They  are  again  distinguished 
by  various  costumes,  being  probably  captives  from  different  conquered  na- 
tions, and  are  urged  on  by  task-masters.  The  sculpture  moves  over  rollers, 
which,  as  soon  as  left  behind  by  the  advancing  sledge,  are  brought  again 
to  the  front  by  parties  of  men,  who  are  also  under  the  control  of  overseers 
armed  with  staves.  Although  these  rollers  materially  facilitated  the  mo- 
tion, it  would  be  almost  impossible,  when  passing  over  rough  ground,  or  if 
the  rollers  were  jammed,  to  give  the  first  impetus  to  so  heavy  a body  by 
mere  force  applied  to  the  cables.  The  Assyrians,  therefore,  lifted,  and  con- 
sequently eased,  the  hinder  part  of  the  sledge  with  huge  levers  of  wood,  and 
in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  fulcrum  they  carried  with  them  during  the 

* For  the  details  of  these  interesting  bas-reliefs,  I must  refer  my  readers  to  Plates 
10  and  11.  in  the  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

t In  my  former  work  (vol.  ii.  p.  255.)  I had  stated  that  all  the  Assyrian  sculptures 
were  carved  in  their  places  against  the  walls  of  the  buildings. 


90 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


operations  wedges  of  different  sizes.  Kneeling  workmen  are  represented  in 
the  bas-reliefs  inserting  an  additional  wedge  to  raise  the  fulcrum.  The 
lever  itself  was  worked  by  ropes,  and  on  a detached  fragment,  discovered  in 
the  long  gallery,  men  were  seen  seated  astride  upon  it  to  add  by  their  weight 
to  the  force  applied. 

On  the  hull  itself  are  four  persons,  probably  the  superintending  officers. 
The  first  is  kneeling,  and  appears  to  he  clapping  his  hands,  probably  heat- 
ing time,  to  regulate  the  motions  of  the  workmen,  who  unless  they  applied 
their  strength  at  one  and  the  same  moment  would  he  unable  to  move  so 
large  a weight.  Behind  him  stands  a second  officer  with  outstretched  arm. 
evidently  giving  the  word  of  command.  The  next  holds  to  his  mouth, 
either  a speaking-trumpet,  or  an  instrument  of  music.  If  the  former,  it 
proves  that  the  Assyrians  were  acquainted  with  a means  of  conveying 
sound,  presumed  to  he  of  modern  invention.  In  form  it  undoubtedly  resem- 
bles the  modern  speaking-trumpet,  and  in  no  bas-relief  hitherto  discovered 
does  a similar  object  occur  as  an  instrument  of  music.  The  fourth  officer, 
also  standing,  carries  a mace,  and  is  probably  stationed  behind  to  give  di- 
rections to  those  who  work  the  levers.  The  sledge  bearing  the  sculpture 
is  followed  by  men  with  coils  of  ropes  and  various  implements,  and  draw- 
ing carts  laden  with  cables  and  beams.  Even  the  landscape  is  not  neg- 
lected; and  the  country  in  which  these  operations  took  place  is  indicated 
by  trees,  and  by  a river.  In  this  stream  are  seen  men  swimming  on  skins  ; 
and  boats  and  rafts,  resembling  those  still  in  use  in  Assyria,  are  impelled 
by  oars  with  wedge-shaped  blades. 

A subject  similar  to  that  just  described  is  represented  in  another  series 
of  bas-reliefs,  with  even  fuller  details.  The  bull  is  placed  in  the  same  man- 
ner on  the  sledge,  which  is  also  moved  by  cables  and  levers.  It  is  accom- 
panied by  workmen  with  saws,  hatchets,  pick-axes,  shovels,  ropes,  and  props, 
and  by  carts  carrying  cables  and  beams.  Upon  it  are  three  officers  direct- 
ing the  operations,  one  holding  the  trumpet  in  his  hands,  and  in  front  walk 
four  other  overseers.  Above  the  sledge  and  the  workmen  are  rows  of  trees, 
and  a river  on  which  are  circular  boats  resembling  in  shape  the  “kufas,” 
now  used  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Tigris,  and  probably,  like  them,  built  of 
reeds  and  ozier  twigs,  covered  with  square  pieces  of  hide.*  They  are  heav- 
ily laden  with  beams  and  implements  required  for  moving  the  bulls.  They 
appear  to  have  been  near  the  sledge  when  dragged  along  the  bank  of  the 
river,  and  were  impelled  by  four  oars  similar  to  those  above  described.  Near 
the  boats,  astride  on  inflated  skins  in  the  water,  are  fishermen  angling  with 
hook  and  line.f 

On  a fallen  slab,  forming  part  of  the  same  general  series,  is  the  king 
standing  in  a richly  decorated  chariot,  the  pole  of  which,  curved  upwards 

* Such  appear  to  have  been  the  boats  described  by  Herodotus  (lib.  i.  c.  194.).  The 
modem  “ kufa”  is  covered  with  bitumen. 

t This  bas-relief  is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  see  Plate  12.,  2nd  series  of 
Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


Chap.  V.] 


MOVING  THE  BULLS. 


91 


Workmen  carrying  Ropes,  Saws,  and  other  Implements  for  moving  Bull  (Kouyunjik). 

at  the  end,  and  ornamented  with  the  head  of  a horse,  is  raised  by  eunuchs. 
From  the  peculiar  form  of  this  chariot  and  the  absence  of  a yoke,  it  would 

seem  to  have  been  intended  purposely  for 
such  occasions  as  that  represented  in  the 
bas-relief,  and  to  have  been  a kind  of 
moveable  throne  drawn  by  men  and  not 
by  horses.*  Behind  the  monarch,  who 
holds  a kind  of  flower,  or  ornament  in  the 
shape  of  the  fruit  of  the  pine,  in  one  hand , 
stand  two  eunuchs,  one  raising  a parasol 
to  shade  him  from  the  sun,  the  other  cool- 
ing him  with  a fan.  He  appears  to  have 
been  superintending  the  transport  of  one 
stag  (Kouyunjik).  of  the  colossal  sculptures,  and  his  chariot 

is  preceded  and  followed  by  his  bodyguard  armed  with  maces.  In  the  up- 


s 

4 

7 I ^ 

* 

kl 

* A throne  on  wheels,  with  a yoke,  carried  by  two  eunuchs,  is  represented  in  a bas- 
relief  at  Khorsabad.  Botta,  Plate  17. 


92 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V 


per  part  of  the  slab  is  a jungle  of  high  reeds,  or  canes,  in  which  are  seen  a 
wild  sow  with  its  young,  and  a stag  and  two  hinds.  These  animals  are  de- 
signed with  great  spirit  and  truth.* 

The  next  series  of  bas-reliefs  represents  the  building  of  the  artificial  plat- 
forms on  which  the  palaces  were  erected,  and  the  Assyrians  moving  to 
their  summit  the  colossal  hulls. f The  king  is  again  seen  in  his  chariot 
drawn  by  eunuchs,  whilst  an  attendant  raises  the  royal  parasol  above  his 
head.  He  overlooks  the  operations  from  that  part  of  the  mound  to  which 
the  sledge  is  being  dragged,  and  before  him  stands  his  body-guard,  a long 
line  of  alternate  spearmen  and  archers,  resting  their  arms  and  shields  upon 
the  ground.  Above  him  are  low  hills  covered  with  various  trees,  amongst 
which  may  he  distinguished  by  their  fruit  the  vine,  the  fig,  and  the  pome- 
granate. At  the  bottom  of  the  slab  is  represented  either  a river  divided 
into  two  branches  and  forming  an  island,  as  the  Tigris  does  to  this  day  op- 
posite Kouyunjik,  or  the  confluence  of  that  stream  and  the  Khauser,  which 
then  probably  took  place  at  the  very  foot  of  the  mound.  On  the  banks 
are  seen  men  raising  water  by  a simple  machine,  still  generally  used  for 
irrigation  in  the  East,  as  well  as  in  Southern  Europe,  and  called  in  Egypt 
a shadoof.  It  consists  of  a long  pole,  balanced  on  a shaft  of  masonry,  and 
turning  on  a pivot ; to  one  end  is  attached  a stone,  and  to  the  other  a 
bucket,  which,  after  being  lowered  into  the  water  and  filled,  is  easily  raised 
by  the  help  of  the  opposite  weight.  Its  contents  are  then  emptied  into  a 
conduit  communicating  with  the  various  watercourses  running  through  the 
fields.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Mosul  this  mode  of  irrigation  is  now  rarely 
used,  the  larger  skins  raised  by  oxen  affording  a better  supply,  and  giving, 
it  is  considered,  less  trouble  to  the  cultivator.:}: 

The  process  of  building  the  artificial  mound  adjoined  the  subject  just 
described. § Men,  apparently  engaged  in  making  bricks,  are  crouching  and 
kneeling  round  a square  space,  probably  representing  the  pit  whence  the 
clay  for  this  purpose  was  taken.  Unfortunately  this  part  of  the  subject,  on 
the  only  two  slabs  on  which  it  occurs,  has  been  so  much  defaced,  that  its 
details  cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty.  These  brickmakers  are  be- 
tween two  mounds,  on  which  are  long  lines  of  workmen  going  up  and  down. 
Those  who  toil  upwards  carry  large  stones,  and  hold  on  their  backs  by  ropes 
baskets  filled  with  bricks,  earth,  and  rubbish.  On  reaching  the  top  of  the 
mound  they  relieve  themselves  of  their  burdens,  and  return  again  to  the 
foot  for  fresh  loads  in  the  order  they  went  up. 

It  would  appear  that  the  men  thus  employed  were  captives  and  male- 

* See  Plate  12.  2d  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh, 
t See  Plates  14  and  15.  2d  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 
t I have  described  the  mode  of  irrigation  now  generally  employed  by  the  Meso- 
potamian Arabs,  in  my  “ Nineveh  and  its  Remains,”  vol.  ii.  p.  353. 

§ Part  of  this  bas-relief  is  in  the  British  Museum,  and  see  2d  series  of  Monuments 
of  Nineveh,  Plates  14  & 15.  The  whole  series  occupied  about  twenty-five  slabs  in 
the  N.E.  walls  of  the  great  hall,  from  No.  43  to  No.  68.  Plan  I.  Unfortunately  some 
f the  slabs  had  been  entirely  destroyed 


King  superintending  Removal  of  colossal  Bull  (Kouyunjik) 


94 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


factors,  for  many  of  them  are  in  chains,  some  singly,  others  bound  together 
by  an  iron  rod  attached  to  rings  in  their  girdles.  The  fetters,  like  those 
of  modern  criminals,  confine  the  legs,  and  are  supported  by  a bar  fastened 
to  the  waist,  or  consist  of  simple  shackles  round  the  ankles.  They  wear 
a short  tunic,  and  a conical  cap,  somewhat  resembling  the  Phrygian  bon- 
net, with  the  curved  crest  turned  backwards,  a costume  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  tribute  bearers  on  the  Nimroud  obelisk.  Each  band  of  work- 
men is  followod  and  urged  on  by  task-masters  armed  with  staves. 

The  mound,  or  artificial  platform,  having  been  thus  built,  not  always, 
as  it  has  been  seen,  with  regular  layers  of  sundried  bricks,  but  frequently 
in  parts  with  mere  heaped-up  earth  and  rubbish,*  the  next  step  was  to 
drag  to  its  summit  the  colossal  figures  prepared  for  the  palace.  As  some 
of  the  largest  of  these  sculptures  were  full  twenty  feet  square,  and  must 
have  weighed  between  forty  and  fifty  tons,  this  was  no  easy  task  with  such 
means  as  the  Assyrians  possessed.  The  only  aid  to  mere  manual  strength 
was  derived  from  the  rollers  and  levers.  A sledge  was  used  similar  to  that 
already  described,  and  drawn  in  the  same  way.  In  the  bas-relief  repre- 
senting the  operation,  four  officers  are  seen  on  the  bull,  the  first  apparent- 
ly clapping  his  hands  to  regulate  the  motions  of  those  who  draw,  the  sec- 
ond using  the  trumpet,  the  third  directing  the  men  who  have  the  care  of 
the  rollers,  and  the  fourth  kneeling  down  on  the  edge  of  the  back  part  of 
the  sculpture  to  give  orders  to  those  who  use  the  lever.  Two  of  the  groups 
of  workmen  are  preceded  by  overseers,  who  turn  back  to  encourage  them 
by  their  exertions ; and  in  front  of  the  royal  chariot,  on  the  edge  of  the 
mound,  kneels  an  officer,  probably  the  chief  superintendent,  looking  toward? 
the  king  to  receive  orders  direct  from  him. 

Behind  the  monarch,  on  an  adjoining  slab,  are  carts  bearing  the  cables, 
wedges,  and  implements  required  in  moving  the  sculpture.  A long  beam 
or  lever  is  slung  by  ropes  from  the  shoulders  of  three  men,  and  one  of  the 
great  wedges  is  carried  in  the  same  way.  In  the  upper  compartment  of 
this  slab  is  a stream  issuing  from  the  foot  of  hills  wooded  with  vines,  fig- 
trees,  and  pomegranates.  Beneath  stands  a town  or  village,  the  houses 


Village  with  conical  Roofs,  near  Aleppo. 


of  which  have  domes  and  high  conical  roofs,  probably  built  of  mud,  as  in 
parts  of  northern  Syria.  The  domes  have  the  appearance  of  dish-covers 
* Subsequent  excavations  at  Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud  fully  verified  this  fact. 


Chap.  V.] 


MOVING  THE  BULLS. 


95 


with  a handle,  the  upper  part  being  topped  by  a small  circular  projection 
perhaps  intended  as  an  aperture  to  admit  light  and  air. 

This  interesting  series  is  completed  by  a bas-relief,^  showing,  it  would 
seem,  the  final  placing  of  the  colossal  bull.  The  figure  no  longer  lies  hori- 
zontally on  the  sledge,  but  is  raised  by  men  with  ropes  and  forked  wooden 
props.  It  is  kept  in  its  erect  position  by  beams,  held  together  by  cross 
bars  and  wedges,!  and  is  further  supported  by  blocks  of  stone,  or  wood, 
piled  up  under  the  body.  On  the  sledge,  in  front  of  the  hull,  stands  an 
officer  giving  directions  with  outstretched  hands  to  the  workmen.  Cables, 
ropes,  rollers,  and  levers  are  also  employed  on  this  occasion  to  move  the 
gigantic  sculpture.  The  captives  are  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  tur- 
bans before  described.!  Unfortunately  the  upper  part  of  all  the  slabs  has 
been  destroyed,  and  much  of  the  subject  is  consequently  wanting. 

We  have  thus  represented,  with  remarkable  fidelity  and  spirit, § the  sev- 
eral processes  employed  to  place  these  colossi  where  they  still  stand,  from 
the  transport  down  the  river  of  the  rough  block  to  the  final  removal  of  the 
sculptured  figure  to  the  palace.  From  these  bas-reliefs  we  find  that  the 
Assyrians  were  well  acquainted  with  the  lever  and  the  roller,  and  that  they 
ingeniously  made  use  of  the  former  by  carrying  with  them  wedges,  of  dif- 
ferent dimensions,  and  probably  of  wood,  to  vary  the  height  of  the  fulcrum. 
When  moving  the  winged  bulls  and  lions  now  in  the  British  Museum  from 
the  ruins  to  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  I used  almost  the  same  means. ||  The 
Assyrians,  being  unable  to  construct  a wheeled  cart  of  sufficient  strength 
to  carry  so  great  a weight,  employed  a sledge,  probably  built  of  some  hard 
wood  obtained  from  the  mountains.  It  seems  to  have  been  nearly  solid,  or 
to  have  been  filled  with  beams,  or  decked,  as  the  sculpture  is  raised  above 
its  sides.  Unless  the  levers  were  brought  from  a considerable  distance 
they  must  have  been  of  poplar,  no  other  beams  of  sufficient  length  existing 
in  the  country.  Although  weak,  and  liable  to  break  with  much  strain,  I 
found  them  strong  enough  for  purposes  of  the  same  kind.  The  Assyrians 
like  the  Egyptians,  had  made  considerable  progress  in  rope  twisting,  an  art 
now  only  known  in  its  rudest  state  in  the  same  part  of  the  East.  The 
cables  appear  to  be  of  great  length  and  thickness,  and  ropes  of  various  di- 
mensions are  represented  in  the  sculptures.^ 

* See  next  page. 

t It  may  be  remarked,  that  precisely  the  same  framework  was  used  for  moving 
the  great  sculptures  in  the  British  Museum. 

t See  woodcut,  p.  87. 

$ Although  in  these  bas-reliefs,  as  in  other  Assyrian  sculptures,  no  regard  is  paid 
to  perspective,  the  proportions  are  very  well  kept.  I must  refer  my  readers  to  the 
2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh  for  detailed  drawings  of  these  highly  inter 
esting  sculptures. 

II  See  woodcut  in  the  Abridgment  of  my  “ Nineveh  and  its  Remains”  (p.  297.), 
vvhich  may  be  compared  with  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs,  to  show  the  difference  be- 
tween the  ancient  and  modem  treatment  of  a subject  almost  identic. 

H There  appears  to  be  a curious  allusion  to  ropes  and  cables  of  different  sizes,  and 


V 


Assyrians  placing  n human-headed  null  (partly  restored  from  n Bas-relief  at  Kouyunjik). 


To  face  jpage  XI 5 


M A OROr 


irothers  .IT 


m 


W***V 


-<m*[DU4  - s 

r r r r r r r f f 


lpLiiij|  £'  i i I ' U .'Xi - 


fJLL if  H •••  "T  1~4  ^.KIH  .T, II 4* 


dit 4 12 fit  .-.it  44 s 

..ij'  - (' 


4^ 

t <r  t r~  » #*  t r r t r t 


k J ®?r*v  vvw  s- ~ ^ivkvv.p 

#vmvv  rmm  r 




EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE. 


97 


Chap.  V.] 

I have  given,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  a woodcut  of  the  well-known 
painting  in  an  Egyptian  grotto  at  El  Bersheh  of  the  moving  of  a colossal 
figure.*  It  will  show  how  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians  represented  nearly 
a similar  subject,  and  in  what  way  these  nations  differed  in  their  mode  of 
artistic  treatment.  The  Egyptian  colossus  is  placed  upon  a sledge  not  un- 
like that  of  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  in  form,  though  smaller  in  comparison 
with  the  size  of  the  figure,  which  appears  in  this  case  to  have  been  about 
twenty-four  feet  high.f  The  ropes,  four  in  number,  as  in  the  Kouyunjik 
sculptures,  are  all  fastened  to  the  fore-part  of  the  sledge,  and  are  pulled 
by  the  workmen  without  the  aid  of  smaller  cords.  The  absence  of  levers 
and  rollers  is  remarkable,  as  the  Egyptians  must  have  been  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  use  of  both,  and  no  doubt  employed  them  for  moving  heavy 
weights. $ On  the  statue,  as  in  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs,  stands  an  officer, 
who  claps  his  hand  in  measured  time  to  regulate  the  motions  of  the  men, 
nnd  from  the  front  of  the  pedestal  another  pours  some  liquid,  probably 
grease,  on  the  ground,  to  facilitate  the  progress  of  the  sledge,  which  would 
scarcely  be  needed  were  rollers  used.$  As  in  Assyria,  the  workmen  in- 
cluded slaves  and  captives,  who  were  accompanied  by  bands  of  armed  men. 

As  this  curious  representation  is  believed  to  be  of  the  time  of  Osirtasen 
II.,  a king  of  the  seventeenth  dynasty,  who  reigned,  according  to  some,  about 
sixteen  centuries  before  Christ,  it  is  far  more  ancient  than  any  known  As- 
syrian monument.  The  masses  of  solid  stone  moved  by  the  Egyptians 
also  far  exceeded  in  weight  any  sculpture  that  has  yet  been  discovered  in 
Assyria,  or  any  monolith  on  record  connected  with  that  empire  ; with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  the  celebrated  obelisk  which,  according  to  Diodorus 
Siculus,  was  brought  by  Semiramis  from  Armenia  to  Babylon.il  It  is  a sin- 
gular fact,  that  whilst  the  quarries  of  Egypt  bear  witness  of  themselves  to 
the  stupendous  nature  of  the  works  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
and  still  show  on  their  sides  engraved  records  of  those  who  made  them,  no 

to  their  use  for  such  purposes  as  that  described  in  the  text  in  Isaiah,  v.  18.  “ Woe 

unto  them  that  draw  iniquity  with  cords  of  vanity  and  sin  as  it  were  with  a cart  rope.” 
A most  interesting  collection  of  ancient  Egyptian  cordage  of  almost  every  kind  has 
lately  been  purchased  by  the  French  Government  from  Clot  Bey,  and  is  now  in  the 
Louvre. 

* This  woodcut  has  been  taken  from  a drawing  by  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  who 
has  kindly  allowed  me  to  use  it.  It  is  more  correct  in  its  details  than  that  given  in 
his  work  on  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  iii.  p.  328. 

t Wilkinson,  vol.  iii.  p.  327. 

t Herodotus  particularly  mentions  levers  in  his  account  of  the  transport  of  the 
monolith  of  Sais  (lib.  ii.  175.). 

$ This  looks  as  if  the  sledge  were  moving  on  an  inclined  way  of  boards  constructed 
for  the  purpose. 

||  A colossus  of  granite  of  Rameses  II.,  at  the  Memnonium,  weighed,  when  entire, 
according  to  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  887  tons  ; and  the  stupendous  monolith  in  the 
temple  of  Latona,  at  Buto,  which,  according  to  Herodotus,  took  2000  men  during  three 
entire  years  to  move  to  its  place,  upwards  of  5000.  (Wilkinson’s  Ancient  Egyptians, 
vol.  iii.  p.  331.) 

fir 


98 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V 


traces  whatever,  notwithstanding  the  most  careful  research,  have  yet  been 
found  to  indicate  from  whence  the  builders  of  the  Assyrian  palaces  obtained 
their  large  slabs  of  alabaster.  That  they  were  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  Nineveh  there  is  scarcely  any  reason  to  doubt,  as  strata  of  this  ma- 
terial, easily  accessible,  abound,  not  only  in  the  hills  but  in  the  plains.  This 
very  abundance  may  have  rendered  any  particular  quarry  unnecessary,  and 
blocks  were  probably  taken  as  required  from  convenient  spots,  which  have 
since  been  covered  by  the  soil.  The  alabaster  now  used  at  Mosul  is  cut 
near  the  Sinjar  gate,  to  the  north-west  of  the  town.  The  blocks  are  rarely 
larger  than  can  be  carried  on  the  backs  of  horses.  These  quarries  also  sup- 
ply Baghdad,  where  this  material  is  much  prized  for  the  pavement  of  baths 
and  serdaubs,  or  underground  summer  apartments. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  as  will  hereafter  be  shown,  that  the  king  rep- 
resented as  superintending  the  building  of  the  mounds  and  the  placing  of 
the  colossal  bulls,  is  Sennacherib  himself,  and  that  the  sculptures  celebrate 
the  building  at  Nineveh  of  the  great  palace  and  its  adjacent  temples  de- 
scribed in  the  inscriptions  as  the  work  of  this  monarch.  The  bas-reliefs 
were  accompanied  in  most  instances  by  short  epigraphs  in  the  cuneiform 
character,  containing  a description  of  the  subject  with  the  name  of  the  city 
to  which  the  sculptures  were  brought.  The  great  inscriptions  on  the  bulls 
at  the  entrances  of  Kouyunjik  record,  it  would  seem,  not  only  historical 
events,  but,  with  great  minuteness,  the  manner  in  which  the  edifice  itself 
was  erected,  its  general  plan,  and  the  various  materials  employed  in  dec- 
orating the  halls,  chambers,  and  roofs.  When  completely  deciphered  they 
will  perhaps  enable  us  to  restore,  with  some  confidence,  both  the  general 
plan  and  elevation  of  the  building. 

Unfortunately  only  fragments  of  these  epigraphs  have  been  preserved. 
From  them  it  would  appear  that  the  transport  of  more  than  one  object  was 
represented  on  the  walls.  Besides  bulls  and  sphynxes  in  stone  are  men- 
tioned figures  in  some  kind  of  wood,  perhaps  of  olive,  like  “ the  two  cher- 
ubims  of  olive  tree,  each  ten  cubits  high,”  in  the  temple  of  Solomon.* 
Over  the  king  superintending  the  removal  of  one  of  these  colossi  is  the  fol- 
lowing short  inscription,  thus  translated  by  Dr.  Hincks  : — 

“Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  the  great  figures  of  bulls,  which  in  the 
land  of  Belad  were  made  for  his  royal  palace  at  Nineveh,  he  transported 
thither?'  (?) 

The  land  of  Belad,  mentioned  in  these  inscriptions,  appears  to  have  been 
a district  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Nineveh,  and  probably  on  the  Tigris, 
as  these  great  masses  of  stone  would  have  been  quarried  near  the  river  for 
the  greater  convenience  of  moving  them  to  the  palace.  The  district  of 
Belad  may  indeed  have  been  that  in  which  the  city  itself  stood. 

* 1 Kings,  vi.  23.  I shall  hereafter  compare  the  edifices  built  by  Solomon  with  the 
Assyrian  palaces,  and  point  out  the  remarkable  illustrations  of  the  Jewish  temple 
afforded  by  the  latter. 


MOVING  THE  BULLS 


99 


Chap.  V.] 

Over  the  representation  of  the  building  of  the  mound  there  were  two 
epigraphs,  both  precisely  similar,  but  both  unfortunately  much  mutilated. 
As  far  as  they  can  be  restored,  they  have  thus  been  interpreted  by  Dr. 
Hincks : — 

“ Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.  Hewn  stones,  which , as  the  gods* 
willed,  were  found  in  the  land  of  Belad,  for  the  walls  (?)  (or  foundations, 
the  word  reads  ‘ shibri ’)  of  my  palace,  I caused  the  inhabitants  of  for- 
eign countries  (?)  and  the  people  of  the  forests  (Kershani),f  the  great  bulls 
for  the  gates  of  my  palace  to  drag  (?)  (or  bring).” 

If  this  inscription  he  rightly  rendered,  we  have  direct  evidence  that  cap- 
tives from  foreign  countries  were  employed  in  the  great  public  works  un- 
dertaken by  the  Assyrian  kings,  as  we  were  led  to  infer,  from  the  variety 
of  costume  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs,  and  from  the  fetters  on  the  legs 
of  some  of  the  workmen.  The  Jews  themselves,  after  their  captivity,  may 
have  been  thus  condemned  to  labor,  as  their  forefathers  had  been  in  Egypt, 
in  erecting  the  monuments  of  their  conquerors  ; and  we  may,  perhaps,  rec- 
ognise them  amongst  the  builders  portrayed  in  the  sculptures.  Two  dis- 
tinct objects  appear  to  be  mentioned  in  these  epigraphs — unhewn,  or  mere- 
ly squared,  stones  for  walls  or  foundations,  and  the  colossal  bulls  for  the 
entrances ; unless  some  of  the  small  stones  carried  on  the  hacks  of  the 
workmen  are  intended  by  the  former,  we  find  only  the  colossi  represented 
in  the  bas-reliefs. 

From  the  long  gallery,  which  appears  to  have  been  panelled  with  bas- 
reliefs,  describing  the  removal  of  more  than  one  object  employed,  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  palace,  we  have  unfortunately  only  three  fragments  of  in- 
scriptions without  the  sculptured  representations  of  the  events  recorded. 
The  most  perfect  is  interesting  on  more  than  one  account.  According  to 
Dr.  Hincks  it  is  to  he  translated  : — 

“ Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria  ....  (some  object,  the  nature 
not  ascertained)  of  wood,  which  from  the  Tigris  I caused  to  be  brought  up 
( through  ?)  the  Kharri,  or  Khasri,  on  sledges  (or  boats),  I caused  to  he  car- 
ried (or  to  mount).” 

The  name  of  the  river  in  this  inscription  very  nearly  resembles  that  of 
the  small  stream  which  sweeps  round  the  foot  of  the  great  mound  of  Kou- 
yunjik.  In  the  woodcut  of  the  king  superintending  the  removal  of  the 
bull,$  it  will  be  perceived  that  two  rivers,  a smaller  running  into  a larger, 
appear  to  be  rudely  represented.  They  correspond  with  the  actual  posi- 
tion of  the  Tigris  and  Khauser  beneath  Kouyunjik.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, that  the  latter  stream  was  deepened  or  enlarged,  so  as  to  enable  the 
Assyrians  to  float  heavy  masses  close  to  the  mound  ; and  from  the  bas- 
relief  it  would  appear  that  the  bull  was  moved  from  the  very  edge  of  the 

* A peculiar  deity  is  mentioned  who  probably  presided  over  the  earth,  but  his  name 
is  as  yet  unknown  ; it  is  here  denoted  by  a monogram. 

t Compare  the  Hebrew  linn,  khersh,  a thick  wood,  or,  perhaps,  ttHH,  a stone-cut- 
ter, or  a workman  in  stone  or  wood.  t Ante,  page  93. 


100 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 

water  up  the  artificial  declivity.  At  that  time,  however,  the  Tigris  wag 
nearer  to  the  palace  than  it  now  is  to  the  ruins,  its  course  having  varied 
considerably  at  different  periods ; but  its  ancient  bed  is  still  indicated  by 
recent  alluvial  deposits. 

In  the  fragment  of  another  epigraph,  we  have  mention  of  some  objects 
also  of  wood  “ brought  from  Mount  Lebanon,  and  taken  up  (to  the  top  of 
the  mound)  from  the  Tigris.”  These  may  have  been  beams  of  cedar, 
which,  it  will  be  hereafter  seen,  were  extensively  used  in  the  Assyrian  pal- 
aces. It  is  highly  interesting  thus  to  find  the  inhabitants  of  Nineveh  fetch- 
ing their  rare  and  precious  woods  from  the  same  spot  that  king  Solomon 
had  brought  the  choicest  woodwork  of  the  temple  of  the  Lord  and  of  his 
own  palaces. 

On  a third  fragment  similar  objects  are  described  as  coming  from  or  up 
the  same  Kharri  or  Khasri. 

I have  mentioned  that  the  long  gallery  containing  the  bas-relief  repre- 
senting the  moving  of  the  great  stone,  led  out  of  a chamber,  whose  walls 
had  been  completely  uncovered.*  The  sculptures  upon  them  were  partly 
preserved,  and  recorded  the  conquest  of  a city  standing  on  a broad  river, 
in  the  midst  of  mountains  and  forests.  The  Assyrians  appear  to  have  en- 
tered the  enemy’s  country  by  a valley,  to  have  forded  the  stream  frequent- 
ly, and  to  have  continued  during  their  march  along  its  banks.  Warriors 
on  foot  led  their  horses,  aud  dragged  the  chariots  over  precipitous  rocks. 
On  each  side  of  the  river  were  wooded  hills,  with  small  streams  flowing 
amongst  vineyards.  As  they  drew  near  to  the  city,  the  Assyrians  cut  down 
the  woods  to  clear  the  approaches.  Amongst  the  branches  of  a tree  ex- 
ceeding the  others  in  size,  and  standing  immediately  beneath  the  walls, 
were  birds  and  two  nests  containing  their  young.  The  sculptor  probably 
introduced  these  accessories  to  denote  the  season  of  the  year.  The  river 
appeared  to  flow  through  or  behind  the  city.  Long  low  walls  with  equi- 
distant towers,  the  whole  surmounted  by  cornices  and  angular  battlements, 
stood  on  one  side  of  the  stream.  Within  the  walls  were  large  square  build- 
ings, curiously  ornamented,  and  whose  windows,  immediately  beneath  the 
roof,  were  formed  by  small  pillars  with  capitals  in  the  form  of  the  Ionic 
volute.  The  doors,  except  the  entrance  to  the  castle  which  was  arched, 
were  square,  and,  in  some  instances,  surmounted  by  a plain  cornice.  That 
part  of  the  city  standing  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  seemed  to  consist 
of  a number  of  detached  forts  and  houses,  some  of  which  had  also  open 
balustrades  to  admit  the  light.  Flames  issued  from  the  dwellings,  and  on 
the  towers  were  men  apparently  cutting  down  trees  growing  within  the 
walls.  Assyrian  warriors,  marching  in  a long  line,  carried  away  the  spoil 
from  the  burning  city.  Some  were  laden  with  arms ; others  with  furni- 
ture, chairs,  stools,  couches,  and  tables  of  various  forms,  ornamented  with 
the  heads  and  feet  of  animals.  They  were  probably  of  metal,  perhaps  of 
gold  or  silver.  The  couches,  or  beds,  borne  by  two  men,  had  a curved 
* No.  XLVIII.  Plan  I.  See  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2d  series,  Plate  40. 


A GATEWAY  OF  NINEVEH 


101 


Chap.  V.] 

head.  Some  of  the  chairs  had  high  hacks,  and  the  tables  resembled  in 
shape  the  modern  camp-stool. 

The  last  bas-relief  of  the  series  represented  the  king  seated  within  a for- 
tified camp,  on  a throne  of  elaborate  workmanship,  and  having  beneath  his 
feet  a footstool  of  equally  elegant  form.  He  was  receiving  the  captives, 
who  wore  long  robes  falling  to  their  ankles.  Unfortunately  no  inscription 
remained  by  which  we  might  identify  the  conquered  nation.  It  is  proba- 
ble, from  the  nature  of  the  country  represented,  that  they  inhabited  some 
district  in  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  or  in  Armenia,  in  which  direc- 
tion, as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  Sennacherib  more  than  once  carried  his  vic- 
torious arms.  The  circular  fortified  walls  enclose  tents,  within  which  are 
seen  men  engaged  in  various  domestic  occupations. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  excavations  had  been  resumed  in  a lofty 
mound  in  the  north-west  line  of  walls  forming  the  enclosure  round  Kou- 
yunjik.  It  was  apparently  the  remains  of  a gate  leading  into  this  quarter 
of  the  city,  and  part  of  a building,  with  fragments  of  two  colossal  winged 
figures,*  had  already  been  discovered  in  it.  By  the  end  of  November  the 
whole  had  been  explored,  and  the  results  were  of  considerable  interest.  As 
the  mound  rises  nearly  fifty  feet  above  the  plain,  we  were  obliged  to  tunnel 
along  the  walls  of  the  building  within  it,  through  a compact  mass  of  rub- 
bish, consisting  almost  entirely  of  loose  bricks.  Following  the  rows  of  low 
limestone  slabs,  from  the  south  side  of  the  mound,  and  passing  through  two 
halls  or  chambers,  we  came  at  length  to  the  opposite  entrance.  This  gate- 
way, facing  the  open  country,  was  formed  by  a pair  of  majestic  human- 
headed  bulls,  fourteen  feet  in  length,  still  entire,  though  cracked  and  in- 
jured by  fire.  They  were  similar  in  form  to  those  of  Khorsabad  and  Kou- 
yunjik,  wearing  the  lofty  head-dress,  richly  ornamented  with  rosettes,  and 
edged  with  a fringe  of  feathers  peculiar  to  that  period.  Wide  spreading 
wings  rose  above  their  backs,  and  their  breasts  and  bodies  were  profusely 
adorned  with  curled  hair.  Behind  them  were  colossal  winged  figures  of 
the  same  height,  bearing  the  pine  cone  and  basket.  Their  faces  were  in 
full,  and  the  relief  was  high  and  bold.  More  knowledge  of  art  was  shown 
in  the  outline  of  the  limbs  and  in  the  delineation  of  the  muscles,  than  in 
any  sculpture  I have  seen  of  this  period.  The  naked  leg  and  foot  were 
designed  with  a spirit  and  truthfulness  worthy  of  a Greek  artist. f It  is, 
however,  remarkable  that  the  four  figures  were  unfinished,  none  of  the 
details  having  been  put  in,  and  parts  being  but  roughly  outlined.  They 
stood  as  if  the  sculptors  had  been  interrupted  by  some  public  calamity,  and 
had  left  their  work  incomplete.  Perhaps  the  murder^f  Sennacherib  by 
his  sons,  as  he  worshipped  in  the  house  of  Nisroch  his  god,  put  a sudden 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  146. 

t The  bulls  and  winged  figures  resembled  those  from  Khorsabad,  now  in  the  great 
hall  at  the  British  Museum,  but  far  exceeded  them  in  beauty  and  grandeur,  as  well 
as  in  preservation.  As  nearly  similar  figures  had  thus  already  been  sent  to  England. 
I did  not  think  it  advisable  to  remove  them 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


102 


[Chap.  Y 


stop  to  the  great  undertakings  he  had  commenced  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign. 

The  sculptures  to  the  left,  on  entering  from  the  open  country,  were  in  a 
far  more  unfinished  state  than  those  on  the  opposite  side.  The  hair  and 
beard  were  but  roughly  marked  out,  square  bosses  being  left  for  carving  the 
elaborate  curls.  The  horned  cap  of  the  human-headed  bull  was,  as  yet, 
unornamented,  and  the  wings  merely  outlined.  The  limbs  and  features 
were  hard  and  angular,  still  requiring  to  be  rounded  off,  and  to  have  ex- 
pression given  to  them  by  the  finishing  touch  of  the  artist.  The  other  two 
figures  were  more  perfect.  The  curls  of  the  beard  and  hair  (except  on  one 
side  of  the  head  of  the  giant)  and  the  ornaments  of  the  head-dress  had  been 
completed.  The  limbs  of  the  winged  deity  and  the  body  and  legs  of  the 
bull  had  been  sufficiently  finished  to  give  a bold  and  majestic  character  to 
the  figures,  which  might  have  been  rather  lessened  than  improved  by  the 
addition  of  details.  The  wings  of  the  giant  were  merely  in  outline.  The 
sculptor  had  begun  to  mark  out  the  feathers  in  those  of  the  bull,  but  had 
been  interrupted  after  finishing  one  row  and  commencing  a second.*  No 
inscription  had  yet  been  carved  on  either  sculpture. 

The  entrance  formed  by  these  colossal  bulls  was  fourteen  feet  and  a 
quarter  wide.  It  was  paved  with  large  slabs  of  limestone,  still  bearing 
the  marks  of  chariot  wheels.  The  sculptures  were  buried  in  a mass  of 
brick  and  earth,  mingled  with  charcoal  and  charred  wood  ; for  “ the  gates 
of  the  land  had  been  set  wide  open  unto  the  enemy,  and  the  fire  had  de- 
voured the  bars.”f  They  were  lighted  from  above  by  a deep  shaft  sunk 
from  the  top  of  the  mound.  It  would  be  difficult  to  describe  the  effect  pro- 
duced, or  the  reflections  suggested  by  these  solemn  and  majestic  figures, 
dimly  visible  amidst  the  gloom,  when,  after  winding  through  the  dark,  un- 
derground passages,  you  suddenly  came  into  their  presence.  Between  them 
Sennacherib  and  his  hosts  had  gone  forth  in  all  their  might  and  glory  to 
the  conquest  of  distant  lands,  and  had  returned  rich  with  spoil  and  cap- 
tives, amongst  whom  may  have  been  the  handmaidens  and  wealth  of  Is- 
rael. Through  them,  too,  the  Assyrian  monarch  had  entered  his  capital  in 
shame,  after  his  last  and  fatal  defeat.  Then  the  lofty  walls,  now  but  long 
lines  of  low,  wave-like  mounds,  had  stretched  far  to  the  right  and  to  the 
left — a basement  of  stone  supporting  a curtain  of  solid  brick  masonry, 
crowned  with  battlements  and  studded  with  frowning  towers. 

This  entrance  may  have  been  arched  like  the  castle  gates  of  the  bas-re- 
liefs, and  the  mass  of  burnt  bricks  around  the  sculptures  may  be  the  re- 
mains of  the  vault.  A high  tower  evidently  rose  above  this  gate,  which 
formed  the  great  Northern  access  to  this  quarter  of  Nineveh. 

Behind  the  colossal  figures,  and  between  the  outer  and  inner  face  of  the 
gateway,  were  two  chambers,  nearly  70  feet  in  length  by  23  in  breadth. 

* See  Plate  3.  of  the  second  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh.  The  giant  is 
correctly  represented  in  its  unfinished  state  in  this  plate,  but  the  artist  by  mistake 
has  filled  up  the  details  in  the  wings  of  the  bulls.  t Nahum,  iii.  13 


DISCOVERIES  IN  HIGH  MOUND. 


103 


Chap.  V.] 

Of  that  part  of  the  entrance  which  was  within  the  walls,  only  the  frag- 
ments of  winged  figures,  discovered  during  my  previous  researches,  now  re- 
mained.* It  is  probable,  however,  that  a second  pair  of  human-headed 
bulls  once  stood  there.  They  may  have  been  “ the  figures  of  animals,”  de- 
scribed to  Mr.  Rich  as  having  been  casually  uncovered  in  this  mound,  and 
which  were  broken  up  nearly  fifty  years  ago  to  furnish  materials  for  the  re- 
pair of  a bridge.! 


The  whole  entrance  thus  consisted  of  two  distinct  chambers  and  three 
gateways,  two  formed  by  human-headed  bulls,  and  a third  between  them 
simply  panelled  with  low  limestone  slabs  like  the  chambers.  Its  original 
height,  including  the  tower,  must  have  been  full  one  hundred  feet.  Most 
of  the  baked  bricks  found  amongst  the  rubbish  bore  the  name  of  Senna- 
cherib, the  builder  of  the  palace  of  Kouyunjik.  A similar  gateway,  but 
without  any  remains  of  sculptured  figures,  and  panelled  with  plain  alabaster 
slabs,  was  subsequently  discovered  in  the  inner  line  of  walls  forming  the 
eastern  side  of  the  quadrangle,  where  the  road  to  Baashiekhah  and  Baazani 
leaves  the  ruins. 

At  Nimroud  discoveries  of  very  considerable  importance  were  made  in 
the  high  conical  mound  at  the  north-west  corner.  Desirous  of  fully  explor- 
ing that  remarkable  ruin,  I had  employed  nearly  all  the  workmen  in  open- 
ing a tunnel  into  its  western  base.  After  penetrating  for  no  less  than 
eighty-four  feet  through  a compact  mass  of  rubbish,  composed  of  loose  grav- 
el, earth,  burnt  bricks,  and  fragments  of  stone,  the  excavators  came  to  a 

* See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  143. 
t See  Rich’s  Residence  in  Kurdistan  and  Nineveh,  vol.  ii.  p.  39. 


Tunnel  along  Western  Basement  Wall  (Nimroud).  Tunnel  along  Eastern  Basement  Wall  (Nimroud) 


Section  of  Conical  Mound,  and  xestored  Elevation  of  c •; Bit 

i&iperA&o«York1855- 


- I 

iS-o/SaronjrSt  . Major  BhvYor 


1 Vaulted  chamber  or  (omb 
2.  'JuxcaveUed  funnel . 

■3.  Basement  stone  wall 
l Brick  outside  wall  ■ 

5.  Mass  of  r/at  dried  bride. 

6. . Artificial  Platform  or  mound 
" 'irth  mixed  with  r r 
8.  Barth  mired  > 

bride,  slant,  and  bones 
line  fde/josil  rf  Iro/cai  briclc. 
JO.  Thin  line  of  pebble  deposit.. 


h a fiirfiafpncnts  of  brides', 
fh fixujmmts  f r 1 


Chap.  Y.J 


DISCOVERY  OF  TOWER. 


105 


wall  of  solid  stone  masonry.  The  manner  in  which  this  structure  had 
been  buried  is  so  curious,  that  I have  given  a section  of  the  different  strata 
through  which  the  tunnel  passed.^  I have  already  observed  that  the  edi- 
fice covered  by  this  high  mound  was  originally  built  upon  the  natural  rock, 
a bank  of  hard  conglomerate  rising  about  fifteen  feet  above  the  plain,  and 
washed  in  days  of  yore  by  the  waters  of  the  Tigris.  Our  tunnel  was  car- 
ried for  thirty-four  feet  on  a level  with  this  rock,  which  appears  to  have 
been  covered  by  a kind  of  flooring  of  sun-dried  bricks,  probably  once  form- 
ing a platform  in  fr6nt  of  the  building.  It  was  buried  to  the  distance  of 
thirty  feet  from  the  wall,  by  baked  bricks  broken  and  entire,  and  by  frag- 
ments of  stone,  remains  of  the  superstructure  once  resting  upon  the  base- 
ment of  still  existing  stone  masonry.  This  mass  of  rubbish  was  about 
thirty  feet  high,  and  in  it  were  found  bones  apparently  human,  and  a yel- 
low earthen  jar  rudely  colored  with  simple  black  designs.!  The  rest  of 
this  part  of  the  mound  consisted  of  earth,  through  which  ran  two  thin  lines 
of  extraneous  deposit,  one  o i pebbles,  the  other  of  fragments  of  brick  and  pot- 
tery. I am  totally  at  a loss  to  account  for  their  formation. 

I ordered  tunnels  to  be  carried  along  the  basement  wall  in  both  direc- 
tions, hoping  to  reach  some  doorway  or  entrance,  but  it  was  found  to  con- 
sist of  solid  masonry,  extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  mound.  Its 
height  was  exactly"  twenty  feet,  which,  singularly  enough,  coincides  with 
that  assigned  by  Xenophon  to  the  stone  basement  of  the  wall  of  the  city 
(Larissa).!  It  was  finished  at  the  top  by  a line  of  gradines,  forming  a kind 
of  ornamental  battlement,  similar  to  those  represented  on  castles  in  the  sculp- 


covered  in  the  rubbish. § The  stones  in  this  structure  were  carefully  fitted 
together,  though  not  united  with  mortar,  unless  the  earth  which  filled  the 
crevices  was  the  remains  of  mud  used,  as  it  still  is  in  the  country,  as  a ce- 
ment. They  were  bevelled  with  a slanting  bevel,  and  in  the  face  of  the 
wall  were  eight  recesses  or  false  windows,  four  on  each  side  of  a square 
projecting  block  between  gradines. 

The  basement,  of  which  this  wall  proved  to  be  only  one  face,  was  not  ex- 
cavated on  the  northern  and  eastern  side  until  a later  period,  but  I will  de 
scribe  all  the  discoveries  connected  with  this  singular  building  at  once 
The  northern  side  was  of  the  same  height  as,  and  resembled  in  its  masonry 
the  western.  It  had  a semicircular  hollow  projection  in  the  centre,  sixteen 
feet  in  diameter,  on  the  east  side  of  which  were  two  recesses,  and  on  the 
west  four,  so  that  the  two  ends  of  the  wall  were  not  uniform.  That  part 
of  the  basement  against  which  the  great  artificial  mound  or  platform  abut- 

* See  section  of  conical  mound,  Plan  II. 

t These  relics  may  have  belonged  to  tombs  made  in  the  mound  after  the  edifice 
had  fallen  into  ruins.  % Anab.  lib.  iii.  c.  4. 

§ Part  of  a wall,  precisely  similar  in  construction,  still  exists  on  one  side  of  the 
great  mound  of  Kalah  Sherghat.  (Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  61.) 


ture. 


These  gradines  had  fallen,  and  some  of  them  were  dis- 


106 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


ted,  and  which  was  consequently  concealed  by  it,  that  is,  the  eastern  and 
southern  sides,  was  of  simple  stone  masonry  without  recesses  or  ornament. 
The  upper  part  of  the  edifice,  resting  on  the  stone  substructure,  consisted 
of  compact  masonry  of  burnt  bricks,  which  were  mostly  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  the  founder  of  the  centre  palace  (the  obelisk  king),  the  inscription 
being  in  many  instances  turned  outwards. 

It  was  thus  evident  that  the  high  conical  mound  forming  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  ruins  of  Nimroud,  was  the  remains  of  a square  tower,  and  not 
of  a pyramid,  as  had  previously  been  conjectured.  The  lower  part,  built  of 
solid  stone  masonry,  had  withstood  the  wreck  of  ages,  but  the  upper  walls 
of  burnt  brick,  and  the  inner  mass  of  sun-dried  brick  which  they  encased, 
falling  outwards,  and  having  been  subsequently  covered  with  earth  and  veg- 
etation, the  ruin  had  taken  the  pyramidal  form  that  loose  materials  falling 
in  this  manner  would  naturally  assume. 

It  is  very  probable  that  this  ruin  represents  the  tomb  of  Sardanapalus, 
which,  according  to  the  Greek  geographers,  stood  at  the  entrance  of  the  city 
of  Nineveh.  It  will  hereafter  be  seen  that  it  is  not  impossible  the  builder 
of  the  north-west  palace  of  Nimrcud  was  a king  of  that  name,  although  it 
is  doubtful  whether  he  can  be  identified  with  the  historical  Sardanapalus. 
Subsequent  discoveries  proved  that  he  must  himself  have  raised  the  stone 
substructure,  although  his  son,  whose  name  is  found  upon  the  bricks,  com- 
pleted the  building.  It  was,  of  course,  natural  to  conjecture  that  some 
traces  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  royal  remains  were  deposited,  were  to 
be  found  in  the  ruin,  and  I determined  to  examine  it  as  fully  as  I was  able. 
Having  first  ascertained  the  exact  centre  of  the  western  stone  basement,  I 
there  forced  a passage  through  it.  This  was  a work  of  some  difficulty,  as 
the  wall  was  8 ft.  9 in.  thick,  and  strongly  built  of  large  rough  stones. 
Having,  however,  accomplished  this  step,  I carried  a tunnel  completely 
through  the  mound,  at  its  very  base,  and  on  a level  with  the  natural  rock, 
until  we  reached  the  opposite  basement  wall,  at  a distance  of  150  feet. 
Nothing  having  been  discovered  by  this  cutting,  I directed  a second  to  be 
made  at  right  angles  to  it,  crossing  it  exactly  in  the  centre,  and  reach- 
ing from  the  northern  to  the  southern  basement ; but  without  any  discov- 
ery. At  the  point  where  they  intersected,  and  therefore  precisely  in  the 
centre  of  the  building,  I dug  down  through  the  solid  conglomerate  to  the 
depth  of  five  feet,  but  without  finding  any  traces  whatever  of  an  ancient 
disturbance  of  the  soil.  I was  unable  to  make  further  excavations  in  this 
part  of  the  ruin,  on  account  of  the  enormous  mass  of  superincumbent  earth, 
and  the  great  risk  to  which  the  men  were  exposed  from  its  falling  in.* 

The  next  cutting  was  made  in  the  centre  of  the  mound,  on  a line  with 
the  top  of  the  stone  basement  wall,  which  was  also  the  level  of  the  plat- 
form of  the  north-west  palace.  The  workmen  soon  came  to  a narrow  gal- 

* The  walls,  as  well  as  the  vault,  were  of  sun-dried  bricks.  It  is  curious  that  be- 
tween one  row  of  bricks  was  a layer  of  reeds,  as  in  the  Babylonian  ruins  ; the  only 
instance  of  this  mode  of  construction  yet  met  with  in  Assyria. 


Northern  Face  of  Basement  of  Tower  (Nimroud), 


V 


108 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


lery,  about  100  feet  long,  12  feet  high,  and  6 feet  broad,  which  was  blocked 
up  at  the  two  ends  without  any  entrance  being  left  into  it.  It  was  vaulted 
with  sun-dried  bricks,  a further  proof  of  the  use  of  the  arch  at  a very 
early  period,  and  the  vault  had  in  one  or  two  places  fallen  in.  No  remains 
whatever  were  found  in  it,  neither  fragments  of  sculpture  or  inscription,  nor 
any  smaller  relic.  There  were,  however,  undoubted  traces  of  its  having 
once  been  broken  into  on  the  western  side,  by  digging  into  the  face  of  the 
mound  after  the  edifice  was  in  ruins,  and  consequently,  therefore,  long  after 
the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  There  was  an  evident  depression  in  the  ex- 
terior of  the  mound,  which  could  be  perceived  by  an  observer  from  the  plain, 
and  the  interior  vault  had  been  forced  through.  The  remains  which  it  may 
have  contained,  probably  the  embalmed  body  of  the  king,  with  vessels  of 
precious  metals  and  other  objects  of  value  buried  with  it,  had  been  carried 
off  by  those  who  had  opened  the  tomb  at  some  remote  period,  in  search  of 
treasure.  They  must  have  had  some  clue  to  the  precise  position  of  the 
chamber,  or  how  could  they  have  dug  into  the  mound  exactly  at  the  right 
spot]  Had  this  depositary  of  the  dead  escaped  earlier  violation,  who  can 
tell  with  what  valuable  and  important  relics  of  Assyrian  art  or  Assyrian 
history  it  might  have  furnished  us  ? I explored,  with  feelings  of  great  dis- 
appointment, the  empty  chamber,  and  then  opened  other  tunnels,  without 
further  results,  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  mound. 

It  was  evident  that  the  long  gallery  or  chamber  I have  described  was 
the  place  of  deposit  for  the  body  of  the  king,  if  this  were  really  his  tomb. 
The  tunnels  and  cuttings  in  other  parts  of  the  mound  only  exposed  a com- 
pact and  solid  mass  of  sun-dried  brick  masonry  I much  doubt,  for  many 
reasons,  whether  any  sepulchre  exists  in  the  rock  beneath  the  foundations  of 
the  tower,  though,  of  course,  it  is  not  impossible  that  such  may  be  the  case.* 

From  the  present  state  of  the  ruin  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture  the  exact 
original  form  and  height  of  this  edifice.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  wa> 
a vast  square  tower,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  may  have  terminated 
in  a series  of  three  or  more  gradines,  like  the  obelisk  of  black  marble  from 
the  centre  palace  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  this  shape  that  I have 
ventured  to  give  it,  in  a general  restoration  of  the  platform  of  Nimroud  and 
its  various  edifices.!  Like  the  palaces,  too,  it  was  probably  painted  on  the 

* Col.  Rawlinson,  remarks  in  his  memoir  on  the  “ Outlines  of  Assyrian  History  ” 
(published  by  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  in  1852),  that  “ the  great  pyramid  at  Nimroud 
was  erected  by  the  son  of  the  builder  of  the  north-west  palace and  as  the  Greeks 
name  that  monument  the  tomb  of  Sardanapalus,  he  believes  that  “ a shaft  sunk  into 
the  centre  of  the  mound,  and  carried  down  to  the  foundations,  would  lay  bare  the 
original  sepulchre.  The  difficulties  (he  adds)  of  such  an  operation  have  hitherto  pre- 
vented its  execution,  but  the  idea  is  not  altogether  abandoned.”  He  appears  thus, 
curiously  enough,  to  be  ignorant  of  the  excavations  in  that  ruin  described  in  the  text, 
although  he  had  just  visited  Nimroud.  The  only  likely  place  not  yet  examined  would 
be  beneath  the  very  foundations. 

t In  the  frontispiece  to  the  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh.  I am  indebted 
to  Mr.  Fergusson,  who  was  good  enough  to  make  the  original  drawing,  for  this  res- 
oration  so  ably  executed  by  Mr.  Baines. 


YEZIDI  ALARM. 


109 


Chap.  V.] 

outside  with  various  mythic  figures  and  devices,  and  its  summit  may  have 
been  crowned  by  an  altar,  on  which  the  Assyrian  king  offered  up  his  great 
sacrifices,  or  on  which  was  fed  the  ever-burning  sacred  fire.  But  I will 
defer  any  further  remarks  upon  this  subject  until  I treat  of  the  architecture 
of  the  Assyrians. 

As  the  ruin  is  140  feet  high,  the  building  could  scarcely  have  been  much 
less  than  200,  whilst  the  immense  mass  of  rubbish  surrounding  and  cover- 
inn-  the  base  shows  that  it  might  have  been  considerably  more. 

During  the  two  months  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  discoveries  de- 
scribed in  this  chapter  were  made,  I was  occupied  almost  entirely  with  the 
excavations,  my  time  being  spent  between  Nimroud  and  Kouyunjik.  The 
only  incidents  worth  noting  were  a visit  from  Hussein  Bey,  Sheikh  Nasr. 
and  the  principal  chiefs  of  the  Yezidis,  and  a journey  taken  with  Hormuzd 
to  Khorsabad  and  the  neighbouring  ruins. 

The  heads  of  the  Yezidi  sect  came  to  Mosul  to  settle  some  differences 
with  the  Turkish  authorities  about  the  conscription.  They  lodged  in  my 
house.  Sheikh  Nasr  had  only  once  before  ventured  into  the  town,  and 
then  but  for  a few  hours.  To  treat  them  with  due  honor  I gave  an  enter- 
tainment, and  initiated  them  into  the  luxuries  of  Turkish  cookery.  We 
feasted  in  the  Iwan,  an  arched  hall  open  to  the  courtyard,  which  was 
lighted  up  at  night  with  mashaals,  or  bundles  of  flaming  rags  saturated 
with  bitumen,  and  raised  in  iron  baskets  on  high  poles,  casting  a flood  of 
rich  red  light  upon  surrounding  objects.  The  Yezidis  performed  their 
dances  to  Mosul  music  before  the  chiefs.  Suddenly  the  doors  were  thrown 
open,  and  a band  of  Arabs,  stripped  to  the  waist,  brandishing  their  weapons 
and  shouting  their  war-cry,  rushed  into  the  yard.  The  Yezidis  believed 
that  they  had  been  betrayed.  The  young  chief  drew  his  sword  ; and  even 
Sheikh  Nasr,  springing  to  his  feet,  prepared  to  defend  himself.  Their 
fears,  however,  gave  way  to  a hearty  laugh,  when  they  learnt  that  the  in- 
truders were  a band  of  my  workmen,  who  had  been  instigated  by  Mr. 
Hormuzd  Rassam  thus  to  alarm  my  guests. 

Wishing  to  visit  Baasheikhah,  Khorsabad,  and  other  ruins  at  the  foot  of 
the  range  of  low  hills  of  the  Gebel  Makloub,  I left  Nimroud  on  the  26th 
of  November  with  Hormuzd  and  the  Bairakdar.  Four  hours’  ride  brought 
us  to  some  small  artificial  mounds  near  the  village  of  Lak,  about  three 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  high  road  to  Mosul.  Here  we  found  a party  of 
workmen  excavating  under  one  of  the  Christian  superintendents.  Nothing 
had  been  discovered  except  fragments  of  pottery  and  a few  bricks  bearing 
the  name  of  the  Kouyunjik  king.  As  the  ruins,  from  their  size,  did  not 
promise  other  results,  I sent  the  men  back  to  Mosul.  We  reached  Khorsa- 
bad after  riding  for  nearly  eight  hours  over  a rich  plain,  capable  of  very 
high  cultivation,  though  wanting  in  water,  and  still  well  stocked  with  vil- 
lages, between  which  we  startled  large  flocks  of  gazelles  and  bustards.  1 
had  sent  one  of  my  overseers  there  some  days  before  to  uncover  the  platform 
to  the  west  of  the  principal  edifice,  a part  of  the  building  I was  desirous  of 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  V. 


1 10 

examining.  Whilst  clearing  away  the  rubbish,  he  had  discovered  two 
bas-reliefs  sculptured  in  black  stone.  They  represented  a hunting  scene. 
On  one  slab,  broken  into  several  pieces,  was  an  eunuch  discharging  an  ar- 
row at  a flying  bird,  probably  a pigeon  or  partridge.  He  was  dressed  in  a 
fringed  robe,  confined  at  the  waist  by  a girdle,  and  a short  sword  hung 
from  his  shoulder  by  a broad  and  richly  ornamented  belt.  The  ends  of  his 
bow  were  in  the  shape  of  the  heads  of  birds.  Behind  the  archer  were  two 
figures,  one  carrying  a gazelle  over  his  shoulder  and  a hare  in  his  hand, 
the  other  wearing  an  embroidered  tunic,  and  armed  with  a bow  and  arrows. 
In  the  back  ground  were  trees,  and  birds  flying  amongst  them.*  On  the 
second  slab  were  huntsmen  carrying  birds,  spears,  and  bows 

These  bas-reliefs  were  executed  with  much  truth  and  spirit.  They  be- 
longed to  a small  building,  believed  to  be  a temple,  entirely  constructed  of 
black  marble,  and  attached  to  the  palace.  It  stood  upon  a platform  16-') 
feet  in  length  and  100  in  width,  raised  about  6 feet  above  the  level  of  the 
flooring  of  the  chambers,  and  ascended  from  the  main  building  by  a flight 
of  broad  steps.  This  platform,  or  stylobate,  is  remarkable  for  a cornice  in 
grey  limestone  carried  round  the  four  sides, — one  of  the  few  remains  of  ex- 
terior decoration  in  Assyrian  architecture,  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 
It  is  carefully  built  of  separate  stones,  placed  side  by  side , each  forming 
part  of  the  section  of  the  cornice.  Mr.  Fergusson  observes,!  with  reference 
to  it,  “ at  first  sight  it  seems  almost  purely  Egyptian  ; but  there  are  pecul- 
iarities in  which  it  differs  from  any  found  in  that  country,  especially  in  the 
curve  being  continued  beyond  the  vertical  tangent,  and  the  consequent  pro- 
jection of  the  torus  giving  a second  shadow.  Whether  the  effect  of  this 


Elevation  of  Stylobate  of  Temple  Section  of  Stylobate  of  Temple 

would  be  pleasant  or  not  in  a cornice  placed  so  high  that  we  must  look  up 
to  it  is  not  quite  clear ; but  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  or  slightly  above  it. 
the  result  must  have  been  more  pleasing  than  any  form  found  in  Egypt, 
and  where  sculpture  is  not  added  might  be  used  with  effect  anywhere.” 
Many  fragments  of  bas-reliefs  in  the  same  black  marble,  chiefly  parts  of 
winged  figures,  had  been  uncovered ; but  this  building  has  been  more 
completely  destroyed  than  any  other  part  of  the  palace  of  Khorsabad,  and 
there  is  scarcely  enough  rubbish  even  to  cover  the  few  remains  of  sculpture 
which  are  scattered  over  the  platform. 

* See  Plate  32  of  the  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh  This  bas-relief, 
which  has  been  perfectly  repaired,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
t Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  restored,  p.  223. 


FUTHLIY^H. 


Ill 


Chap.  V.] 

The  sculptures  in  the  palace  itself  had  rapidly  fallen  to  decay,  and  of 
those  which  had  been  left  exposed  to  the  air  after  M.  Botta’s  departure 
scarcely  any  traces  remained.  Some,  however,  had  been  covered  up  and 
partly  preserved  by  the  falling  in  of  the  high  walls  of  earth  forming  the 
sides  of  the  trenches.  Here  and  there  a pair  of  colossal  bulls,  still  guard- 
ing the  portals  of  the  ruined  halls,  raised  their  majestic  hut  weather-beaten 
human  heads  above  the  soil.  In  one  or  two  unexplored  parts  of  the  ruins 
my  workmen  had  found  inscribed  altars  or  tripods,  similar  to  that  in  the 
Assyrian  collection  of  the  Louvre,  and  bricks  ornamented  with  figures  and 
designs  in  color,  showing  that  they  had  belonged  to  walls  painted  with 
subjects  resembling  those  sculptured  on  the  alabaster  panels. 

Since  my  former  visit  to  Khorsabad,  the  French  consul  at  Mosul  had  sold 
to  Col.  Rawlinson  the  pair  of  colossal  human-headed  bulls  and  winged  fig- 
ures, now  in  the  great  hall  of  the  British  Museum.*  They  had  stood  in  a 
propylsBum,  about  900  feet  to  the  south-east  of  the  palace,  within  the 
quadrangle,  but  not  upon  the  artificial  mound.  In  form  this  small  build- 
ing appears  to  have  been  nearly  the  same  as  the  gateway,  in  the  walls  of 
Kouyunjik,f  and  like  it  was  built  of  brick  and  panelled  with  low  lime- 
stone slabs.  From  the  number  of  enamelled  bricks  discovered  in  the  rufns 
it  is  probable  that  it  was  richly  decorated  in  color. $ 

Trenches  had  also  been  opened  in  one  of  the  higher  mounds  in  the  line 
of  walls,  and  in  the  group  of  ruins  at  the  S.W.  corner  of  the  quadrangle, 
but  no  discoveries  of  any  interest  had  been  made.  The  centre  of  the  quad- 
rangle was  now  occupied  by  a fever-breeding  marsh  formed  by  the  waters 
of  the  Khauser. 

We  passed  the  night  at  Futhliyah,  a village  built  at  the  foot  of  the 
Gebel  Makloub,  about  a mile  and  a half  from  Khorsabad.  A small  grove 
of  olive  trees  renders  it  a conspicuous  object  even  from  Mosul,  whence  it 
looks  like  a dark  shadow  on  the  tawny  plain.  Although  once  containing 
above  two  hundred  houses  it  has  now  but  sixty.  It  formerly  belonged  to 
the  Mosul  spahis,  or  military  fief-holders,  and  is  still  claimed  by  them,  al- 
though the  government  has  abolished  such  tenures.  We  lodged  in  a well- 
built  stone,  kasr,  or  large  house,  fast  falling  into  ruins,  belonging  to  the 
Alai  Bey,  or  chief  of  the  spahis.  Selim  Bey,  one  of  the  former  tenants  of 
the  land,  still  lingered  about  the  place,  gathering  together  such  small 
revenues  in  money  and  in  kind  as  he  could  raise  amongst  the  more  chari- 
table of  the  inhabitants.  He  came  to  me  in  the  morning,  and  gave  me 
the  history  of  the  village  and  of  its  owners. 

* These  sculptures  were  purchased  by  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  from 
Col.  Rawlinson.  Owing  to  that  carelessness  and  neglect,  of  which  there  has  been 
so  much  cause  to  complain  in  all  that  concerns  the  transport  of  the  Assyrian  antiqui- 
ties to  this  country,  they  have  suffered  very  considerable  injury  since  their  discovery. 
They  were  sawn  into  many  pieces  for  facility  of  transport  by  my  marble-cutter  Beh- 
nan,  superintended  by  Mr.  Rassam. 

t See  plan,  p.  103. 


t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  52 


112 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[CHAI\  V. 

Near  Futhliyah,  and  about  two  miles  from  the*  palace  of  Khorsabad,  i« 
a lofty  conical  Tel  visible  from  Mosul,  and  from  most  parts  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  It  is  one  of  those  isolated  mounds  so  numerous  in  the  plains 
of  Assyria,  which  do  not  appear  to  form  part  of  any  group  of  ruins,  and  the 
nature  of  which  I have  been  unable  to  determine.  Its  vicinity  to  Khorsa- 
bad  led  me  to  believe  that  it  might  have  been  connected  with  those  re- 
mains, and  might  have  been  raised  over  a tomb.  By  my  directions  deep 
trenches  were  opened  into  its  sides,  but  only  fragments  of  pottery  were  dis- 
covered. The  place  is,  however,  worthy  of  a more  complete  examination 
than  the  time  and  means  at  my  disposal  would  permit. 

From  Futhliyah  we  rode  across  the  plain  to  the  large  village  of  Baaza- 
ni,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Yezidis.  There  we  found  Hussein  Bey,  Sheikh 
Nasr,  and  a large  party  of  Cawals  assembled  at  the  house  of  one  Abd-ur- 
rahman  Chelibi,  a Mussulman  gentleman  of  Mosul,  who  had  farmed  the 
revenues  of  the  place. 

Near  Baazani  is  a group  of  artificial  mounds  of  no  great  size.  The 
three  principal  have  been  used  as  burying-places  by  the  Yezidis,  and  are 
covered  with  their  graves  and  white  conical  tombs.  Although  no  difficul- 
ties would  have  been  thrown  in  my  way  had  I wished  to  excavate  in  these 
ruins,  they  did  not  appear  to  me  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  an  in- 
jury to  the  feelings  of  these  poor  people  by  the  desecration  of  the  resting- 
places  of  their  dead.  Having  examined  them,  therefore,  and  taken  leave 
of  the  chiefs,  I rode  to  the  neighbouring  village  of  Baasheikhah,  only  sep- 
arated from  Baazani  by  a deep  watercourse,  dry  except  during  the  rains. 
Both  stand  at  the  very  foot  of  the  Gebel  Makloub.  Immediately  behind 
them  are  craggy  ravines  worn  by  winter  torrents.  In  these  valleys  are 
quarries  of  the  kind  of  alabaster  used  in  the  Assyrian  palaces,  but  I could 
find  no  remains  to  show  that  the  Assyrians  had  obtained  their  great  slabs 
from  them,  although  they  appear  to  be  of  ancient  date.  They  are  now 
worked  by  the  Yezidis,  who  set  apart  the  proceeds  for  Sheikh  Nasr,  as  the 
highpriest  of  the  tomb  of  Sheikh  Adi.  The  stone  quarried  from  them  is 
used  for  the  houses  both  of  Baazani  and  Baasheikhah,  which  consequently 
have  a more  cleanly  and  substantial  appearance  than  is  usually  the  case  in 
this  part  of  Turkey.  Indeed,  both  villages  are  flourishing,  chiefly  owing 
to  the  industry  of  their  Yezidi  inhabitants,  and  their  cultivation  of  several 
large  groves  of  olive  trees,  which  produce  the  only  olive  oil  in  the  country. 
Mixed  with  the  Yezidis  are  some  families  of  Jacobite  Christians,  who  live 
in  peace  and  good  understanding  with  their  neighbours. 

I have  already  mentioned,  in  my  former  work,*  the  Assyrian  ruin  near 
Baasheikhah.  It  is  a vast  mound,  little  inferior  in  size  to  Nimroud,  irreg- 
ular in  shape,  uneven  in  level,  and  furrowed  by  deep  ravines  worn  by  the 
winter  rains.  Standing,  as  it  does,  near  abundant  quarries  of  the  favorite 
sculpture-material  of  the  Assyrians,  and  resembling  the  platforms  of  Kou- 
yunjik  or  Khorsabad,  there  was  every  probability  that  it  contained  the  re- 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  52. 


Chap.  V.] 


BAASHEIKHAH. 


113 


mains  of  an  edifice  like  those  ruins.  There  are  a few  low  mounds  scat- 
tered around  it,  but  no  distinct  line  of  walls  forming  an  inclosure.  During 
the  former  excavations  only  earthen  jars,  and  bricks,  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  the  founder  of  the  centre  palace  at  Nimroud,  had  been  discover- 
ed A party  of  Arabs  and  Tiyari  were  now  opening  trenches  and  tun- 
nels in  various  parts  of  the  mound,  under  the  superintendence  of  Yakoub 
Rais  of  Asheetha.  The  workmen  had  uncovered,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
ruin  near  the  surface,  some  large  blocks  of  yellowish  limestone  apparently 
forming  a flight  of  steps  ; the  only  other  antiquities  of  any  interest  found 
during  the  excavations  were  a few  bricks  bearing  the  name  of  the  early 
Nimroud  king,  and  numerous  fragments  of  earthenware,  apparently  belong- 
ing to  the  covers  of  some  earthen  vessels,  having  the  guilloche  and  honey- 
suckle alternating  with  the  cone  and  tulip,  as  on  the  oldest  monuments  of 
Nimroud,  painted  upon  them  in  black  upon  a pale-yellow  ground. f 

It  is  remarkable  that  no  remains  of  more  interest  have  been  discovered 
in  this  mound,  which  must  contain  a monument  of  considerable  size  and 
antiquity.  Although  the  trenches  opened  in  it  were  numerous  and  deep, 
yet  the  ruin  has  not  yet  probably  been  sufficiently  examined.  It  can 
scarcely  be  doubted  that  on  the  artificial  platform,  as  on  others  of  the  same 
nature,  stood  a royal  palace,  or  some  monument  of  equal  importance. 

* The  fragment  of  sculpture  brought  me  by  a Christian  overseer,  employed  during 
the  former  expedition,  was,  I have  reason  to  believe,  obtained  at  Khorsabad. 

t Now  in  the  British  Museum.  They  appear  to  belong  to  several  distinct  objects, 
probably  the  covers  to  some  funeral  or  other  vases.  See  Plate  55.  of  2d  series  of 
the  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


Cart  with  Ropes,  and  Workmen  carrying  Saws,  Picks,  and  Shovels,  for  moving  Colossal  Bull  (Kouyunjik). 

H 


Bulls,  with  historical  Inscriptions  of  Sennacherib  (Kouyunjik). 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DISCOVERY  OF  GRAND  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  PALACE  OF  KOUYUNJIK OF  THE  NAME  OP 

SENNACHERIB  IN  THE  INSCRIPTIONS. THE  RECORDS  OF  THAT  KING  IN  THE  INSCRIP- 
TIONS ON  THE  BULLS. AN  ABRIDGED  TRANSLATION  OF  THEM. NAME  OF  HEZEKIAH 

ACCOUNT  OF  SENNACHERIB’S  WARS  WITH  THE  JEWS DR.  HINCKS  AND  COL.  RAW- 

L1NSON. THE  NAMES  OF  SARGON  AND  SHALMANESER. DISCOVERY  OF  SCULPTURES  AT 

KOUYUNJIK,  REPRESENTING  THE  SIEGE  OF  LACHISH. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SCULPTURES- 

DISCOVERY  OF  CLAY  SEALS OF  SIGNETS  OF  EGYPTIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  KINGS. CAR- 
TOUCHE OF  SABACO. NAME  OF  ESSARHADDON. CONFIRMATION  OF  HISTORICAL  REC- 
ORDS OF  THE  BIBLE  ROYAL  CYLINDER  OF  SENNACHERIB. 

During  the  month  of  December,  several  discoveries  of  the  greatest  in- 
terest and  importance  were  made,  both  at  Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud.  I 
will  first  describe  the  results  of  the  excavations  in  the  ruins  opposite  Mosul. 

I must  remind  the  reader  that,  shortly  before  my  departure  for  Europe 
in  1848,  the  forepart  of  a human-headed  hull  of  colossal  dimensions  had 
been  uncovered  on  the  east  side  of  the  Kouyunjik  Palace.*  This  sculp- 
ture then  appeared  to  form  one  side  of  an  entrance  or  doorway,  and  it  is  so 
placed  in  the  plan  of  the  ruins  accompanying  my  former  work.f  The  ex- 
cavations had,  however,  been  abandoned  before  any  attempt  could  be  made 
to  ascertain  the  fact  On  my  return,  I had  directed  the  workmen  to  dig 
out  the  opposite  sculpture  A tunnel,  nearly  100  feet  in  length,  was  ac- 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  137. 
f Ibid  vol.  ii  — plan  of  Kouyunjik. 


SCULPTURES  DESCRIBED. 


115 


Chap.  VI.] 

cordingly  opened  at  right  angles  to  the  hull  first  discovered,  but  without 
coming  upon  any  other  remains  than  a pavement  of  square  limestone  slabs 
which  stretched  without  interruption  as  far  as  the  excavation  was  carried. 
I consequently  discontinued  the  cutting,  as  it  was  evident  that  no  entrance 
could  be  of  so  great  a width,  and  as  there  were  not  even  traces  of  building 
in  that  direction. 

The  workmen  having  been  then  ordered  to  uncover  the  bull  which  was 
still  partly  buried  in  the  rubbish,  it  was  found  that  adjoining  it  were  other 
sculptures,  and  that  it  formed  part  of  an  exterior  fapade.  The  upper  half 
of  the  next  slab  had  been  destroyed,  but  the  lower  still  remained,  and  en- 
abled me  to  restore  the  figure  of  the  Assyrian  Hercules  strangling  the  lion, 
similar  to  that  discovered  between  the  bulls  in  the  propylsea  of  Khorsabad, 
and  now  in  the  Louvre.  The  hinder  part  of  the  animal  was  still  preserved. 
Its  claws  grasped  the  huge  limbs  of  the  giant,  who  lashed  it  with  the  ser- 
pent-headed scourge.  The  legs,  feet,  and  drapery  of  the  god  were  in  the 
boldest  relief,  and  designed  with  great  truth  and  vigor.  Beyond  this  fig- 
ure, in  the  same  line,  was  a second  bull.  The  facade  then  opened  into  a 
wide  portal,  guarded  by  a pair  of  winged  bulls,  twenty  feet  long,  and  prob- 
ably, when  entire,  more  than  twenty  feet  high.  Forming  the  angle  be- 
tween them  and  the  outer  bulls  were  gigantic  winged  figures  in  low  relief,^ 
and  flanking  them  were  two  smaller  figures,  one  above  the  other. f Be- 
yond this  entrance  was  a group  similar  to  and  corresponding  with  that  on 
the  opposite  side,  also  leading  to  a smaller  entrance  into  the  palace,  and  to 
a wall  of  sculptured  slabs  ; but  here  all  traces  of  building  and  sculpture 
ceased,  and  we  found  ourselves  near  the  edge  of  the  water- worn  ravine. 

Thus  a fapade  of  the  south-east  side  of  the  palace,  forming  apparently 
the  grand  entrance  to  the  edifice,  had  been  discovered.  Ten  colossal  bulls, 
with  six  human  figures  of  gigantic  proportions,  were  here  grouped  togeth- 
er, and  the  length  of  the  whole,  without  including  the  sculptured  walls 
continued  beyond  the  smaller  entrances,  was  180  feet.J  Although  the 
bas-reliefs  to  the  right  of  the  northern  gateway  had  apparently  been  pur- 
posely destroyed  with  a sharp  instrument,  enough  remained  to  allow  me  to 
trace  their  subject.  They  had  represented  the  conquest  of  a district,  prob- 
ably part  of  Babylonia,  watered  by  a broad  river  and  wooded  with  palms, 
spearmen  on  foot  in  combat  with  Assyrian  horsemen,  castles  besieged,  long 
lines  of  prisoners,  and  beasts  of  burden  carrying  away  the  spoil.  Amongst 
various  animals  brought  as  tribute  to  the  conquerors,  could  be  distinguished 
a lion  led  by  a chain.  There  were  no  remains  whatever  of  the  super- 

* Nos.  4.  and  9.  Grand  entrance,  S.E.  side,  Plan  I.  These  figures  were  those 
of  winged  priests,  or  deities,  carrying  the  fir-cone  and  basket. 

t Nos.  5.  and  8.  Same  entrance.  The  small  figure  resembled  No.  2.  in  Plate  6. 
of  2d  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

t The  frontispiece  to  this  volume  will  convey  to  the  reader  some  idea  of  this  mag- 
nificent fagade  when  entire.  This  restoration,  for  which  I am  mainly  indebted  to 
Mr.  Fergusson,  has  been  made  with  a careful  regard  to  the  exact  proportions. 


Existing  Remains  at  Khorsabad,  showing  original  Statq  of  Grand  Entrance  at  Kouyunjik. 


NAME  OF  SENNACHERIB. 


117 


Chap.  VI.] 

structure  which  once  rose  above  the  colossi,  guarding  this  magnificent  en- 
trance ; hut  I shall  hereafter  more  particularly  describe  the  principal  dec- 
orations and  details  of  Assyrian  architecture,  and  shall  endeavor  to  restore, 
as  far  as  the  remains  still  existing  will  permit,  the  exterior  and  interior  of 
the  palaces  of  Nineveh. 

The  bulls,  as  I have  already  observed,  were  all  more  or  less  injured. 
The  same  convulsion  of  nature — for  I can  scarcely  attribute  to  any  human 
violence  the  overthrow  of  these  great  masses — had  shattered  some  of  them 
into  pieces,  and  scattered  the  fragments  amongst  the  ruins.  Fortunately, 
however,  the  lower  parts  of  all,  and,  consequently,  the  inscriptions,  had 
been  more  or  less  preserved.  To  this  fact  we  owe  the  recovery  of  some  of 
the  most  precious  records  with  which  the  monuments  of  the  ancient  world 
have  rewarded  the  labors  of  the  antiquary. 

On  the  great  bulls  forming  the  centre  portal  of  the  grand  entrance,  was 
one  continuous  inscription,  injured  in  parts,  but  still  so  far  preserved  as  to 
be  legible  almost  throughout.  It  contained  152  lines.  On  the  four  bulls 
of  the  fapade  were  two  inscriptions,  one  inscription  being  carried  over  each 
pair,  and  the  two  being  of  precisely  the  same  import.  These  two  distinct 
records  contain  the  annals  of  six  years  of  the  reign  of  Sennacherib,  besides 
numerous  particulars  connected  with  the  religion  of  the  Assyrians,  their 
gods,  their  temples,  and  the  erection  of  their  palaces,  all  of  the  highest  in- 
terest and  importance. 

In  my  first  work  I had  pointed  out  the  evidence,  irrespective  of  the  in- 
scriptions, which  led  me  to  identify  the  builder  of  the  great  palace  of  Kou- 
yunjik  with  Sennacherib.*  Dr.  Hincks,  in  a memoir  on  the  inscriptions  of 
Khorsabad,  read  in  June,  1849,  but  published  in  the  “ Transactions  of  the 
Hoyal  Irish  Academy,”!  in  1850,  was  the  first  to  detect  the  name  of  this 
king  in  the  group  of  arrowheaded  characters  at  the  commencement  of 
nearly  all  the  inscriptions,  and  occurring  on  all  the  inscribed  bricks  from 
the  ruins  of  this  edifice.  Subsequent  discoveries  confirmed  this  identifica- 
tion, but  it  was  not  until  August,  1851,  that  the  mention  of  any  actual 
event  recorded  in  the  Bible,  and  in  ancient  profane  history,  was  detected 
on  the  monuments,  thus  removing  all  further  doubt  as  to  the  king  who  had 
raised  them. 

Shortly  after  my  return  to  England  my  copies  of  these  inscriptions  hav- 
ing been  seen  by  Colonel  Rawlinson,  he  announced,  in  the  Athenaeum  of 
the  23d  August,  1851,  that  he  had  found  in  them  notices  of  the  reign  of 
Sennacherib,  “ which  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  dispute  his  historic  iden- 

* I had  also  shown  the  probability  that  the  palace  of  Khorsabad  owed  its  erection 
to  a monarch  of  this  dynasty,  in  a series  of  letters  published  in  the  Malta  Times,  as 
far  back  as  1843. 

t Vol.  xxii.  p.  34.  I take  this  opportunity  of  attributing  to  their  proper  source  the 
discoveries  of  the  names  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Babylon,  inadvertently  assigned  to 
others  in  my  “Nineveh  and  its  Remains.”  We  owe  these,  with  many  others  of 
scarcely  less  importance,  to  the  ingenuity  and  learning  of  Dr.  Hincks.  (Literary 
Gazette,  June  27.  1846.) 


118 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  YI 


tity,”  and  he  gave  a recapitulation  of  the  principal  events  recorded  on  the 
monuments,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  known  to  us  through  history 
either  sacred  or  profane.  These  inscriptions  have  since  been  examined  by 
Dr.  Hincks,  and  translated  by  him  independently  of  Colonel  Rawlinson. 
He  has  kindly  assisted  me  in  giving  the  following  abridgment  of  their  con- 
tents.* 

The  inscriptions  begin  with  the  name  and  titles  of  Sennacherib.  It  is 
to  he  remarked  that  he  does  not  style  himself  “ King  [or  rath6r  High  PriestJ 
of  Babylon,”  as  his  father  had  done  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  from 
which  it  may  be  inferred  that  at  the  time  of  engraving  the  record  he  was 
not  the  immediate  sovereign  of  that  city,  although  its  chief  may  have  paid 
tribute  to  him,  and,  no  doubt,  acknowledged  his  supremacy.  He  calls  him- 
self “ the  subduer  of  kings  from  the  upper  sea  of  the  setting  sun  (the  Med- 
iterranean) to  the  lower  sea  of  the  rising  sun  (the  Persian  Gulf).”  In  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  he  defeated  Merodach  Baladan,  a name  with  which 
we  are  familiar,  for  it  is  this  king  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
as  sending  letters  and  a present  to  Hezekiah,f  when  the  Jewish  monarch 
in  his  pride  showed  the  ambassadors  “ the  house  of  his  precious  things,  the 
silver  and  the  gold,  and  the  spices,  and  the  precious  ointment,  and  all  the 
house  of  his  armour,  and  all  that  was  found  in  his  treasures  : there  was 
nothing  in  his  house  nor  ih  all  his  dominions  that  Hezekiah  showed  them 
not an  act  of  vain  boasting  which  led  to  the  reproof  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  and  to  his  foretelling  that  all  this  wealth,  together  with  the  de- 
scendants of  its  owner,  should  be  carried  away  as  spoil  to  the  very  city 
from  which  these  ambassadors  came.  Merodach  Baladan  is  called  king  of 
Kar-Duniyas,  a city  and  country  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions, and  comprising  the  southernmost  part  of  Mesopotamia,  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  together  with  the  districts  watered 
by  those  two  rivers,  to  the  borders  of  Susiana.  This  king,  with  the  help 
of  his  Susianian  allies,  had  recently  recovered  Babylon,  from  which  Sar- 
gon,  Sennacherib’s  father,  had  expelled  him  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his 
reign.  The  battle  appears  to  have  been  fought  considerably  to  the  north 
of  that  city.  The  result  was  that  Sennacherib  totally  defeated  Merodach 

“ I must  here  remind  the  reader  that  any  new  discoveries  in  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions referred  to  in  the  text  are  to  be  attributed  to  Dr.  Hincks.  The  translation 
made  by  Col.  Rawlinson,  and  published  by  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  was  compiled 
from  three  distinct  records  of  the  same  monarch, — the  inscriptions  on  the  bulls,  on  a 
large  barrel-shaped  terra-cotta  cylinder,  known  as  Bellino’s  cylinder,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  on  an  hexagonal  cylinder  in  the  same 'material,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  late  Col.  Taylor.  The  first  annals  extend  over  six  years  of  Sennacherib’s 
reign,  the  second  over  only  two,  and  the  last,  the  fullest  and  most  detailed,  but  un- 
fortunately said  to  be  lost,  over  eight.  It  will  be  perceived  that  Dr.  Hincks’s  version 
differs  somewhat  from  that  published  by  Col.  Rawlinson ; and  it  must  be  observed 
that  he  was  unable  to  refer  to  the  more  complete  records,  of  which  a cast  in  paper 
is  in  the  Colonel’s  possession.  He  has  availed  himself  of  Bellino’s  cylinder  to  com- 
plete the  annals  of  the  first  two  years  ef  the  reign  of  the  Assyrian  king. 

t Isaiah,  xxxix.  1.  and  2 Kings,  xx.  12.  where  the  name  is  written  Berodach. 


SENNACHERIB’S  WARS. 


119 


Chap.  VI.] 

Baladan,  who  fled  to  save  his  life,  leaving  behind  him  his  chariots,  wag- 
gons (1),  horses,  mares,  asses  (?),  camels,  and  riding  horses  with  their 
trappings  for  war  (?).  The  victorious  king  then  advanced  to  Babylon, 
where  he  plundered  the  palace,  carrying  off  a vast  treasure  of  gold,  silver, 
vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  precious  stones,  men  and  women  servants,  and 
a variety  of  objects  which  cannot  yet  be  satisfactorily  determined.  No  less 
than  seventy-nine  cities  (or  fortresses),  all  the  castles  of  the  Chaldseans, 
and  eight  hundred  and  twenty  small  towns  (or  villages),  dependent  upon 
them,  were  taken  and  spoiled  by  the  Assyrian  army,  and  the  great  wander- 
ing tribes  “ that  dwelt  around  the  cities  of  Mesopotamia,”  the  Syrians 
(Arameans),  and  Chaldaeans,  &c.  &c.  were  brought  under  subjection. 
Sennacherib  having  made  Belib,^  one  of  his  own  officers,  sovereign  of  the 
conquered  provinces,  proceeded  to  subdue  the  powerful  tribes  who  border 
on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  amongst  them  the  Hagarenes  and  Naba- 
thseans.  From  these  wandering  people  he  declares  that  he  carried  off  to 
Assyria,  probably  colonising  with  them,  as  was  the  custom,  new-built 
towns  and  villages,  208,000  men,  women,  and  children,  together  with 
7200  horses  and  mares,  11,063  asses  (?),  5230  camels,  120,100  oxen,  and 
800,500  sheep.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  camels  should  bear  so  small  a 
proportion  to  the  oxen  and  asses  in  this  enumeration  of  the  spoil.  Amongst 
the  Bedouin  tribes,  who  now  inhabit  the  same  country,  the  camels  would 
be  far  more  numerous.!  It  is  interesting  to  find,  that  in  those  days,  as  at 
a later  period,  there  was  both  a nomade  and  stationary  population  in  North- 
ern Arabia. 

In  the  same  year  Sennacherib  received  a great  tribute  from  the  con- 
quered Khararah,  and  subdued  the  people  of  Kherimmi,  whom  he  declares 
to  have  been  long  rebellious  (neither  people  can  as  yet  be  identified),  re- 
building (?  or  consecrating)  the  city  of  the  latter,  and  sacrificing  on  the 
occasion,  for  its  dedication  to  the  gods  of  Assyria,  one  ox,  ten  sheep,  ten 
goats  or  lambs,  and  twenty  other  animals. $ 

In  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  Sennacherib  appears  to  have  turned  his 
arms  to  the  north  of  Nineveh,  having  reduced  in  his  first  year  the  southern 
country  to  obedience.  By  the  help  of  Ashur,  he  says,  he  went  to  Bishi  and 
Yasubirablai  (both  names  of  doubtful  reading  and  not  identified),  who  had 
long  been  rebellious  to  the  kings  his  fathers.  He  took  Beth  Kilamzakh, 
their  principal  city,  and  carried  away  their  men,  small  and  great,  horses, 
mares,  asses  (?),  oxen,  and  sheep.  The  people  of  Bishi  and  Yasubirablai, 

* Col.  Rawlinson  reads  Bel-adon.  This  Belib  is  the  Belibus  of  Ptolemy’s  Canon. 
The  mention  of  his  name  led  Dr.  Hincks  to  determine  the  accession  of  Sennacherib 
to  be  in  703  b.  c. 

t Col.  Rawlinson  gives  11,180  head  of  cattle,  5230  camels,  1,020,100  sheep,  and 
800,300  goats.  He  has  also  pointed  out  that  both  Abydenus  and  Polyhistor  mention 
this  campaign  against  Babylon. 

t It  is  to  be  remarked  that  he  does  not  say  he  gave  a new  name  to  this  city,  as 
was  generally  the  case  ; it  may  have  been  a holy  city  (compare  “ Harem”)  and  con- 
sequently escaped  destruction. 


120 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VI. 


who  had  fled  from  his  servants,  he  brought  down  from  the  mountains  and 
placed  them  under  one  of  his  eunuchs,  the  governor  of  the  city  of  Arapkha. 
He  made  tablets,  and  wrote  on  them  the  laws  {or  tribute)  imposed  upon 
the  conquered , and  set  them  up  in  the  city.  He  took  permanent  posses- 
sion of  the  country  of  Illibi  (Luristan?),  and  Ispabara*  its  king,  after  be- 
ing defeated,  fled,  leaving  the  cities  of  Marubishti  and  Akkuddu,  the  royal 
residences,  with  thirty-four  principal  towns,  and  villages  not  to  be  counted, 
to  be  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians,  who  carried  away  a large  amount  of  cap- 
tives and  cattle.  Beth-barrua,  the  city  itself  and  its  dependencies,  Senna- 
cherib separated  from  Illibi,  and  added  to  his  immediate  dominions.  The 
city  of  Ilbinzash  (?)  he  appointed  to  be  the  chief  city  in  this  district.  He 
abolished  its  former  name,  called  it  Kar-Sanakhirba  {i.  e.  the  city  of  Senna- 
cherib), and  placed  in  it  a new  people,  annexing  it  to  the  government  of 
Kharkhar,  which  must  have  been  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Holwan,  com- 
manding the  pass  through  mount  Zagros.  After  this  campaign  he  received 
tribute  to  a great  amount  from  some  Median  nations,  so  distant,  that  his 
predecessors  “ had  not  even  heard  mention  of  their  names,”  and  made  them 
obedient  to  his  authority. 

In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  Sennacherib  appears  to  have  overran  with 
his  armies  the  whole  of  Syria.  He  probably  crossed  the  Euphrates  above 
Carchemish,  at  or  near  the  ford  of  Thapsacus,  and  marched  to  the  sea- 
coast,  over  the  northern  spur  of  Mount  Lebanon.  The  Syrians  are  called 
by  their  familiar  biblical  name  of  Hittites,  the  Khatti,  or  Khetta,  by  which 
they  were  also  known  to  the  Egyptians.  The  first  opposition  he  appears 
to  have  received  was  from  Luli  (or  Luliya),  king  of  Sidon,  who  had  with- 
held his  homage  ; but  who  was  soon  compelled  to  fly  from  Tyre  to  Yavan 
in  the  middle  of  the  sea.  Dr.  Hincks  identifies  this  country  with  the  island 
of  Crete,  or  some  part  of  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  with  the 
Yavan  (U)  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  country  of  the  Ionians  or  Greeks,  an 
identification  which  I believe  to  be  correct!  This  very  Phoenician  king  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (quoting  from  Menander),  under  the  name  of  Elu- 
laeus,  as  warring  with  Shalmanezer,  a predecessor  of  Sennacherib.  He  ap- 
pears not  to  have  been  completely  subdued  before  this,  but  only  to  have 
paid  homage  or  tribute  to  the  Assyrian  monarchs.J  Sennacherib  placed  a 

* We  learn  from  the  Khorsabad  inscriptions,  that  in  the  eleventh  year  of  the  reign 
of  Sargon,  Dalta,  the  king  of  this  country,  died,  leaving  two  sons,  one  of  whom  was 
supported  by  the  king  of  Susa,  and  the  other  by  the  Assyrian  monarch,  who  sent  a 
large  army,  under  seven  generals,  to  his  assistance,  and  totally  defeating  the  Susi- 
anians,  placed  Ispabara  on  the  throne.  Ispabara  appears  afterwards  to  have  thrown 
off  the  Assyrian  yoke.  (Dr.  Hincks.)  Col.  Rawlinson  places  Illibi  in  northern 
Media,  and  reads  most  of  the  names  in  the  text  differently.  (P.  20.  of  his  Memoir.) 

t Col.  Rawlinson  identifies  the  name,  which  he  reads  Yetnan,  with  the  Rhinoculura 
of  the  Greeks,  and  places  it  in  the  south  of  Phoenicia,  on  the  confines  of  Egypt. 

X Joseph.  1.  ix.  c.  14.,  and  see  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  400.,  where  I had 
long  before  the  deciphering  of  the  inscriptions  endeavoured  to  point  out  the  repre- 
sentation of  this  event,  in  some  bas-reliefs  at  Kouyunjik.  This  flight  of  Luliya,  in- 


CONQUEST  OF  JUDAEA. 


121 


Chap.  VI.] 

person,  whose  name  is  doubtful  (Col.  Rawlinson  reads  it  Tubaal),  upon 
the  throne  of  Luli,  and  appointed  his  annual  tribute.  All  the  kings  of  the 
sea-coast  then  submitted  to  him,  except  Zidkaha  (compare  Zedekiah)  or 
Zidkabal,  king  of  Ascalon.  This  chief  was,  however,  soon  subdued,  and  was 

sent,  with  his  household  and  wealth,  to  Assyria, (name  destroyed),  the 

son  of  Rukipti  (?),  a former  king,  being  placed  on  the  throne  in  his  stead. 
The  cities  dependent  upon  Ascalon,  which  had  not  been  obedient  to  his  au- 
thority, he  captured  and  plundered.  A passage  of  great  importance  which 
now  occurs  is  unfortunately  so  much  injured  that  it  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily restored.  It  appears  to  state  that  the  chief  priests  (?)  and  people  of 
Ekron  (?)  had  dethroned  their  king  Padiya,  who  was  dependent  upon  As- 
syria, and  had  delivered  him  up  to  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judsea.*  The  kings 
of  Egypt  sent  an  army,  the  main  part  of  which  is  said  to  have  belonged  to 
the  king  of  Milukhkha  (Meroe,  or  ^Ethiopia),  to  Judaea,  probably  to  help 
their  Jewish  allies.  Sennacherib  joined  battle  with  the  Egyptians,  and  to- 
tally defeated  them  near  the  city  of  A1  ....  ku,  capturing  the  charioteers 
of  the  king  of  Milukhkha,  and  placing  them  in  confinement.  This  battle  be- 
tween the  armies  of  the  Assyrians  and  Egyptians  appears  to  be  hinted  at  in 
Isaiah  and  in  the  Book  of  Kings. f Padiya  having  been  brought  back  from 
Jerusalem  was  replaced  by  Sennacherib  on  his  throne.  “Hezekiah,  king 
of  Judah,”  says  the  Assyrian  king,  “who  had  not  submitted  to  my  author- 
ity, forty-six  of  his  principal  cities,  and  fortresses  and  villages  depending 
upon  them,  of  which  I took  no  account,  I captured  and  carried  away  their 
spoil.  I shut  up  (?)  himself  within  Jerusalem,  his  capital  city.  The 
fortified  towns,  and  the  rest  of  his  towns,  which  I spoiled,  I severed  from 
his  country,  and  gave  to  the  kings  of  Ascalon,  Ekron,  and  Gaza,  so  as  to 
make  his  country  small.  In  addition  to  the  former  tribute  imposed  upon 
their  countries,  I added  a tribute,  the  nature  of  which  I fixed.”  The  next 
passage  is  somewhat  defaced,  but  the  substance  of  it  appears  to  be  that  he 
took  from  Hezekiah  the  treasure  he  had  collected  in  Jerusalem,  30  talents 
of  gold  and  800  talents  of  silver,  the  treasures  of  his  palace,  besides  his  sons 
and  his  daughters,  and  his  male  and  female  servants  or  slaves,  and  brought 

deed,  appears  to  be  represented  in  plate  No.  71.  of  the  first  series  of  the  “Monu- 
ments of  Nineveh.” 

* Col.  Rawlinson  reads  the  name  of  the  king  Haddiya.  That  of  Ekron  is  very 
doubtful. 

t Isaiah,  xxxvii.  2 Kings,  xix.  9.  It  is  not  stated  that  the  armies  of  the  two 
great  antagonistic  nations  of  the  ancient  world  actually  met  in  battle,  but  that  Sen- 
nacherib “ heard  say  concerning  Tirhakah  king  of  Ethiopia,  He  is  coming  forth  to 
make  war  with  thee.”  Herodotus,  however,  appears  to  have  preserved  the  record 
of  the  battle  in  the  celebrated  story  of  the  mice  which  gnawed  the  bowstrings  and 
the  thongs  of  the  shields  of  the  Assyrian  soldiers  during  the  night,  and  left  them  an 
easy  prey  to  the  Egyptians  (lib.  iii.,  s.  141.).  This  looks  very  much  like  a defeat  sus- 
tained by  the  Egyptians,  which  the  vanity  of  their  priests  had  converted  into  this 
marvellous  story.  The  fact,  intimated  in  tne  inscriptions,  of  Tirhakah  having  not 
one  but  several  Egyptian  kings  dependent  upon  him  is  new  to  history. 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


122 


[Chap.  VI 


them  all  to  Nineveh.*  The  city  itself,  however,  he  does  not  pretend  to 
have  taken. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  campaign  against  the  cities  of  Pales- 
tine recorded  in  the  inscriptions  of  Sennacherib  at  Kouyunjik,  is  that  de- 
scribed in  the  Old  Testament.  The  events  agree  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. We  are  told  in  the  Book  of  Kings,  that  the  king  of  Assyria,  in  the 
fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  “ came  up  against  all  the  fenced 
cities  of  Judah  and  took  them,”!  as  he  declares  himself  to  have  done  in 
his  annals.  And,  what  is  most  important,  and  perhaps  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable coincidences  of  historic  testimony  on  record,  the  amount  of  the 
treasure  in  gold  taken  from  Hezekiah,  thirty  talents,  agrees  in  the  two  per- 
fectly independent  accounts.!  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  this  sin- 
gular fact,  as  it  tends  to  prove  the  general  accuracy  of  the  historical  details 
contained  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions.  There  is  a difference  of  500  tal- 
ents, as  it  will  be  observed,  in  the  amount  of  silver.  It  is  probable  that 
Hezekiah  was  much  pressed  by  Sennacherib,  and  compelled  to  give  him 
all  the  wealth  that  he  could  collect,  as  we  find  him  actually  taking  the 
silver  from  the  house  of  the  Lord,  as  well  as  from  his  own  treasury,  and 
cutting  off  the  gold  from  the  doors  and  pillars  of  the  temple,  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  the  Assyrian  king.  The  Bible  may  therefore  only  include  the 
actual  amount  of  money  in  the  300  talents  of  silver,  whilst  the  Assyrian 
records  comprise  all  the  precious  metal  taken  away.  There  are  some 
chronological  discrepancies  which  cannot  at  present  be  satisfactorily  recon- 
ciled, and  which  I will  not  attempt  to  explain.  § It  is  natural  to  suppose 

* Col.  Rawlinson  gives  a somewhat  different  version  of  this  part  of  the  inscription. 
He  translates,  “Because  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judaea,  did  not  submit  to  my  yoke,  forty- 
six  of  his  strong-fenced  cities,  and  innumerable  smaller  towns  which  depended  on 
them,  I took  and  plundered ; but  I left  to  him  Jerusalem,  his  capital  city,  and  some 

of  the  inferior  towns  around  it And  because  Hezekiah  still  continued 

to  refuse  to  pay  me  homage,  I attacked  and  carried  off  the  whole  population,  fixed 
and  nomade,  which  dwelled  around  Jerusalem,  with  30  talents  of  gold  and  800  tal- 
ents of  silver,  the  accumulated  wealth  of  the  nobles  of  Hezekiah’s  court,  and  of  their 
daughters,  with  the  officers  of  his  palace,  men  slaves  and  women  slaves.  I returned 
to  Nineveh,  and  I accounted  their  spoil  for  the  tribute  which  he  refused  to  pay  me.” 
He  identifies  Milukhkha  (or  Mirukha)  with  Meroe  or  Ethiopia,  and  A1 . . . ku,  which 
he  reads  Allakis,  with  Lachish,  the  city  besieged  by  Sennacherib,  when  he  sent  Rab- 
shakeh  to  Hezekiah,  and  of  which,  I shall  endeavour  to  show,  we  have  elsewhere  a 
more  certain  mention. 

t 2 Kings,  xviii.  13. ; and  compare  Isaiah,  xxxvi.  1.  I may  here  observe  that  the 
names  of  Hezekiah  and  Judaea,  with  others  mentioned  in  the  text,  occur  in  inscrip- 
tions on  other  bulls  of  Kouyunjik  already  published.  (See  British  Museum  Series, 

p.  61.  1.  11.) 

t “And  the  king  of  Assyria  appointed  unto  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  300  talents 
of  silver  and  30  talents  of  gold.”  (2  Kings,  xviii.  14.) 

§ According  to  Dr.  Hincks  (Chronological  Appendix  to  a Paper  on  the  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  Characters  in  vol.  xxii.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy), 
it  is  necessary  to  read  the  fifth  for  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah  as  the  date  of 
Sennacherib’s  invasion.  The  illness  of  Hezekiah,  and  the  embassy  of  Merodach  Bal- 


WARS  OF  SENNACHERIB 


123 


Chap.  VI.] 

that  Sennacherib  would  not  perpetuate  the  memory  of  his  own  overthrow , 
and  that,  having  been  unsuccessful  in  an  attempt  upon  J erusalem,  his  army 
being  visited  by  the  plague  described  in  Scripture,  he  should  gloss  over  his 
defeat  by  describing  the  tribute  he  had  previously  received  from  Hezekiah 
as  the  general  result  of  his  campaign. 

There  is  no  reason  to  believe,  from  the  biblical  account,  that  Sennacherib 
was  slain  by  his  sons  immediately  after  his  return  to  Nineveh ; on  the  con- 
trary, the  expression  “ he  returned  and  dwelt  at  Nineveh,”  infers  that  he 
continued  to  reign  for  some  time  over  Assyria.  We  have  accordingly  his 
further  annals  on  the  monuments  he  erected.  In  his  fourth  year  he  went 
southward,  and  subdued  the  country  of  Beth-Yakin,  defeating  Susubira, 
the  Chaldsean,  who  dwelt  in  the  city  of  Bittut  on  the  river— (Agammi,  ac- 
cording to  Rawlinson).  Further  mention  is  made  of  Merodach  Baladan. 
“ This  king,  whom  I had  defeated  in  a former  campaign,  escaped  from  my 
principal  servants,  and  fled  to  an  island  (name  lost) ; his  brothers,  the  seed 
of  his  father’s  house,  whom  he  left  behind  him  on  the  coast,  with  the  rest 
of  the  men  of  his  country  from  Beth-Yakin,  near  the  salt  (?)  river  (the  Shat- 
el-Arab,  or  united  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates),  I carried  away,  and 
several  of  his  towns  I threw  down  and  burnt ; Assurnad immi  (?  Assurna- 
din,  according  to  ftawlinson),  my  son,  I placed  on  the  throne  of  his  king- 
dom.” He  appears  then  to  have  made  a large  government,  of  which 
Babylon  was  the  chief  place.* 

In  the  fifth  year  he  defeated  the  Tokkari,  capturing  their  principal  strong- 
hold or  Nipour  (detached  hill  fort  ?),  and  others  of  their  castles.  He  also 
attacked  Maniyakh,  king  of  Okku  or  Wukku  (?),  a country  to  which  no 
previous  Assyrian  king  had  penetrated.  This  chief  deserted  his  capital 
and  fled  to  a distance.  Sennacherib  carried  off  the  spoil  of  his  palace  and 
plundered  his  cities.  This  expedition  seems  to  have  been  to  the  north  of 
Assyria,  in  Armenia  or  Asia  Minor. 

In  the  following  year  Sennacherib  again  marched  to  the  mouths  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  attacked  the  two  cities  of  Naghit  and  Naghit 
Dibeena.  They  appear  to  have  stood  on  opposite  sides  of  the  great  salt 
river,  a name  anciently  given,  it  is  conjectured,  to  the  Shat-el-Arab,  or 
united  waters  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which  are  affected  by  the  tides 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  are,  consequently,  salt.  Both  cities  belonged  to 
the  King  of  Elam  (Elamti),  or  Nuvaki,  the  two  names  being  used  indiffer- 
ently for  the  same  country.  The  Assyrian  king,  in  order  to  reach  them, 
was  compelled  to  build  ships,  and  to  employ  the  mariners  of  Tyre,  Sidon, 
and  Yavan,  as  navigators.  He  brought  these  vessels  down  the  Tigris,  and 
crossed  on  them  to  the  Susianian  side  of  the  river,  after  having  first,  it  would 

adan  he  places  eleven  years  earlier.  Certainly  the  phrase  “in  those  days”  was  used 
with  great  latitude. 

* Dr.  Hincks  identifies  the  son  of  Sennacherib  with  the  Aparanadius  of  Ptolemy’s 
canon,  whose  reign  began  three  years  after  that  of  Belibus.  He  supposes  o to  be  a 
corruption  of  crtr. 


124 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VI. 


seem,  taken  the  city  Naghit  which  stood  on  the  western  bank.  He  offered 
precious  sacrifices  to  a god  (?  Neptune,  but  name  doubtful)  on  the  bank  of 
the  salt  river,  and  dedicated  to  him  a ship  of  gold,  and  two  other  golden 
objects,  the  nature  of  which  has  not  been  determined.  Mention  is  then 
made  of  his  having  captured  Naghit  Dibeena,  together  with  three  other 
cities,  whose  names  cannot  be  well  ascertained,  and  of  his  crossing  the  river 
Via  (?  the  Ulai  of  Daniel,  the  Eulaeus  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  modern  Ka- 
roon).  Unfortunately  the  whole  of  the  passage  which  contains  the  record 
of  the  expedition  against  these  cities  is  much  defaced,  and  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  restored.  It  appears  to  give  interesting  details  of  the  building 
of  the  ships  on  the  Tigris,  by  the  men  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  and  of  the  navi- 
gation of  that  river. 

Such  are  the  principal  historical  facts  recorded  on  the  bulls  placed  by 
Sennacherib  in  his  palace  at  Nineveh.  I have  given  them  fully,  in  order 
that  we  may  endeavour  to  identify  the  sculptured  representations  of  those 
events  on  the  walls  of  the  chambers  and  halls  of  that  magnificent  building, 
described  in  the  course  of  this  work.  Appended  to  the  historical  annals, 
and  frequently  embracing  the  whole  of  the  shorter  inscriptions  on  the  co- 
lossi at  the  entrances,  are  very  full  and  minute  details  of  the  form  of  the  pal- 
ace, the  mode  of  its  construction,  and  the  materials  employed,  which  will  be 
alluded  to  when  I come  to  a description  of  the  architecture  of  the  Assyrians. 

As  the  name  of  Sennacherib,  as  well  as  those  of  many  kings,  countries 
and  cities,  are  not  written  phonetically,  that  is,  by  letters  having  a certain 
alphabetic  value,  but  by  monograms,  and  the  deciphering  of  them  is  a pe- 
culiar process,  which  may  sometimes  appear  suspicious  to  those  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  subject,  a few  words  of  explanation  may  be  acceptable 
to  my  readers.  The  greater  number  of  Assyrian  proper  names  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  whether  royal  or  not,  appear  to  have  been  made  up  of 
the  name,  epithet,  or  title,  of  one  of  the  national  deities,  and  of  a second 
word  such  as  “slave  of,”  “servant  of,”  “ beloved  of,”  “ protected  by;”  like 
the  “ Theodosius,”  “ Theodoras,”  &c.  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  “ Abd-ullah,” 
and  “ Abd-ur-Rahman,”  of  Mohammedan  nations.  The  names  of  the  gods 
being  commonly  written  -with  a monogram,  the  first  step  in  deciphering  is 
to  know  which  God  this  particular  sign  denotes.  Thus,  in  the  name  of  Sen- 
nacherib, we  have  first  the  determinative  of  “ god,”  to  which  no  phonetic 
value  is  attached;  whilst  the  second  character  denotes  an  Assyrian  god. 
whose  name  was  San.  The  first  component  part  of  the  name  of  Ess  ar- 
il addon.  is  the  monogram  for  the  god  Assur.  It  is  this  fact  which  renders 
it  so  difficult  to  determine,  with  any  degree  of  confidence,  most  of  the  As- 
syrian names,  and  which  leads  me  to  warn  my  readers  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  such  as  can  with  certainty  be  identified  with  well-known  historic 
kings,  as  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Essarhaddon,  the  interpretation  of  all 
those  which  are  found  on  the  monuments  of  Nineveh,  is  liable  to  very  con- 
siderable doubt.  In  speaking  of  them  I shall,  therefore,  not  use  any  of  the 
readings  which  have  been  suggested  by  different  writers. 


NAME  OF  SENNACHERIB. 


125 


Chap.  VI.] 

Although  no  question  can  reasonably  exist  as  to  the  identification  of  the 
king  who  built  the  palace  of  Kouyunjik  with  the  Sennacherib  of  Scripture, 
it  may  still  be  desirable  to  place  before  my  readers  all  the  corroborative  evi- 
dence connected  with  the  subject.  In  so  doing,  however,  I shall  have  to 
refer  to  discoveries  made  at  a subsequent  period,  and  which  ought  conse- 
quently to  be  described,  if  the  order  of  the  narrative  be  strictly  preserved, 
in  a subsequent  part  of  this  work.  In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  Kouyunjik  king  was  undoubtedly  the  son  of  the  founder  of 
the  palace  at  Khorsabad.  He  is  so  called  in  the  inscriptions  behind  the 
bulls  in  the  S.W.  palace  at  Nimroud,  and  in  numerous  detached  inscrip- 
tions on  bricks,  and  on  other  remains  from  those  ruins  and  from  Kouyunjik. 
Now  the  name  of  the  Khorsabad  king  was  generally  admitted  to  be  Sar- 
gon,* * * §1 even  before  his  relationship  to  the  Kouyunjik  king  was  known ; al- 
though here  again  we  are  obliged  to  attach  phonetic  powers  to  characters 
used  as  monograms,  which,  when  occurring  as  simple  letters,  appear  to  have 
totally  different  values. f Colonel  Kawlinson  states, $ that  this  king  bears 
in  other  inscriptions  the  name  of  Shalmaneser,  by  which  he  was  better 
known  to  the  Jews.§  Dr.  Hincks  denies  that  the  two  names  belong  to  the 
same  person.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  there  are  events  mentioned 
in  the  inscriptions  of  Khorsabad,  which  lead  to  the  identification  of  its 
founder  with  the  Shalmaneser  of  Scripture,  and  the  ruins  of  the  palace  it- 
self, were  known  even  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  by  the  name  of 
“ Sarghun.” 

Unfortunately  the  upper  parts  of  nearly  all  the  bas-reliefs  at  Kouyunjik 
having  been  destroyed  the  epigraphs  are  wanting ; and  we  are  unable,  as 
yet,  to  identify  with  certainty  the  subjects  represented  with  any  known 
event  in  the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  There  is,  however,  one  remarkable  ex- 
ception. 

During  the  latter  part  of  my  residence  at  Mosul  a chamber  was  discov- 
ered in  which  the  sculptures  were  in  better  preservation  than  any  before 

* First,  I believe,  though  on  completely  false  premises,  by  M.  Lowenstein. 

t Col.  Rawlinson  reads  the  name  “ Sargina.” 

t Athenaeum,  Aug.  23.  1851. 

§ Shalmaneser,  who  made  war  against  Hoshea,  and  who  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  carried  away  the  ten  tribes  from  Samaria,  although  the  sacred  historian  does 
not  distinctly  say  so  (2  Kings,  xvii.),  is  identified  by  general  consent  with  Sargon,  who 
sent  his  general  against  Ashdod  (Isaiah,  xx.).  Dr.  Hincks  questioned  this  identifi- 
cation (Athenaeum  for  Sept.  13.  1851),  considering  Shalmaneser  as  son  of  Sargon,  and 
brother  to  Sennacherib.  In  his  last  paper,  however  (Trans.  Royal  Irish  Acad.  vol. 
xxii.),  he  has  taken  a different  view.  He  considers  Shalmaneser  to  be  the  prede- 
cessor of  Sargon,  who  went  up  against  Jerusalem  in  his  last  year,  b.c.  722.  “The 
king  of  Assyria,”  that  is  Sargon,  took  the  city  in  his  second  year,  b.c.  720.  In  either 
case,  no  monument  whatever  has  yet  been  discovered  bearing  the  name  of  this  king. 
There  is  certainly  nothing  in  Scripture  to  identify  the  two  names  as  belonging  to  the 
same  king,  except  that  their  general,  in  both  instances,  is  called  Tartan,  which  we 
now  find  from  the  inscriptions  was  merely  the  common  title  of  the  commander  of  the 
Assyrian  armies. 


126 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  YI 


found  at  Kouyunjik.*  Some  of  the  slabs,  indeed,  were  almost  entire,  though 
cracked  and  otherwise  injured  by  fire  ; and  the  epigraph,  which  fortunate- 
ly explained  the  event  portrayed,  was  complete.  These  bas-reliefs  repre- 
sented the  siege  and  capture  by  the  Assyrians,  of  a city  evidently  of  great 
extent  and  importance.  It  appears  to  have  been  defended  by  double  walls, 
with  battlements  and  towers,  and  by  fortified  outworks.  The  country  around 
it  was  hilly  and  wooded,  producing  the  fig  and  the  vine.  The  whole  power 
of  the  great  king  seems  to  have  been  called  forth  to  take  this  stronghold. 
In  no  other  sculptures  were  so  many  armed  warriors  seen  drawn  up  in  ar- 
ray before  a besieged  city.  In  the  first  rank  were  the  kneeling  archers, 
those  in  the  second  were  bending  forward,  whilst  those  in  the  third  dis- 
charged their  arrows  standing  upright,  and  wTere  mingled  with  spearmen 
and  slingers  ; the  whole  forming  a compact  and  oiganised  phalanx.  The 
reserve  consisted  of  large  bodies  of  horsemen  and  charioteers.  Against  the 
fortifications  had  been  thrown  up  as  many  as  ten  banks  or  mounts,  compact- 
ly built  of  stones,  bricks,  earth,  and  branches  of  trees,  and  seven  battering- 
rams  had  already  been  rolled  up  to  the  walls.  The  besieged  defended  them- 
selves with  great  determination.  Spearmen,  archers,  and  slingers  thronged 
the  battlements  and  towers,  showering  arrows,  javelins,  stones,  and  blazing 
torches  upon  the  assailants.  On  the  battering-rams  were  bowmen  discharg- 
ing their  arrows,  and  men  with  large  ladles  pouring  water  upon  the  flaming 
brands,  which,  hurled  from  above,  threatened  to  destroy  the  engines.  Lad- 
ders, probably  used  for  escalade,  were  falling  from  the  walls  upon  the  sol- 
diers who  mounted  the  inclined  ways  to  the  assault.  Part  of  the  city  had, 
however,  been  taken.  Beneath  its  walls  were  seen  Assyrian  warriors  im- 
paling their  prisoners,  and  from  the  gateway  of  an  advanced  tower,  or  fort, 
issued  a procession  of  captives,  reaching  to  the  presence  of  the  king,  who, 
gorgeously  arrayed,  received  them  seated  on  his  throne.  Amongst  the  spoil 
were  furniture,  arms,  shields,  chariots,  vases  of  metal  of  various  forms,  cam- 
els, carts  drawn  by  oxen,  and  laden  with  women  and  children,  and  many 
objects  the  nature  of  which  cannot  he  determined.  The  vanquished  peo- 
ple were  distinguished  from  the  conquerors  by  their  dress,  those  who  de- 
fended the  battlements  wore  a pointed  helmet,  differing  from  that  of  the 
Assyrian  warriors  in  having  a fringed  lappet  falling  over  the  ears.  Some 
of  the  captives  had  a kind  of  turban  with  one  end  hanging  down  to  the 
shoulder,  not  unlike  that  worn  by  the  modern  Arabs  of  the  Hedjaz.  Others 
had  no  head-dress,  and  short  hair  and  beards.  Their  garments  consisted 
either  of  a robe  reaching  to  the  ankles,  or  of  a tunic  scarcely  falling  lower 
than  the  thigh,  and  confined  at  the  waist  by  a girdle.  The  latter  ap- 
peared to  be  the  dress  of  the  fighting-men.  The  women  wore  long  shirts, 
with  an  outer  cloak,  thrown,  like  the  veil  of  modem  Eastern  ladies,  over  the 
back  of  the  head  and  falling  to  the  feet. 

Several  prisoners  were  already  in  the  hands  of  the  torturers.  Two  were 
stretched  naked  on  the  ground  to  he  flayed  alive,  others  were  being  slain 
* No.  XXXVI.  Plan  I.  38  feet  by  18. 


Chap,  VI  ] 


SIEGE  OF  LACHISII. 


127 

by  the  sword  before  the  throne  of  the 
king.  The  haughty  monarch  was  re- 
ceiving the  chiefs  of  the  conquered  na- 
tion, who  crouched  and  knelt  humbly  be- 
fore him.  They  were  brought  into  the 
royal  presence  by  the  Tartan  of  the  As- 
syrian forces,  probably  the  Rabshakeh 
himself,  followed  by  his  principal  officers. 
The  general  was  clothed  in  embroidered 
robes,  and  wore  on  his  head  a fillet  adorn- 
ed with  rosettes  and  long  tasseled  bands. 

The  throne  of  the  king  stood  upon  an 
elevated  platform,  probably  an  artificial 
mound,  in  the  hill  country.  Its  arms  and 
sides  were  supported  by  three  rows  of  fig- 
ures one  above  the  other.  The  wood 
was  richly  carved,  or  encased  in  emboss- 
ed metal,  and  the  legs  ended  in  pine- 
shaped ornaments,  probably  of  bronze. 
The  throne,  indeed,  appears  to  have  re- 
sembled, in  every  respect,  one  discovered 
in  the  north-west  palace  at  Nimroud, 
which  I shall  hereafter  describe.*  Over 
the  high  back  was  thrown  an  embroid- 
ered cloth,  doubtless  of  some  rare  and 
Sennacherib  on  his  Throne  before  Lachish.  , . „ , . , 

beautilul  material. 

The  royal  feet  rested  upon  a high  footstool  of  elegant  form,  fashioned  like 
the  throne,  and  cased  with  embossed  metal ; the  legs  ending  in  lion’s  paws 
Behind  the  king  were  two  attendant  eunuchs  raising  fans  above  his  head 
and  holding  the  embroidered  napkins. 

The  monarch  himself  was  attired  in  long  loose  robes  richly  ornamented, 
and  edged  with  tassels  and  fringes.  In  his  right  hand  he  raised  two  ar- 
rows, and  his  left  rested  upon  a bow  , an  attitude,  probably  denoting  tri- 
umph over  his  enemies,  and  in  which  he  is  usually  portrayed  when  receiving 
prisoners  after  a victory. 

Behind  the  king  was  the  royal  tent  or  pavilion  :f  and  beneath  him  were 
his  led  horses,  and  an  attendant  on  foot  carrying  the  parasol,  the  emblem 
of  royalty.  His  two  chariots,  with  their  charioteers,  were  waiting  for  him 
One  had  a peculiar  semicircular  ornament  of  considerable  size,  rising  from 
the  pole  between  the  horses,  and  spreading  over  their  heads  It  may  orig- 
inally have  contained  the  figure  of  a deity,  or  some  mythic  symbol.  It  was 

* Chap.  VIII. 

t I presume  this  to  be  a tent,  or  moveable  dwelling-place.  It  is  evidently  sup- 
ported by  ropes.  Above  it  is  an  inscription  declaring  that  it  is  “ the  tent  (?)  (the  word 
seems  to  read  sarata ) of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.” 


128 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VI. 


attached  to  the  chariot  by  that  singular  contrivance  joined  to  the  yoke  and 
represented  in  the  early  sculptures  of  Nimroud,  the  use  and  nature  of  which 
I am  still  unable  to  explain.* * * §  This  part  of  the  chariot  was  richly  adorned 
with  figures  and  ornamental  designs,  and  appeared  to  he  supported  by  a 
prop  resting  on  the  pole.  The  trappings  of  the  horses  were  handsomely  dec- 
orated, and  an  embroidered  cloth,  hung  with  tassels,  fell  on  their  chests. 
Two  quivers,  holding  a bow,  a hatchet,  and  arrows,  were  fixed  to  the  side 
of  the  chariot. 

This  fine  series  of  bas-reliefs, f occupying  thirteen  slabs,  was  finished  by 
the  ground-plan  of  a castle,  or  of  a fortified  camp  containing  tents  and 
houses.  Within  the  walls  was  also  seen  a fire-altar  with  two  beardless 
priests,  wearing  high  conical  caps,  standing  before  it.  In  front  of  the  altar, 
on  which  burned  the  sacred  flame,  was  also  a table  hearing  various  sacri- 
ficial objects,  and  beyond  it  two  sacred  chariots,  such  as  accompanied  the 
Persian  kings  in  their  wars.!  The  horses  had  been  taken  out,  and  the  yokes 
rested  upon  stands.  Each  chariot  carried  a lofty  pole  surmounted  by  a 
globe,  and  long  tassels  or  streamers  ; similar  standards  were  introduced  into 
scenes  representing  sacrifices^  in  the  sculptures  of  Khorsabad. 

Above  the  head  of  the  king  was  the  following  inscription, 

) -+«<  a-  H-  fS(!  « I « 

- et  kii  5F  T-  W T-  ei 
' I-  ~ET  *sl  -=TT  -El  <0  SETT 
ET  !!<  <MW  JI  =Ti  ~I<  -Hi 

which  may  be  translated,  “ Sennacherib,  the  mighty  king,  king  of  the 
country  of  Assyria,  sitting  on  the  throne  of  judgment,  before  (or  at  the 
entrance  of)  the  city  of  Lachish  (Lakhisha).  I give  permission  for  its 
slaughter.” 

Here,  therefore,  was  the  actual  picture  of  the  taking  of  Lachish,  the  city, 
as  we  know  from  the  Bible,  besieged  by  Sennacherib,  when  he  sent  his  gen- 
erals to  demand  tribute  of  Hezekiah,  and  which  he  had  captured  before 
their  return  ;||  evidence  of  the  most  remarkable  character  to  confirm  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  inscriptions,  and  to  identify  the  king  who  caused  them 
to  be  engraved  with  the  Sennacherib  of  Scripture.  This  highly  interesting 

* It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  it  may  have  been  a case  in  which  to  place  the 

bow ; but  the  bow  and  arrows  are  contained  in  the  quiver  suspended  to  the  side  of 
the  chariot 

t For  detailed  drawings,  see  2nd  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plates  20 
to  24  t Xenophon,  Cyrop.  lvii.  c.  3.  Quintus  Curtius,  liii.  c.  3. 

§ Botta’s  Monumens  de  Ninive,  Plate  146. 

II  2 Kings,  xviii.  14.  Isaiah  xxxvi  2.  From  2 Kings,  xix.  8.,  and  Isaiah,  xxxvii. 
8 , we  may  infer  that  the  city  soon  yielded. 


Chap.  YL] 


SIEGE  OF  LACHISH. 


129 


series  of  bas-reliefs  contained,  moreover,  an  undoubted  representation  of  a 
king,  a city,  and  a people,  with  whose  names  we  are  acquainted,  and  of  an 
event  described  in  Holy  Writ.  They  furnish  us,  therefore,  with  illustra- 
tions of  the  Bible  of  very  great  importance.*  The  captives  were  undoubt- 
edly Jews,  their  physiognomy  was  strikingly  indicated  in  the  sculptures,  but 
they  had  been  stripped  of  their  ornaments  and  their  fine  raiment,  and  were 
left  barefooted  and  half-clothed.  From  the  women,  too,  had  been  removed 
“ the  splendor  of  the  foot  ornaments  and  the  caps  of  network,  and  the  cres- 
cents ; the  ear-pendents,  and  the  bracelets,  and  the  thin  veils ; the  head- 
dress, and  the  ornaments  of  the  legs  and  the  girdles,  and  the  perfume-boxes 
and  the  amulets;  the  rings  and  the  jewels  of  the  nose;  the  embroidered 
robes  and  the  tunics,  and  the  cloaks  and  the  satchels ; the  transparent  gar- 
ments, and  the  fine  linen  vests,  and  the  turbans  and  the  mantles,  “for  they 
wore  instead  of  a girdle,  a rope ; and  instead  of  a stomacher,  a girdling  of 
sackcloth.”! 

* Col.  Rawlinson  has,  I am  aware,  denied  that  this  is  the  Lachish  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  which  he  identifies  with  the  All . . . ku  of  the  bull  inscriptions,  and  places 
on  the  sea-coast  between  Gaza  and  Rhinocolura.  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p 
xxxvi.)  But  I believe  this  theory  to  be  untenable,  and  I am  supported  in  this  view 
of  the  subject  by  Dr.  Hincks,  who  also  rejects  Col.  Rawlinson’s  reading  of  Lubana 
(Libnah).  Lachish  is  mentioned  amongst  “the  uttermost  cities  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah.” (Joshua,  xv.  39.)  From  verse  21  to  32  we  have  one  category  of  twenty-nine 
cities  “ toward  the  coast  of  Edom  southward.”  The  next  category  appears  to  ex- 
tend to  verse  46,  and  includes  cities  in  the  valley,  amongst  which  is  Lachish.  We 
then  come  to  Ashdod  and  the  sea  It  was  therefore  certainly  situated  in  the  hill 
country.  (See  also  Robinson’s  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  vol.  ii.  p.  388.) 

t Isaiah,  iii.  18-24,  &c.  (See  translation  by  the  Rev.  J.  Jones.)  This  descrip- 
tion of  the  various  articles  of  dress  worn  by  the  Jewish  women  is  exceedingly  inter- 
esting. Most  of  the  ornaments  enumerated,  probably  indeed  the  whole  of  them,  if 
we  were  acquainted  with  the  exact  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  words,  are  still  to  be 
traced  in  the  costumes  of  Eastern  women  inhabiting  the  same  country.  Many  ap- 
pear to  be  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  amongst  objects  of  tribute  and  of 

I 


130 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap  VI. 


Other  corroborative  evidence  as  to  the  identity  of  the  king  who  built  the 
palace  of  Kouyunjik  with  Sennacherib,  is  scarcely  less  remarkable.  In  a 
chamber,  or  passage,  in  the  south-west  corner  of  this  edifice,*  were  found 
a large  number  of  pieces  of  fine  clay  bearing  the  impressions  of  seals, t 
which,  there  is  no  doubt,  had  been  affixed,  like  modem  official  seals  of 
wax,  to  documents  written  on  leather,  papyrus,  or  parchment.  Such  docu- 
ments, with  seals  in  clay  still  attached,  have  been  discovered  in  Egypt,  and 
specimens  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  The  "writings  themselves 
had  been  consumed  by  the  fire  which  destroyed  the  building  or  had  per- 


lmpression  of  a Seal  on  Clay.  Back  of  the  same  Seal,  showing  the  Marks 

of  the  String  and  the  Fingers. 


ished  from  decay  In  the  stamped  clay,  however,  may  still  be  seen  the 
holes  for  the  string,  or  strips  of  skin,  by  which  the  seal  was  fastened  ; in 
some  instances  the  ashes  of  the  string  itself  remain, $ with  the  marks  of 
the  fingers  and  thumb. 

The  greater  part  of  these  seals  are  Assyrian,  but  with  them  are  others 
bearing  Egyptian,  Phoenician,  and  doubtful  symbols  and  characters.  Some- 
times the  same  seal  is  impressed  more  than  once  on  the  same  piece  of  clay. 
The  Assyrian  devices  are  of  various  kinds ; the  most  common  is  that  of  a 
king  plunging  a dagger  into  the  body  of  a rampant  lion.  This  appears  to 
have  been  the  royal,  and,  indeed,  the  national,  seal  or  signet.  It  is  fre- 
quently encircled  by  a short  inscription,  which  has  not  yet  been  deciphered, 
or  by  a simple  guilloche  border  The  same  group,  emblematic  of  the  su- 
perior power  and  wisdom  of  the  king,  as  well  as  of  his  sacred  character,  is 
found  on  Assyrian  cylinders,  gems,  and  monuments.  From  the  Assyrians 
it  was  adopted  by  the  Persians,  and  appears  upon  the  walls  of  Persepolis 
and  on  the  coins  of  Darius. 

Other  devices  found  among  these  impressions  of  seals  are  : — 1.  A king, 
attended  by  a priest,  in  act  of  adoration  before  a deity  standing  on  a lion, 
and  surrounded  by  seven  stars  : above  the  god’s  head,  on  one  seal,  is  a 

spoil  brought  to  the  king.  See  also  Ezekiel  xvi.  10 — 14  for  an  account  of  the  dress 
of  the  Jewish  women.  * No.  LXI.  Plan  I. 

t Resembling  the  yrj  avfiavrpls  (the  sealing  earth)  of  the  Greeks, 
t M Botta  also  found,  at  Khorsabad,  the  ashes  of  string  in  lumps  of  clay  impressed 
with  a seal,  without  being  aware  of  their  origin. 


Chap.  VI.] 


PIKENICIAN  SEALS. 


131 


scorpion.  2.  The  king,  followed  by  an  attendant  bearing  a parasol,  and 
preceded  by  a rampant  horse.  3.  A god,  or  the  king,  probably  the  former, 
rising  from  a crescent.  There  appears  to  be  a fish  in  front  of  the  figure. 
4.  The  king,  with  an  eunuch  or  priest  before  him  ; a flower,  or  ornament- 
ed staff,  between  them.  5.  A scorpion,  surrounded  by  a guilloche  border 
(a  device  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  and  probably  astronomical).  6.  A 
priest  worshipping  before  a god,  encircled  by  stars.  7.  A priest  worship- 
ping before  a god.  Behind  him  are  a bull,  and  the  sacred  astronomical 
emblems.  8.  An  ear  of  corn,  surrounded  by  a fancy  border.  9.  An  object 
resembling  a dagger,  with  flowers  attached  to  the  handle  ; perhaps  a sac- 
rificial knife.  10.  The  head  of  a bull  and  a trident,  two  sacred  symbols 
of  frequent  occurrence  on  Assyrian  monuments  11.  A crescent  in  the 
midst  of  a many-rayed  star.  12.  Several  rudely  cut  seals,  representing 
priests  and  various  sacred  animals,  stars,*  &c. 

The  seals  most  remarkable  for  beauty  of  design  and  skilful  execution 

represent  horsemen,  one  at  full  speed 
raising  a spear,  the  other  hunting  a 
stag.  The  impressions  show  that 
they  were  little  inferior  to  Greek  in- 
taglios. No  Assyrian  or  Babylonian 
relics  yet  discovered,  equal  them  in 
delicacy  of  workmanship,  and  the 
best  examples  of  the  art  of  engraving 
on  gems, — an  art  which  appears  to  have  reached  great  perfection  amongst 
the  Assyrians, — are  unknown  to  us,  except  through  these  impressions. 
There  are  three  seals  apparently  Phoenician  ; two  of  them  bearing  Phoeni- 
cian characters,!  for  which  I can- 
not suggest  any  interpretation. 
A few  have  doubtful  symbols 
upon  them,  which  I will  not  at- 
tempt to  explain  ; perhaps  hiero- 
glyphical  signs. 

Of  the  purely  Egyptian  seals 
there  are  four.  One  has  two  car- 
touches  placed  on  the  symbol  of 
gold,  and  each  surmounted  by  a tall  plume ; they  probably  contained  the 
prsenomen  and  name  of  a king,  but  not  the  slightest  trace  remains  of  the 
hieroglyphs.  The  impression  is  concave,  having  been  made  from  a convex 
surface  : the  back  of  some  of  the  Egyptian  ovals,  the  rudest  form  of  the 
scarabceus,  are  of  this  shape.  On  the  second  seal  is  the  figure  of  the  Egyp- 
tian god  Harpocrates,  seated  on  a lotus  flower,  with  his  finger  placed  upon 

* For  engravings  of  these  seals,  see  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  69 
t It  is,  however,  possible  that  these  characters  may  belong  to  some  other  Semitic 
nation,  as  a cursive  alphabet,  having  a close  resemblance  to  the  Phoenician,  was  used 
from  Tadmor  to  Babylon. 


Assyrian  Seals. 


132 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VI. 


his  mouth  ; an  attitude  in  which  he  is  represented  on  an  ivory  from  Nim- 


Egyptian  Seals. 


roud.  The  hieroglyph  before  him  does 
not  appear  to  be  Egyptian. 

But  the  most  remarkable  and  im- 
portant of  the  Egyptian  seals  are  two 
impressions  of  a royal  signet,  which, 
though  imperfect,  retain  the  cartouche, 
with  the  name  of  the  king,  so  as  to  be 


perfectly  legible.  It  is  one  well  known  to  Egyptian  scholars,  as  that  of 
the  second  Sabaco  the  ^Ethiopian,  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty.  On  the 
same  piece  of  clay  is  impressed  an  Assyrian  seal,  with  a device  representing 
a priest  ministering  before  the  king,  probably  a royal  signet. 


Impressions  of  the  Signets  of  the  Kings  of  Assyria 
and  Egypt  (Original  Size.) 


Part  of  Cartouche  of  Sabaco,  enlarged 
from  the  Impression  of  his  Signet. 


There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  the  identity  of  the  cartouche.* 


* I am  indebted  to  Mr.  Birch  for  the  following  remarks  upon  this  seal: — “The 
most  important  of  the  numerous  seals  discovered  at  Kouyunjik  is  one  which  has  re- 
ceived two  impressions — an  Assyrian,  representing  a personage  in  adoration  before 
a deity ; and  a second,  with  the  representation  and  name  of  the  Egyptian  monarch, 
Sabaco,  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty  of  ./Ethiopians,  and  evidently  impressed  from  a 
royal  Egyptian  seal.  Similar  impressions  are  by  no  means  unknown,  and  a few  ex- 
amples have  reached  the  present  time.  Not  to  instance  the  clay  seals  found  attach- 
ed to  the  Tolls  of  papyrus  containing  letters  written  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  and 
Romans,  there  are  in  the  British  Museum  seals  bearing  the  name  of  Shashank  or 
Shishak  (No  5585  ) of  Amasis  II.  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  (No.  5584.)  and  of 
Nafuarut  or  Nepherophis,  of  the  twenty-ninth  dynasty  (No.  5585.).  Such  seals  were, 
therefore,  affixed  by  the  Egyptians  to  public  documents,  and  it  was  in  accordance 
with  this  principle,  common  to  the  two  monarchies,  that  the  seal  of  the  Egyptian 
king  has  been  found  in  Assyria  It  appears  to  have  been  impressed  from  an  oval,  in 
all  probability  the  bezel  of  a metallic  finger  ring,  like  the  celebrated  seal  of  Cheops ; 
m this  case  an  oval,  two  inches  in  length,  by  one  inch  wide.  The  king  Sabaco  is 
represented  upon  the  left  in  an  action  very  commonly  seen  in  the  historical  monu- 
ments of  Egypt,  wearing  the  red  cap  leshr.  He  bends  down,  seizing  with  his  left 
hand  the  hair  of  the  head  of  an  enemy,  whom  he  is  about  to  smite  with  a kind  of 
mace  or  axe  in  his  right,  having  slung  his  bow  at  his  side  Above  and  before  him 
are  hieroglyphs,  expressing  Netr  vfrnb  ar  cht  Shabaka,  ‘the  perfect  God,  the  Lord 
who  produces  things,  Shabaka  (or  Sabaco).’  Behind  is  an  expression  of  constant  oc- 
currence in  Egyptian  texts  sha  ( s)anch-ha /,  ‘life  follows  his  head.’  Although  no 


Chap.  VI.] 


EGYPTIAN  SEALS. 


133 


Sabaco  reigned  in  Egypt  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  before  Christ, 
the  exact  time  at  which  Sennacherib  came  to  the  throne.  He  is  probably 

figure  of  any  deity  is  seen,  the  hieroglyphs  at  the  left  edge  show  that  the  king  was 
performing  this  action  before  one — ma,  na  nak , ‘ I have  given  to  thee,’  which  must 
have  been  followed  by  some  such  expression  as  ‘ a perfect  life,’  ‘ all  enemies  or  coun- 
tries under  thy  sandals.’  It  is  impossible  to  determine  which  god  of  the  Pantheon 
was  there,  probably  Amon-Ra,  or  the  Theban  Jupiter.  These  seals,  therefore,  as- 
sume a most  important  character  as  to  the  synchronism  of  the  two  monarchies. 
There  can,  indeed,  be  no  doubt  that  the  Shabak  found  upon  them  is  the  usual  king 
of  the  inscriptions  ; and  it  is  owing  alone  to  the  confusion  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus 
that  the  difficulty  of  identifying  the  true  chronological  position  has  occurred.  The 
twenty-fifth  dynasty  of  Manetho,  according  to  all  three  versions,  consisted  of  three 
.Ethiopic  kings,  the  seat  of  whose  empire  was  originally  at  Gebel  Barkal,  or  Napata, 
and  who  subsequently  conquered  the  whole  of  Egypt.  The  first  monarch  of  this  line 
was  called  Sabaco  by  the  Greek  writers ; the  second  Sebechos,  or  Seuechos,  his  son : 
the  third  was  Tarkos  or  Taracus.  Now,  corresponding  to  Sabacon  and  Seuechos 
are  two  kings,  or  at  least  two  praenomens,  each  with  the  name  of  Shabak : one  reads 
Ra-nefer-kar , the  other  Ra-tat-karu,  although  the  correctness  of  this  last  praenomen  is 
denied,  and  it  is  asserted  that  only  one  king  is  found  on  the  monuments.  Even  the 
existence  of  the  first  Shabak  or  Sabacon  is  contested,  and  the  eight  or  twelve  years 
of  his  reign  credited  to  his  successor ; and  it  is  remarkable  to  find  that  in  two  ver- 
sions of  Manetho  each  reigned  twelve  years.  Still  the  non-appearance  of  the  first 
Shabak  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  would  be  intelligible,  owing  to  the  trouble  he 
may  have  had  to  establish  his  sway,  although  then  it  would  be  probable  that  he  should 
be  found  at  Napata,  his  ^Ethiopian  capital.  As  Rosellini,  however,  gives  so  distinct- 
ly the  second  praenomen  (M.R.  cli.  5.),  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  it  does  not  exist. 
In  the  other  scenes  at  Karnak,  Shabak,  wearing  the  upper  and  lower  crown,  show- 
ing his  rule  over  the  Delta,  is  seen  embraced  by  Athor  and  Amen-t,  or  T-Amen 
(Rosell.  M.R.  cli.  2 and  3),  or  else  wearing  a plain  head-dress,  he  is  received  by 
Amen  and  Mut ; but  as  he  is  unaccompanied  by  his  praenomen,  it  is  uncertain  whether 
Shabak  I.  or  Shabak  II.  is  intended.  In  the  legends,  Shabak  II.  is  said  to  be  ‘ crowned 
on  the  throne  of  Turn  (Tomos)  like  the  sun  for  ever,’  from  which  it  is  evident  that 
Sabaco  claimed  to  be  at  that  time  king  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  The  hypothesis 
originally  proposed  by  Marsham  ( 1 Chron.  Com.  p.  457.),  and  subsequently  adopted 
by  others  is,  that  Sabaco  is  the  king  Sua  or  So,  mentioned  in  Kings,  xvii.  4.,  to  whom 
Hoshea,  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign,  sent  an  embassy.  ‘ Against  him  came  up 
Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria ; and'  Hoshea  became  his  servant,  and  gave  him  pres- 
ents. And  the  king  of  Assyria  found  conspiracy  in  Hoshea : for  he  had  sent  mes- 
sengers to  So  king  of  Egypt,  and  brought  no  present  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  as  he 
had  done  year  by  year : therefore  the  king  of  Assyria  shut  him  up,  and  bound  him  in 
prison.’  According  to  some  chronologers,  this  was  b.  c.  723 — 722.  (Winer,  Bibl. 
Real-Worterbuch,  ii.  s.  876.  Bd.  i.  730  f.) ; according,  however,  to  De  Vignolles, 
721 — 720.  Of  the  later  chronologists,  Rosellini  places  Sabaco  I.  b.  c.  719.,  and  Sa- 
baco II.  b.  c.  707. ; Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  b.  c.  778 — 728.  If  Sabaco  be  really  So, 
the  reckoning  of  Rosellini  and  Bockh  (Manetho,  s.  393.),  b.  c.  711.,  for  Sabaco  II.  is 
nearest  the  truth.  The  name  of  So  is  written  N’D>  Sva  or  Sia.  The  great 
difficulty  is  the  dreadful  confusion  of  the  period.  The  duration  of  the  ^Ethiopian 
dynasty,  according  to  Africanus  and  Eusebius,  is, 

Years.  Years. 


Sabacon 

- 

- 8 (Africanus) 

12  (Eusebius) 

Seuechos  - 

- 

- 14 

12  „ 

Taracus 

_ 

- 18 

20 

Total  - 

- 

■ 

*-i 

©1 

44 

134 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VI. 


the  So  mentioned  in  the  second  hook  of  Kings  (xvii.  4.)  as  having  received 
ambassadors  from  Hoshea,  the  king  of  Israel,  who,  by  entering  into  a league 
with  the  Egyptians,  called  down  the  vengeance  of  Shalmaneser,  whose 
tributary  he  was,  which  led  to  the  first  great  captivity  of  the  people  of 
Samaria.  Shalmaneser  we  know  to  have  been  an  immediate  predecessor 
of  Sennacherib,  and  Tirakhah,  the  Egyptian  king,  who  was  defeated  by 
the  Assyrians  near  Lachish,  was  the  immediate  successor  of  Sabaco  II. 

It  would  seem  that  a peace  having  been  concluded  between  the  Egyp- 
tians and  one  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs,  probably  Sennacherib,  the  royal 
signets  of  the  two  kings,  thus  found  together,  were  attached  to  the  treaty, 
which  was  deposited  amongst  the  archives  of  the  kingdom.  Whilst  the 
document  itself,  written  upon  parchment  or  papyrus,  has  completely  per- 
ished, this  singular  proof  of  the  alliance,  if  not  actual  meeting,  of  the  two 
monarchs  is  still  preserved  amidst  the  remains  of  the  state  papers  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  ; furnishing  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  con- 
firmatory evidence  on  record,*  whether  we  regard  it  as  verifying  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  interpretation  of  the  cuneiform  character,  or  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  Scripture  history. 

Little  doubt,  I trust,  can  now  exist  in  the  minds  of  my  readers  as  to  the 


Herodotus  (ii.  152.),  in  his  usual  confusion,  places  Sabaco,  (who,  he  says,  reigned 
after  Anysis,  a blind  man,  who  fled  to  the  island  of  Elbo  in  the  marshes,)  after  My- 
cerinus,  of  the  fourth  dynasty,  and  states  that  he  reigned  fifty  years,  more  than  the 
whole  time  of  the  dynasty.  Diodorus  placed  Sabaco  after  Bocchoris,  whom,  he  de- 
clares, he  burnt  alive.  This  might  be  the  deed  of  Sabaco  I.,  while  the  burning  of 
Nechao  I.  may  have  been  the  act  of  Sabaco  II.  Hence,  M.  Bunsen  (Aegyptens 
Stelle,  iii.  137,  138.),  and  Lepsius  have  adopted  the  hypothesis  that  the  twenty-fifth 
and  twenty-sixth  dynasties  were  contemporaneous,  and  that  the  capital  of  the  ^Ethi- 
opian dynasty  was  at  Napata,  or  Mt.  Barkal,  whence,  from  time  to  time,  the  ^Ethi- 
opians successfully  invaded  Egypt,  or  the  hypothesis  that  Amenartas,  the  ^Ethiopian, 
was  not  expelled  when  the  Saites  commenced  their  reign.  (M.  De  Rougee,  Exam, 
ii.  p.  66.) 


XXIV. 

Anysis,  in  the  Delta, 
xxv. 

Sabaco  (Thebes). 
Sebichus. 

Amenartas. 


xxvi. 

Stephinates. 

Nechepsos. 

The  Dodekarchy  (League  of  Nomarchs). 
Psammetichus  I.  (M.  Maury,  Rev.  Arch. 
1851,  p.  277.) 


The  great  interest  attached  to  the  Kouyunjik  seals  depends  upon  having  the  pre- 
cise date  of  this  king,  as  they  were  probably  affixed  to  a treaty  with  Assyria,  or  some 
neighbouring  nation.  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  name  of  Sabaco.  Herodotus 
(ii.  139.)  writes  2ABAKH2 ; Diodorus  (i.  59.)  2ABAKHN,  Africanus  Sabakon,  for  the 
first  Sabaid,  and  Sebechos  or  Senechos  (2EBHXH2)  for  the  second.  The  Armenian 
version  reads  Sabbakon,  for  the  name  of  the  first  king  (M.  Bockh,  Manetho,  326.). 
Some  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint  have  2HH1P  (Segoor).  Cf.  Winer,  l.  c. ; Gesenius, 
Com.  in  Test.  i.  696.)  It  is  indeed  highly  probable,  that  this  is  the  monarch  men- 
tioned in  the  Book  of  Kings  as  Sua  or  So,  and  that  his  seal  was  affixed  to  some  treaty 
between  Assyria  and  Egypt.” 

* The  impressions  of  the  signets  of  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  kings,  besides  a 
large  collection  of  seals  found  in  Kouyunjik,  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


ASSYRIAN  CYLINDERS. 


135 


Chail  VI  ] 

identification  of  the  builder  of  the  palace  of  Kouyunjik,  with  the  Senna- 
cherib of  Scripture.  Had  the  name  stood  alone,  we  might  reasonably  have 
questioned  the  correctness  of  the  reading,  especially  as  the  signs  or  mono- 
grams, with  which  it  is  written,  are  admitted  to  have  no  phonetic  power. 
But  when  characters,  whose  alphabetic  values  have  been  determined  from  a 
perfectly  distinct  source,  such  as  the  Babylonian  column  of  the  trilingual 
inscriptions,  furnish  us  with  names  in  the  records  attributed  to  Sennacherib, 
written  almost  identically  as  in  the  Hebrew  version  of  the  Bible,  such  as 
Hezekiah,  Jerusalem,  Judah,  Sidon,  and  others,  and  all  occurring  in  one 
and  the  same  paragraph,  their  reading,  moreover,  confirmed  by  synchro- 
nisms, and  illustrated  by  sculptured  representations  of  the  events,  the  identi- 
fication must  be  admitted  to  he  complete. 

The  palace  of  Khorsahad,  as  I have  already  observed,  was  built  by  the 
father  of  Sennacherib.  The  edifice  in  the  south-west  corner  of  Nimroud 
was  raised  by  the  son,  as  we  learn  from  the  inscription  on  the  back  of  the 
bulls  discovered  in  that  building  # The  name  of  the  king  is  admitted  to 
be  Essarhaddon,  and  there  are  events,  as  it  will  hereafter  be  seen,  men- 
tioned in  his  records,  which  further  tend  to  identify  him  with  the  Essar- 
haddon of  Scripture,  who,  after  the  murder  of  his  father  Sennacherib,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne. 

I may  mention  in  conclusion,  as  connected  with  the  bulls  forming  the 
grand  entrance,  that  in  the  rubbish  at  the  foot  of  one  of  them  were  found 
four  cylinders  and  several  beads,  with  a scorpion  in  lapis  lazuli,  all  appar- 
ently once  strung  together.  On  one  cylinder  of  translucent  green  felspar, 

called  amazon  stone,  which  I believe  to 
have  been  the  signet,  or  amulet,  of  Sen- 
nacherib himself,  is  engraved  the  king 
standing  in  an  arched  frame  as  on  the 
rock  tablets  at  Bavian,  and  at  the  Nahr- 
el-Kelb  in  Syria.  He  holds  in  one  hand 
the  sacrificial  mace,  and  raises  the  other 
in  the  act  of  adoration  before  the  winged 
Royal  cylinder  of  Sennacherib  figure  in  a circle,  here  represented  as  a 
triad  with  three  heads.  This  mode  of  portraying  this  emblem  is  very  rare 
on  Assyrian  relics,  and  is  highly  interesting,  as  confirming  the  conjecture 
that  the  mythic  human  figure,  with  the  wings  and  tail  of  a bird,  inclosed 
in  a circle,  was  the  symbol  of  the  triune  god,  the  supreme  deity  of  the  As- 
syrians, and  of  the  Persians,  their  successors,  in  the  empire  of  the  East.f 

* The  relationship  between  the  various  Assyrian  kings  whose  names  are  found  on 
the  monuments,  was  discovered  by  me  during  the  first  excavations,  and  published  in 
my  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii  2nd  part,  chap.  1.  Colonel  Rawlinson  in  his 
first  memoir  declares,  that  I had  been  too  hasty  in  attributing  the  south-west  palace 
to  the  son  of  Sennacherib,  but  he  appears  since  to  have  adopted  the  same  opinion. 
(Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  40  ) 

t M Lajard  had  conjectured  that  the  component  parts  of  this  representation  of  the 
triune  deity  were  a circle  or  crown  to  denote  time  without  bounds,  or  eternity,  the 


136 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VI 


In  front  of  the  king  is  an  eunuch,  and  the  sacred  tree,  whose  flowers  are. 
in  this  instance,  in  the  form  of  an  acorn.  A mountain  goat,  standing  upon 
a flower  resembling  the  lotus  occupies  the  rest  of  the  cylinder.  The  in- 
taglio of  this  beautiful  gem  is  not  deep  but  sharp  and  distinct,  and  the  de- 
tails are  so  minute,  that  a magnifying  glass  is  almost  required  to  perceive 
them. 

On  a smaller  cylinder,  in  the  same  green  felspar,*  is  a cuneiform  inscrip- 
tion, which  has  not  yet  been  deciphered,  but  which  does  not  appear  to  con- 
tain any  royal  name.  On  two  cylinders  of  onyx,  also  found  at  Kouyunjik, 
and  now  in  the  British  Museum,  are,  however,  the  name  and  titles  of  Sen- 
nacherib. 

image  of  Baal  the  supreme  god,  and  the  wings  and  tail  of  a dove,  to  typify  the  asso- 
ciation of  Mylitta,  the  Assyrian  Venus.  (Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  li  p.  449 
note.) 

* A cylinder,  not  yet  engraved  or  pierced,  and  several  beads,  are  in  the  same  ma- 
terial. Part  of  another  cylinder  appears  to  be  of  a kind  of  vitreous  composition.  I 
shall,  hereafter,  describe  the  nature  and  uses  of  these  relics,  which  are  so  frequently 
found  in  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  ruins. 


Piece  of  clay  with  impressions  of  seals. 


Vaulted  drain  beneath  the  North-west  Palace  at  Nimroud 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ROAD  OPENED  FOR  REMOVAL  OF  WINGED  LIONS DISCOVERY  OF  VAULTED  DRAIN. OF 

OTHER  ARCHES. OF  PAINTED  BRICKS. ATTACK  OF  THE  TAI  ON  THE  VILLAGE  OF 

NIMROUD. VISIT  TO  THE  HOWAR  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ENCAMPMENT  OF  THE  TAI 

THE  PLAIN  OF  SHOMAMOK. SHEIKH  FARAS. — WALI  BEY RETURN  TO  NIMROUD 

The  gigantic  human-headed  lions,  first  discovered  in  the  north-west  pal- 
ace at  Nimroud,*  were  still  standing  in  their  original  position  Having 
been  carefully  covered  up  with  earth  previous  to  my  departure  in  1848 
they  had  been  preserved  from  exposure  to  the  effects  of  the  weather,  and 
to  wanton  injury  on  the  part  of  the  Arabs  The  Trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  wishing  to  add  these  fine  sculptures  to  the  national  collection  I 
was  directed  to  remove  them  entire.  A road' through  the  ruins,  for  their 
transport  to  the  edge  of  the  mound,  was  in  the  first  place  necessary,  and 
it  was  commenced  early  in  December.  They  would  thus  be  ready  for 
embarkation  as  soon  as  the  waters  of  the  river  were  sufficiently  high  to 
bear  a raft  so  heavily  laden,  over  the  rapids  and  shallows  between  Nim- 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol  i.  p.  65. 


Vaulted  Drain  beneath  South-east  Palace  (Nimroud) 

* The  sockets,  which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum,  weigh  61b  3|oz  ; the  diam- 
eter of  the  ring  is  about  five  inches.  The  hinges  and  frames  of  the  brass  gates  at 
Babylon  were  also  of  brass  (Herod,  i 178  ) 


138 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  YII. 


roud  and  Baghdad  This  road  was  dug  to  the  level  of  the  pavement  or 
artificial  platform,  and  was  not  finished  till  the  end  of  February,  as  a large 

mass  of  earth  and  rubbish  had  to  be 
taken  away  to  the  depth  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet.  During  the  progress  of 
the  work  we  found  some  carved  frag- 
ments of  ivory  similar  to  those  already 
placed  in  the  British  Museum ; and 
two  massive  sockets  in  bronze,  in  which 
turned  the  hinges  of  a gate  of  the  pal- 
ace. No  remains  of  the  door-posts,  or 
other  parts  of  the  gate,  were  discovered 
Bronze  Socket  of  the  Palace  Gate  (Nimroud).  in  the  ruins,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether 

these  rings  were  fixed  in  stone  or  wood.* 
In  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  mound  tunnels  carried  beneath  the 
ruined  edifice,  which  is  of  the  seventh  century  b.c.,  showed  the  remains 
of  an  earlier  building.  A vaulted  drain,  about  five  feet  in  width,  was  also 


Chap.  VII.]  Assyrian  arches.  139 

discovered.  The  arch  was  turned  with  large  kiln-burnt  bricks,  and  rested 
upon  side  walls  of  the  same  material;  The  bricks  being  square,  and  not 
expressly  made  for  vaulting,  a space  was  left  above  the  centre  of  the  arch, 
which  was  filled  up  by  bricks  laid  longitudinally. 

Although  this  may  not  be  a perfect  arch,  we  have  seen  from  the  vaulted 
chamber  discovered  in  the  very  centre  of  the  high  mound  at  the  north-west 
corner,  that  the  Assyrians  were  well  acquainted  at  an  early  period  with 
its  true  principle.  Other  examples  were  not  wanting  in  the  ruins.  The 
earth  falling  away  from  the  sides  of  the  deep  trench  opened  in  the  north- 
west palace  for  the  removal  of  the,  bull  and  lion  during  the  former  excava- 
tions, left  uncovered  the  entrance  to  a vaulted  drain  or  passage  built  of  sun- 
dried  bricks.  Beneath  was  a small  watercourse,  inclosed  by  square  pieces 
of  alabaster.5^  A third  arch,  equally  perfect  in  character,  was  found  be- 
neath the  ruins  of  the  south-east  edifice.  A tunnel  had  been  opened  al- 
most on  a level  with  the  plain,  and  carried  far  into  the  southern  face  of 
the  mound,  but  without  the  discovery  of  any  other  remains  of  building  than 


Perfect  Arch  beneath  South-east  Edifice  (Nimroud) 

* See  woodcut  at  the  head  of  this  chapter  This  drain  was  beneath  chambers  S 
and  T.  of  the  north-west  palace.  (See  Plan  III.  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol  i 
p.  620 


140 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VII. 

this  solitary  brick  arch.  I’his  part  of  the  artificial  elevation  or  platform 
appears  to  consist  entirely  of  earth,  heaped  up  without  any  attempt  at  reg- 
ular construction.  It  contained  no  relics  except  a few  rude  vessels,  or 
vases,  in  the  coarsest  clay. 

In  the  south-east  corner  of  the  quadrangle,  formed  by  the  low  mounds 
marking  the  walls  once  surrounding  this  quarter  of  the  city  of  Nineveh,  or 
the  park  attached  to  the  royal  residence,  the  level  of  the  soil  is  considera- 
bly higher  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  inclosed  space.  This  sudden  in- 
equality evidently  indicates  the  site  of  some  ancient  edifice.  Connected 
with  it,  rising  abruptly,  and  almost  perpendicularly,  from  the  plain,  and 
forming  one  of  the  corners  of  the  walls,  is  a lofty,  irregular  mound,  which 
is  known  to  the  Arabs  by  the  hame  of  the  Tel  of  Athur,  the  Lieutenant 
of  Nimroud.*  Tunnels  and  trenches  opened  in  it  showed  nothing  but 
earth,  unmingled  even  with  bricks  or  fragments  of  stone.  Remains  of 
walls  and  a pavement  of  baked  bricks  were,  however,  discovered  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  platform.  The  bricks  had  evidently  been  taken  from 
some  other  building,  for  upon  them  were  traces  of  colored  figures  and  pat- 
terns, of  the  same  character  as  those  on  the  sculptured  walls  of  the  palaces. 
Their  painted  faces  were  placed  downwards,  as  if  purposely  to  conceal 
them,  and  the  designs  upon  them  were  in  most  instances  injured  or  destroy- 
ed. A few  fragments  were  collected,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  colors  have  faded,  but  were  probably  once  as  bright  as  the  enamels  of 
Khorsabad.f  The  outlines  are  white,  and  the  ground  a pale  blue  and  olive 
green.  The  only  other  color  used  is  a dull  yellow.  The  most  interesting 
specimens  are,J 

1.  Four  captives  tied  together  by  their  necks,  the  end  of  the  rope  being 
held  by  the  foremost  prisoner,  whose  hands  are  free,  whilst  the  others  have 
their  arms  bound  behind.  They  probably  formed  part  of  a line  of  captives 
led  by  an  Assyrian  warrior.  They  are  beardless,  and  have  bald  heads,  to 
which  is  attached  a single  feather. § Two  of  them  have  white  cloths 

* “ Out  of  that  land  went  forth  Asshur,  and  builded  Nineveh.”  (Gen.  x.  11.) 

t The  colors  on  the  Nineveh  bricks  have  not  yet  been  fully  examined,  but  they 
appear  to  be  precisely  the  same  as  those  on  the  Babylonian,  which  have  been  care- 
fully analyzed  by  Sir  Henry  De  la  Beche  and  Dr.  Percy.  The  yellow  is  an  antimo- 
niate  of  lead,  from  which  tin  has  also  been  extracted,  called  Naples  yellow,  supposed 
to  be  comparatively  a modern  discovery,  though  also  used  by  the  Egyptians.  The 
white  is  an  enamel  or  glaze  of  oxide  of  tin,  an  invention  attributed  to  the  Arabs  of 
Northern  Africa  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  The  blue  glaze  is  a copper,  contains 
no  cobalt,  but  some  lead ; a curious  fact,  as  this  mineral  was  not  added  as  a coloring 
matter,  but  to  facilitate  the  fusion  of  the  glaze,  to  which  use,  it  was  believed,  lead  had 
only  been  turned  in  comparatively  modern  times.  The  red  is  a sub-oxide  of  copper. 

t For  facsimiles  of  these  colored  fragments,  see  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nine- 
veh, Plates  53,  54,  55. 

$ On  Egyptian  monuments  captives  are  portrayed  with  similar  feathers  attached 
to  their  heads  ; but  they  appear  to  be  of  a negro  race,  whilst  those  on  the  Nimroud 
bricks  bear  no  traces  of  negro  color  or  physiognomy.  (Wilkinson’s  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians, vol.  i.  plate,  p 385.) 


PAINTED  BRICKS. 


141 


Chap.  VII.] 

round  their  loins,  the  others  long  white  shirts  open  in  front,  like  the  shirt 
of  the  modern  Arab.  The  figures  on  this  fragment  are  yellow  on  a blue 
ground. 

2.  Similar  captives  followed  by  an  Assyrian  soldier.  The  armour  of  the 
warrior  is  that  of  the  later  period,  the  scales  and  greaves  are  painted  blue 
and  yellow,  and  the  tunic  blue.  The  ground  blue. 

3.  Parts  of  two  horses,  of  a man  holding  a dagger,  and  of  an  Assyrian 
warrior.  The  horses  are  blue.  The  man  appears  to  have  been  wounded 
or  slain  in  battle,  and  is  naked,  with  the  exception  of  a twisted  blue  cloth 
round  the  loins.  Ground  an  olive  green. 

4.  Fragment,  with  Assyrian  warriors  on  horses.  Horses  yellow,  with 
blue  trappings.  Ground  olive  green. 

5.  Part  of  a chariot  and  horse,  yellow  on  a blue  ground. 

6.  A man,  with  a white  cloth  round  his  loins,  pierced  by  two  arrows. 
A fish,  blue,  with  the  scales  marked  in  white  ; and  part  of  a horse’s  head, 
yellow.  Ground  yellow. 

7.  Part  of  a walled  tower,  or  fort,  with  square  battlements;  white,  on  a 
blue  ground. 

8.  Fragment  of  a very  spirited  design  representing  a chariot  and  horses 
passing  over  a naked  figure,  pierced  through  the  neck  by  an  arrow.  Under 
this  group  are  the  heads,  and  parts  of  the  shields,  of  two  Assyrian  warriors. 
The  wounded  man  wears  a fillet  round  his  head,  to  which  is  attached  a 
feather.  The  horses  are  blue,  and  their  trappings  white ; the  wheels  of  the 
chariot,  yellow.  The  shields  of  the  warriors  are  blue,  edged  by  a band  of 
alternate  squares  of  blue  and  yellow ; their  helmets  are  yellow,  but  the 
faces  appear  to  be  merely  outlined  in  white  on  the  olive  green  ground. 

9.  The  lower  part  of  an  Assyrian  warrior,  his  armour  and  greaves  blue, 
yellow,  and  white.  The  naked  hand  is  of  a pale  brown  color.  Ground 
olive  green. 

10.  A castle,  with  angular  battlements;  white,  with  yellow  bands  on  a 
blue  ground.  A square  door  is  painted  blue. 

All  these  fragments  evidently  belong  to  the  same  period,  and  probably  to 
the  same  general  subject,  the  conquest  of  some  distant  nation  by  the  Assy- 
rians. It  is  evident,  from  the  costume  of  the  warriors,  and  the  form  of  the 
chariots,  that  they  are  of  the  later  epoch,  and  without  attempting  to  fix 
their  exact  date,  I should  conjecture  that  they  had  been  taken  from  the 
same  building  as  the  detached  bas-reliefs  in  the  south-west  palace,  and  that 
consequently  they  may  be  attributed  to  the  same  king.*  The  outlines  are 
spirited,  in  character  and  treatment  resembling  the  sculptures. 

A fragment  of  painted  brick,  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  north-west  palace, 
is  undoubtedly  of  a different,  and  of  an  earlier,  period. f The  outline  is  in 
black,  and  not  in  white.  The  figures,  of  which  the  heads  have  been  de- 
stroyed, wear  the  same  dress  as  the  tribute-bearers  bringing  the  monkey  and 
* That  is,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown,  to  Pul,  or  Tiglath  Pileser. 
t No.  6.  Plate  53.  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


142 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VII. 


ornaments,  on  the  exterior  walls  of  the  same  building.*  The  upper  robe  is 
blue,  the  under  yellow,  and  the  fringes  white.  The  ground  is  yellow. 

But  the  most  perfect  and  interesting  specimen  of  painting  is  that  on  a 
brick,  12  inches  by  9,  discovered  in  the  centre  of  the  mound  of  Nimroud. 
and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  represents  the  king  followed  by  his 
attendant  eunuch,  receiving  his  general  or  vizir,  a group  very  similar  to 
those  seen  in  the  sculptures  from  the  north-west  palace.  Above  his  head 
is  a kind  of  fringed  pavilion,  and  part  of  an  inscription,  which  appears  to 
have  contained  his  name ; beneath  him  is  the  Assyrian  guilloche  border.! 
The  outline  is  in  black  upon  a pale  yellow  ground,  the  colors  having  prob- 
ably faded.  From  the  costume  of  the  king  I believe  him  to  be  either  the 
builder  of  the  north-west  or  centre  palace.  This  is  an  unique  specimen  of 
an  entire  Assyrian  painting. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  month  of  December  I resided  at  Nimroud. 
One  morning,  I was  suddenly  disturbed  by  the  reports  of  firearms,  mingled 
with  the  shouts  of  men  and  the  shrieks  of  women.  Issuing  immediately 
from  the  house,  I found  the  open  space  behind  it  a scene  of  wild  excitement 
and  confusion.  Horsemen,  galloping  in  all  directions  and  singing  their  war 
song,  were  driving  before  them  with  their  long  spears  the  cattle  and  sheep 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  village.  The  men  were  firing  at  the  invaders  : 
the  women,  armed  with  tent  poles  and  pitchforks,  and  filling  the  air  wfith 
their  shrill  screams,  were  trying  to  rescue  the  animals.  The  horsemen  of 
the  Arab  tribe  of  Tai  had  taken  advantage  of  a thick  mist  hanging  over 
the  Jaif,  to  cross  the  Zab  early  in  the  morning,  and  to  fall  upon  us  before 
we  were  aware  of  their  approach.  No  time  was  to  he  lost  to  prevent 
bloodshed,  and  all  its  disagreeable  consequences.  A horse  was  soon  ready, 
and  I rode  towards  the  one  who  appeared  to  he  the  chief  of  the  attacking 
party.  Although  his  features  were  concealed  by  the  keffieh  closely  drawn 
over  the  lower  part  of  his  face,  after  the  Bedouin  fashion  in  war,  he  had 
been  recognised  as  Saleh,  the  brother  of  the  Howar,  the  Sheikh  of  the  Tai. 
He  saluted  me  as  I drew  near,  and  we  rode  along  side  by  side,  whilst  his 
followers  were  driving  before  them  the  cattle  of  the  villagers.  Directing 
Hormuzd  to  keep  back  the  Shemutti,  I asked  the  chief  to  restore  the  plun- 
dered property.  Fortunately,  hitherto  only  one  man  of  the  attacking  party 
had  been  seriously  wounded.  The  exped’rion  was  chiefly  directed  against 
the  Jebours,  who  some  days  before  had  carried  off  a large  number  of  the 
camels  of  the  Tai.  I promised  to  do  my  best  to  recover  them.  At  length 
Saleh,  for  my  sake,  as  he  said,  consented  to  restore  all  that  had  been  taken, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Nimroud  were  called  upon  to  claim  each  his  own 
property.  As  we  approached  the  ruins,  for  the  discussion  had  been  carried 
on  as  we  rode  from  the  village,  my  Jebour  workmen,  who  had  by  this  time 
heard  of  the  affray,  were  preparing  to  meet  the  enemy.  Some  had  ascended 
to  the  top  of  the  high  conical  mound,  where  they  had  collected  stones  and 
* First  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  40. 
t Plate  55.  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


VISIT  TO  THE  HOWAR 


143 


Chap.  VII.] 

bricks  ready  to  hurl  against  the  Tai  should  they  attempt  to  follow  them 
Thus  probably  assembled  on  this  very  mound,  which  Xenophon  calls  a pyr- 
amid, the  people  of  Larissa  when  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  approached  their 
ruined  city.*  Others  advanced  towards  us,  stripped  to  their  waists,  brand- 
ishing their  swords  and  short  spears  in  defiance,  and  shouting  their  war-cry 
It  was  with  difficulty  that,  with  the  assistance  of  Hormuzd,  I was  able  to 
check  this  display  of  valour,  and  prevent  them  from  renewing  the  engage- 
ment. The  men  and  women  of  the  village  were  still  following  the  retreat- 
ing horsemen,  clamoring  for  various  articles,  such  as  cloaks  and  handker- 
chiefs, not  yet  restored.  In  the  midst  of  the  crowd  of  wranglers,  a hare  sud- 
denly sprang  from  her  form  and  darted  over  the  plain.  My  greyhounds, 
who  had  followed  me  from  the  house,  immediately  pursued  her.  This  was 
too  much  for  the  Arabs ; their  love  of  the  chase  overcame  even  their  pro- 
pensity for  appropriating  other  people’s  property  ; cattle,  cloaks,  swords,  and 
keffiehs  were  abandoned  to  their  respective  claimants,  and  the  whole  band 
of  marauders  joined  wildly  in  the  pursuit.  Before  we  had  reached  the 
game  we  were  far  distant  from  Nimroud.  I seized  the  opportunity  to  con- 
clude the  truce,  and  Saleh  with  his  followers  rode  slowly  back  towards 
the  ford  of  the  Zab  to  seek  his  brother’s  tents.  I promised  to  visit  the 
Howar  in  two  or  three  days,  and  we  parted  with  mutual  assurances  of 
friendship. 

Accordingly,  two  days  afterwards,  I started  with  Hormuzd,  Schloss,  and 
a party  of  Abou-Salman  horsemen,  for  the  tents  of  the  Tai.  We  took  the 
road  by  an  ancient  Chaldsean  monastery,  called  Kuther  Elias,  and  in  three 
hours  reached  the  Zab.  The  waters,  however,  were  so  much  swollen  by 
recent  rains,  that  the  fords  were  impassable,  and  having  vainly  attempted 
to  find  some  means  of  crossing  the  river,  we  were  obliged  to  retrace  our 
steps. 

I spent  Christmas-day  at  Nimroud,  and  on  the  28th  renewed  the  attempt 
to  visit  the  Howar.  Schloss  again  accompanied  me,  Mr.  Holland  (a  trav- 
eller, who  had  recently  joined  us),  Hormuzd,  and  Awad  being  of  the  party 
Leaving  the  Kuther  Elias  to  the  left,  we  passed  the  ruined  village  of  Kini- 
Haremi,  taking  the  direct  track  to  the  Zab.  The  river,  winding  through 
a rich  alluvial  plain,  divides  itself  into  four  branches,  before  entering  a range 
of  low  conglomerate  hills,  between  which  it  sweeps  in  its  narrowed  bed 
with  great  velocity.  The  four  channels  are  each  fordable,  except  during 
floods,  and  the  Arabs  generally  cross  at  this  spot.  The  water  reached  above 
the  bellies  of  our  horses,  but  we  found  no  difficulty  in  stemming  the  cur- 
rent. The  islands  and  the  banks  were  clothed  with  trees  and  brushwood. 
In  the  mud  and  sand  near  the  jungle  were  innumerable  deep,  sharp  prints 
of  the  hoof  of  the  wild  boar.  About  two  miles  above  the  ford,  on  the  op- 
posite side,  rose  a large,  table-shaped  mound,  called  Abou-Sheetha.  We 
rode  to  it,  and  I carefully  examined  its  surface  and  the  deep  rain- worn  ra- 
vines down  its  sides,  but  there  were  no  remains  of  building;  and  although 

* Anab.  1.  iii.  c.  4. 


144 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VII 


fragments  of  brick  and  pottery  were  scattered  over  it,  I could  see  no  traces 
upon  them  of  cuneiform  characters ; yet  the  mound  was  precisely  of  that 
form  which  would  lead  to  the  conjecture  that  it  covered  an  edifice  of  con- 
siderable extent.  Awad,  however,  subsequently  excavated  in  it  without 
finding  any  ruins  of  the  Assyrian  period.  A few  urns  and  vases  were  the 
only  objects  discovered. 

The  tents  oftheHowar  were  still  higher  up  the  Zab.  Sending  a horse- 
man to  apprise  the  chief  of  our  approach,  we  rode  leisurely  towards  them. 
Near  Abou-Sheetha  is  a small  village  named  Kaaitli,  inhabited  by  sedentary 
Arabs,  who  pay  tribute  to  the  Sheikh.  A few  tents  of  the  Tai  were  scattered 
around  it.  As  we  passed  by,  the  women  came  out  with  their  children,  and 
pointing  to  me  exclaimed,  “Look,  look!  this  is  the  Beg  who  is  come  from 
the  other  end  of  the  world  to  dig  up  the  bones  of  our  grandfathers  and  grand- 
mothers !”  a sacrilege  which  they  seemed  inclined  to  resent.  Saleh,  at  the 
head  of  fifty  or  sixty  horsemen,  met  us  beyond  the  village,  and  conducted 
us  to  the  encampment  of  his  brother. 

The  tents  were  pitched  in  long,  parallel  lines.  That  of  the  chief  held 
the  foremost  place,  and  was  distinguished  by  its  size,  the  upright  spears 
tufted  with  ostrich  feathers  at  its  entrance,  and  the  many  high-bred  mares 
tethered  before  it.  As  we  approached,  a tall,  commanding  figure,  of  erect 
and  noble  carriage,  issued  from  beneath  the  black  canvass,  and  advanced 
to  receive  me.  I had  never  seen  amongst  the  Arabs  a man  of  such  lofty 
stature.  His  features  were  regular  and  handsome,  but  his  beard,  having 
been  fresh  dyed  with  hennah  alone,*  was  of  a bright  brick-red  hue,  ill  suited 
to  the  gravity  and  dignity  of  his  countenance.  His  head  was  encircled  by 
a rich  cashmere  shawl,  one  end  falling  over  his  shoulder,  as  is  the  custom 
amongst  the  Arabs  of  the  Hedjaz.  He  wore  a crimson  satin  robe  and  a 
black  cloak,  elegantly  embroidered  down  the  back,  and  on  one  of  the  wide 
sleeves  with  gold  thread  and  many-colored  silks.  This  was  Sheikh  Howar, 
and  behind  him  stood  a crowd  of  followers  and  adherents,  many  of  whom 
had  the  features  and  stature  which  marked  the  family  of  the  chief. 

As  I dismounted,  the  Sheikh  advanced  to  embrace  me,  and  when  his 
arms  were  round  my  neck  my  head  scarcely  reached  to  his  shoulder.  He 
led  me  into  that  part  of  the  tent  which  is  set  aside  for  guests.  It  had  been 
prepared  for  my  reception,  and  was  not  ill  furnished  with  cushions  of  silk 
and  soft  Kurdish  carpets.  The  tent  itself  was  more  capacious  than  those 
usually  found  amongst  Arabs.  The  black  goat-hair  canvass  alone  was  the 
load  of  three  camels,!  and  was  supported  by  six  poles  down  the  centre, 
with  the  same  number  on  either  side.  Around  a bright  fire  was  an  array 
of  highly  burnished  metal  coffee-pots,  the  largest  containing  several  quarts, 

* In  order  to  die  the  hair  black,  a preparation  of  indigo  should  be  used  after  the 
hennah. 

t The  ^°nvass  of  such  tents  is  divided  into  strips,  which,  packed  separately  on 
the  camels  uuring  a march,  are  easily  united  again  by  coarse  thread,  or  by  small 
wooden  pins. 


THE  TRIBE  OF  TAI. 


145 


Chap.  VII.] 

and  the  smallest  scarcely  big  enough  to  fill  the  diminutive  cup  reserved 
for  the  solitary  stranger.  Several  noble  falcons,  in  their  gay  hoods  and 
tresses,  were  perched  here  and  there  on  their  stands.  The  Howar  seated 
himself  by  my  side,  and  the  head  men  of  his  tribe,  who  had  assembled  on 
the  occasion,  formed  a wide  circle  in  front  of  us  ; Saleh,  his  brother,  stand- 
ing without,  and  receiving  the  commands  of  the  Sheikh. 

Coffee  was,  of  course,  the  first  business.  It  was  highly  spiced,  as  drank 
by  the  Bedouins.  The  Howar,  after  some  general  conversation,  spoke  of 
the  politics  of  the  Tai,  and  their  differences  with  the  Turkish  government. 
The  same  ruinous  system  which  has  turned  some  of  the  richest  districts 
of  Asia  into  a desert,  and  has  driven  every  Arab  clan  into  open  rebellion 
against  the  Sultan,  had  been  pursued  towards  himself  and  his  tribe.  He 
was  its  acknowledged  hereditary  chief,  and  enjoyed  all  the  influence  such 
a position  can  confer.  For  years  he  had  collected  and  paid  the  appointed 
tribute  to  the  Turkish  authorities.  Fresh  claims  had,  however,  been  put 
forward  : the  governors  of  Arbil,  in  whose  district  the  Tai  pastured  their 
flocks,  were  to  be  bribed  ; the  Pashas  of  Baghdad  required  presents,  and  the 
tribute  itself  was  gradually  increased.  At  length  the  Howar  could  no  lon- 
ger satisfy  the  growing  demands  upon  him.  One  of  the  same  family  was 
soon  found  who  promised  to  be  more  yielding  to  the  insatiable  avarice  of 
the  Osmanlis,  and,  in  consideration  of  a handsome  bribe,  Faras,  his  cousin, 
was  named  Sheikh  of  the  tribe.  The  new  chief  had  his  own  followers, 
the  support  of  the  government  gave  him  a certain  authority,  and  the  Tai 
were  now  divided  into  two  parties.  The  Pasha  of  Baghdad  and  the  gov- 
ernor of  Arbil  profited  by  their  dissensions,  received  bribes  from  both,  and 
from  others  who  aimed  at  the  sheikhship,  and  the  country  had  rapidly  been 
reduced  to  a state  of  anarchy.  The  Arabs,  having  no  one  responsible  chief, 
took,  of  course,  to  plundering.  The  villages  on  the  Mosul  side  of  the  Zab, 
as  well  as  in  the  populous  district  of  Arbil,  were  laid  waste.  The  Kurds, 
who  came  down  into  the  plains  during  the  winter,  were  encouraged  to  fol- 
low the  example  of  the  Tai,  and,  from  the  rapaciousness  and  misconduct 
of  one  or  two  officers  of  the  Turkish  government,  evils  had  ensued  whose 
consequences  will  be  felt  for  years,  and  which  will  end  in  adding  another 
rich  district  to  the  desert.  Such  is  the  history  of  almost  every  tribe  in 
Turkey,  and  such  the  causes  of  the  desolation  that  has  spread  over  her 
finest  provinces. 

The  Tai.  now  reduced  to  two  comparatively  small  branches,  one  under 
the  Howar,  the  other  residing  in  the  desert  of  Nisibin,  watered  by  the 
eastern  branch  of  the  Khabour,  is  a remnant  of  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  renowned  tribes  of  Arabia.  The  Howar  himself  traces  his  descent 
from  Hatem,  a Sheikh  of  the  tribe  who  lived  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  who,  as  the  impersonation  of  all  the  virtues  of  Bedouin  life,  is  the 
theme  to  this  day  of  the  Arab  muse.  His  hospitality,  his  generosity,  his 
courage,  and  his  skill  as  a horseman  were  alike  unequalled,  and  there  is  no 
name  more  honored  amongst  the  wild  inhabitants  of  the  desert  than  that 

K 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


146 


[Chap.  VII 


of  Hatera  Tai.  The  Howar  is  proud  of  his  heroic  ancestor,  and  the  Be- 
douins acknowledge  and  respect  his  descent.* 

We  dined  with  the  Sheikh  and  sat  until  the  night  was  far  spent,  listen- 
ing to  tales  of  Arab  life,  and  to  the  traditions  of  his  tribe. 

On  the  following  morning  the  tents  were  struck  at  sunrise,  and  the  chief 
moved  with  his  followers  to  new  pastures.  The  crowd  of  camels,  flocks, 
cattle,  laden  beasts  of  burden,  horsemen,  footmen,  women  and  children  dark- 
ened the  plain  for  some  miles.  We  passed  through  the  midst  of  them  with 
the  Sheikh,  and  leaving  him  to  fix  the  spot  of  his  encampment,  we  turned 
from  the  river  and  rode  inland  towards  the  tents  of  his  rival,  Faras.  Saleh, 
with  a few  horsemen,  accompanied  me,  but  Schloss  declared  that  it  was 
against  all  the  rules  of  Arab  etiquette  for  a stranger,  like  myself,  to  take 
undue  advantage  of  the  rights  of  hospitality  by  introducing  an  enemy  un- 
der my  protection  into  an  encampment.  There  was  a feud  between  the 
two  chiefs,  blood  had  actually  been  spilt,  and  if  Saleh  entered  the  dwell- 
ings of  his  rivals,  disagreeable  consequences  might  ensue,  although  my  pres- 
ence and  the  fact  of  his  having  eaten  bread  with  me  would  save  him  from 
actual  danger.  However,  one  of  my  objects  was  to  bring  about  a reconcil- 
iation between  the  two  chiefs,  and  as  Saleh  had  consented  to  run  the  risk 
of  accompanying  me,  I persevered  in  my  determination.  Schloss  was  not 
to  he  persuaded,  he  hung  behind,  sulked,  and  finally  turning  the  head  of 
his  mare,  rode  hack  with  his  companions  to  the  river.  I took  no  notice  of 
his  departure,  anticipating  his  speedy  return.  He  recovered  from  his  ill 
humor,  and  joined  us  again  late  in  the  evening. 

The  plain,  hounded  by  the  Tigris,  the  great  and  lesser  Zab,  and  the  Kurd- 
ish hills,  is  renowned  for  its  fertility.  It  is  the  granary  of  Baghdad,  and 
it  is  a common  saying  amongst  the  Arabs,  “ that  if  there  wrere  a famine 
over  the  rest  of  the  earth,  Shomamok  (for  so  the  principal  part  of  the  plain 
is  called)  would  still  have  its  harvest.”  This  district  belongs  chiefly  to 
the  Tai  Arabs,  who  wander  from  pasture  to  pasture,  and  leave  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  to  small  sedentary  tribes  of  Arabs,  Turcomans,  and  Kurds, 
who  dwell  in  villages,  and  pay  an  annual  tribute  in  money  or  in  kind. 

As  we  rode  along  we  passed  many  peasants  industriously  driving  the 
plough  through  the  rich  soil.  Large  flocks  of  gazelles  grazed  in  the  cul- 
tivated patches,  scarcely  fearing  the  husbandman,  though  speedily  bound- 
ing away  over  the  plain  as  horsemen  approached.  Artificial  mounds  rose 
on  all  sides  of  us,  and  near  one  of  the  largest,  called  Abou-Jerdeh,  we  found 
the  black  tents  of  Sheikh  Faras.  The  rain  began  to  fall  in  torrents  before 


* The  reader  may  remember  a well-known  anecdote  of  this  celebrated  Sheikh, 
still  current  in  the  desert.  He  was  the  owner  of  a matchless  mare  whose  fame  had 
even  reached  the  Greek  Emperor.  Ambassadors  were  sent  from  Constantinople  to 
ask  the  animal  of  the  chief,  and  to  offer  any  amount  of  gold  in  return.  "When  they 
announced,  after  dining,  the  object  of  their  embassy,  it  was  found,  that  the  tribe  suf- 
fering from  a grievous  famine,  and  having  nothing  to  offer  to  their  guests,  the  gen- 
erous Hatem  had  slain  his  own  priceless  mare  to  entertain  them. 


SHEIKH  FARAS. 


147 


Chap.  VII.] 

\ye  reached  the  encampment.  The  chief  had  ridden  out  to  a neighbouring 
village  to  make  arrangements  for  our  better  protection  against  the  weather. 
He  soon  returned  urging  his  mare  to  the  top  of  her  speed.  In  person  he 
was  a strange  contrast  to  the  elder  member  of  his  family.  He  was  short, 
squat,  and  fat,  and  his  coarse  features  were  buried  in  a frame  of  hair  dyed 
bright  red.  He  was,  however,  profuse  in  assurances  of  friendship,  talked 
incessantly,  agreed  to  all  I proposed  with  regard  to  a reconciliation  with 
the  other  branch  of  the  tribe,  and  received  Saleh  with  every  outward  sign 
of  cordiality.  His  son  had  more  of  the  dignity  of  his  race,  but  the  expres- 
sion of  his  countenance  was  forbidding  and  sinister.  The  two  young  men, 
as  they  sat,  cast  looks  of  defiance  at  each  other,  and  I had  some  difficulty 
in  restraining  Saleh  from  breaking  out  in  invectives,  which  probably  would 
have  ended  in  an  appeal  to  the  sword. 

As  the  rain  increased  in  violence,  and  the  tent  offered  but  an  imperfect 
shelter,  we  moved  to  the  village,  where  a house  had  been  prepared  for  us 
by  its  honest,  kind-hearted  Turcoman  chief,  Wali  Bey.  With  unaffected 
hospitality  he  insisted  that  we  should  become  his  guests,  and  had  already 
slain  the  sheep  for  our  entertainment.  I have  met  few  men  who  exceed, 
in  honesty  and  fidelity,  the  descendants  of  the  pure  Turcoman  race,  scat- 
tered over  Asia  Minor  and  the  districts  watered  by  the  Tigris. 

On  the  following  morning,  Wali  Bey  having  first  provided  an  ampl* 
breakfast,  in  which  all  the  luxuries  of  the  village  were  set  before  us,  we 
again  visited  the  tents  of  the  Howar.  After  obtaining  his  protection  for 
Awad,  who  was  to  return  in  a few  days  with  a party  of  workmen,  to  ex- 
plore the  mounds  of  Shomamok,  and  settling  the  terms  of  reconciliation  be- 
tween himself  and  Faras,  we  followed  the  baggage,  which  had  been  sent 
before  us  to  the  ford.  On  reaching  the  Zab,  we  found  it  rising  rapidly 
from  the  rains  of  the  previous  day.  Our  servants  had  already  crossed,  but 
the  river  was  now  impassable.  We  sought  a ford  higher  up,  and  above 
the  junction  of  the  Ghazir.  Having  struggled  in  vain  against  the  swollen 
stream,  we  were  compelled  to  give  up  the  attempt.  Nothing  remained 
but  to  seek  the  ferry  on  the  high  road,  between  Arbil  and  Mosul.  We  did 
not  reach  the  small  village,  where  a raft  is  kept  for  the  use  of  travellers 
and  caravans,  until  nearly  four  o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  it  was  sunset 
before  we  had  crossed  the  river. 

We  hurried  along  the  direct  track  to  Nimroud,  hoping  to  cross  the  Gha- 
zir before  night-fall.  But  fresh  difficulties  awaited  us.  That  small  river, 
collecting  the  torrents  of  the  Missouri  hills,  had  overflown  its  bed,  and  its 
waters  were  rushing  tumultuously  onwards,  with  a breadth  of  stream  al- 
most equalling  the  Tigris.  We  rode  along  its  banks,  hoping  to  find  an  en- 
campment where  we  could  pass  the  night.  At  length,  in  the  twilight,  we 
spied  some  Arabs,  who  immediately  took  refuge  behind  the  walls  of  a ruined 
village,  and  believing  us  to  be  marauders  from  the  desert,  prepared  to  de- 
fend themselves  and  their  cattle.  Directing  the  rest  of  the  party  to  stop, 
I rode  forward  with  the  Bairakdar,  and  was  in  time  to  prevent  a discharge 


148 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VII. 


of  fire-arms  pointed  against  us.  The  Arabs  were  of  the  tribe  of  Hadded- 
een,  who  having  crossed  the  Ghazir,  with  their  buffaloes,  had  been  unable 
to  regain  their  tents  on  the  opposite  side  by  the  sudden  swelling  of  the 
stream 

The  nearest  inhabited  village  was  Tel  Aswad,  or  Kara  Tuppeh,  still  far 
distant.  As  we  rode  towards  it  in  the  dusk,  one  or  two  wolves  lazily  stole 
from  the  brushwood,  and  jackals  and  other  beasts  of  prey  occasionally  crossed 
our  path.  We  found  the  Kiayah  seated  with  some  travellers  round  a blaz- 
ing fire.  The  miserable  hut  was  soon  cleared  of  its  occupants,  and  we 
prepared  to  pass  the  night  as  we  best  could. 

Towards  dawn  the  Kiayah  brought  us  word  that  the  Ghazir  had  sub- 
sided sufficiently  to  allow  us  to  ford.  We  started  under  his  guidance,  and 
found  that  the  stream,  although  divided  into  three  branches,  reached  in 
some  places  almost  to  the  backs  of  the  horses.  Safe  over,  we  struck  across 
the  country  towards  Nimroud,  and  reached  the  ruins  as  a thick  morning 
mist  was  gradually  withdrawn  from  the  lofty  mound. 

During  our  absence,  a new  chamber  had  been  opened  in  the  north-west 
palace,  to  the  south  of  the  great  centre  hall.  The  walls  were  of  plain, 
sun-dried  brick,  and  there  were  no  remains  of  sculptured  slabs,  but  in  the 
earth  and  rubbish  which  had  filled  it,  were  discovered  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting relics  obtained  from  the  ruins  of  Assyria.  A description  of  its  con- 
tents alone  will  occupy  a chapter. 


Excavated  Chamber  in  which  the  Bronzes  were  discovered  (Nimroud). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONTENTS  OF  NEWLY  DISCOVERED  CHAMBER. A WELL. LARGE  COPPER  CALDRONS. BELLS, 

RINGS,  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  IN  METAL. TRIPODS. CALDRONS  AND  LARGE  VESSELS. 

BRONZE  BOWLS,  CUPS,  AND  DISHES. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EMBOSSINGS  UPON  THEM. 

ARMS  AND  ARMOUR. SHIELDS. IRON  INSTRUMENTS. IVORY  REMAINS. BRONZE  CUBES 

INLAID  WITH  GOLD. GLASS  BOWLS. LENS. THE  ROYAL  THRONE. 

The  newly  discovered  chamber  was  part  of  the  north-west  palace,  and 
adjoined  a room  previously  explored.*  Its  only  entrance  was  to  the  west, 
and  almost  on  the  edge  of  the  mound.  It  must,  consequently,  have  opened 
upon  a gallery  or  terrace  running  along  the  river  front  of  the  building. 
The  walls  were  of  sun-dried  brick,  panelled  round  the  bottom  with  large 
burnt  bricks,  about  three  feet  high,  placed  one  against  the  other.  They 
were  coated  with  bitumen,  and,  like  those  forming  the  pavement,  were  in- 
scribed with  the  name  and  usual  titles  of  the  royal  founder  of  the  building. 
In  one  corner,  and  partly  in  a kind  of  recess,  was  a well,  the  mouth  of 
which  was  formed  by  brickwork  about  three  feet  high.  Its  sides  were  also 
bracked  down  to  the  conglomerate  rock,  and  holes  had  been  left  at  regular 
intervals  for  descent.  When  first  discovered  it  was  choked  with  earth. 
The  workmen  emptied  it  until  they  came,  at  the  depth  of  nearly  sixty  feet, 
to  brackish  water. f 

The  first  objects  found  in  this  chamber  were  two  plain  copper  vessels  or 

* It  was  parallel  to,  and  to  the  south  of,  the  chamber  marked  A A,  in  the  plan  of 
the  north-west  palace  (Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol  i.  Plan  III.) 
t Few  wells  in  the  plains  bordering  on  the  Tigris  yield  sweet  water. 


150 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII 


caldrons,  about  21  feet  in  diameter,  and  3 feet  deep,  resting  upon  a stand 
of  brickwork,  with  their  mouths  closed  by  large  tiles.  Near  them  was  a 
copper  jar,  which  fell  to  pieces  almost  as  soon  as  uncovered.  Several  vases 
of  the  same  metal,  though  smaller  in  size,  had  been  dug  out  of  other  parts 
of  the  ruins  ; but  they  were  empty,  whilst  those  I am  describing  were  filled 


with  curious  relics.  I first  took  out  a number  of  small  bronze  bells*  with 

iron  tongues,  and  various 
small  copper  ornaments.  . 
some  suspended  to  wires 
With  them  were  a quanti- 
ty of  tapering  bronze  rods, 
bent  into  a hook,  and  end- 
ing in  a kind  of  lip.  Be- 
neath were  several  bronze 
cups  and  dishes,  which  1 
succeeded  in  removing 
entire.  Scattered  in  the 
earth  amongst  these  ob- 
jects were  several  hund- 
red studs  and  buttons  in 
mother  of  pearl  and  ivory', 
with  many  small  rosettes 
in  metal. 

All  the  objects  contain- 
ed in  these  caldrons,  with 
the  exception  of  the  cups 
and  dishes,  were  probably 
ornaments  of  horse  and 
chariot  furniture.  The  ac- 
companying woodcut  from 
Horse  Trappings  from  a Bas-relief  at  Kouyunjik,  showing  probable  , ..  r . x,  ... 

use  of  Ivory  Studs  and  Metal  Rosetlfs.  a bas-reiiei  at  ivouyunjlk. 

* The  caldrons  contained  about  eighty  bells.  The  largest  are  3$  inches  high,  and 
2$  inches  in  diameter,  the  smallest  1|  inch  high,  and  1$  inch  in  diameter.  With  the 
rest  of  the  relics  they  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


Chap.  VIII.] 


OBJECTS  IN  BRONZE 


151 


Ivory  and  Mother  of  Pearl  Studs  (Nimroud) 


Feet  of  Tripods  in  Bronze  and  Iron. 


152 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII. 

will  show  the  way  in  which  the  studs  of  ivory  and  mother  of  pearl,  and  the 
rosettes  or  stars  of  metal,  were  probably  used.  The  horses  of  the  Assyrian 

cavalry,  as  well  as  those  harnessed 
to  chariots,  are  continually  repre- 
sented in  the  sculptures  with  bells 
round  their  necks,  and  in  the  Bible 
we  find  allusion  to  this  custom  * 
The  use  of  the  metal  hooks  cannot 
he  so  satisfactorily  traced ; they 
probably  belonged  to  some  part  of 
the  chariot,  or  the  horse  trappings. 

Beneath  the  caldrons  were  heap- 
ed lions’  and  bulls’  feet  of  bronze ; 
and  the  remains  of  iron  rings  and 
bars,  probably  parts  of  tripods,  or 
stands  for  supporting  vessels  and 
bowls  ;f  which,  as  the  iron  had 
rusted  away,  had  fallen  to  pieces,  leaving  such  parts  entire  as  were  in  the 
more  durable  metal. 

Two  other  caldrons,  found  further  within  the  chamber,  contained,  be- 
sides several  plates  and  dishes,  four  crown  shaped  bronze  ornaments,  per- 
haps belonging  to  a throne  or  couch  two  long  ornamented  bands  of  cop- 
per, rounded  at  both  ends,  apparently  belts,  such  as  were  worn  by  warriors 
in  armour  ;§  a grotesque  head  in  bronze,  probably  the  top  of  a mace  ; a 
metal  wine-strainer  of  elegant  shape  ; various  metal  vessels  of  peculiar 
form,  and  a bronze  ornament,  probably  the  handle  of  a dish  or  vase. 

Eight  more  caldrons  and, jars  were  found  in  other  parts  of  the  chamber 
One  contained  ashes  and  bones,  the  rest  were  empty. ||  Some  of  the 
larger  vessels  were  crushed  almost  flat,  probably  by  the  falling  in  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  building. 

With  the  caldrons  were  discovered  two  circular  flat  vessels,  nearly  six 
feet  in  diameter,  and  about  two  feet  deep,  which  I can  only  compare  with 
the  brazen  sea  that  stood  fn  the  temple  of  Solomon. IT 

* Zech.  xiv.  20. 

f Tripod-stands,  consisting  of  a circular  ring  raised  upon  feet,  to  hold  jars  and 
vases,  are  frequently  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs.  (See  particularly  Botta’s  large 
work,  plate  141.)  The  ring  was  of  iron,  bound  in  some  places  with  copper,  and  the 
feet  partly  of  iron  and  partly  of  bronze  ingeniously  cast  over  it. 

t If,  however,  they  were  part  of  a throne,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  their  being 
found  detached  in  the  caldron  They  measured  6 inches  in  diameter,  and  2 inches  in 
depth. 

$ Resembling  those  of  the  eunuch  warriors  in  Plate  28.  of  the  1st  series  of  the 
Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

II  One  of  the  jars  was  4 feet  11  inches  high.  Two  of  the  caldrons  with  handles  on 
each  side  were  2 feet  5 inches  in  diameter,  and  1 foot  6 inches  deep 

H 2 Chron.  iv.  2.  The  dimensions,  however,  of  this  vessel  were  far  greater.  It  is 


Chap.  VIII.] 


OBJECTS  IN  BRONZE 


153 


Bronze  Vessel,  taken  from  the  Interior  of  a Caldron. 


154 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII. 

Caldrons  are  frequently  represented  as  part  of  the  spoil  and  tribute,  in 
the  sculptures  of  Nimroud  and  Kouyunjik.*  They  were  so  much  valued 
by  the  ancients  that,  it  appears  from  the  Homeric  poems,  they  were  given 
as  prizes  at  public  games,  and  were  considered  amongst  the  most  precious 
objects  that  could  be  carried  away  from  a captured  city.  They  were  fre- 
quently embossed  with  flowers  and  other  ornaments.  Homer  declares  one 
so  adorned  to  be  worth  an  ox.f 

Behind  the  caldrons  was  a heap  of  curious  and  interesting  objects.  In 
one  place  were  piled  without  order,  one  above  the  other,  bronze  cups,  bowls, 
and  dishes  of  various  sizes  and  shapes.  The  upper  vessels  having  been 
most  exposed  to  damp,  the  metal  had  been  eaten  away  by  rust,  and  was 
crumbling  into  fragments,  or  into  a green  powder.  As  they  were  cleared 
away,  more  perfect  specimens  were  taken  out,  until,  near  the  pavement  of 
the  chamber,  some  were  found  almost  entire.  Many  of  the  bowls  and 
plates  fitted  so  closely,  one  within  the  other,  that  they  have  only  been  de- 
tached in  England.  It  required  the  greatest  care  and  patience  to  separate 
them  from  the  tenacious  soil  ii^  which  they  were  embedded. 

Although  a green  crystalline  deposit,  arising  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  metal,  encrusted  all  the  vessels,  I could  distinguish  upon  many  of  them 
traces  of  embossed  and  engraved  ornaments.  Since  they  have  been  in 
England  they  have  been  carefully  and  skilfully  cleaned  by  Mr.  Doubleday, 
of  the  British  Museum. $ and  the  very  beautiful  and  elaborate  designs  upon 
them  brought  to  light. § 

The  bronze  objects  thus  discovered  may  be  classed  under  four  heads — 
dishes  with  handles,  plates,  deep  bowls,  and  cups.  Some  are  plain,  others 
have  a simple  rosette,  scarab,  or  star  in  the  centre,  and  many  arc  most 
elaborately  ornamented  with  the  figures  of  men  and  animals,  and  with  el- 
egant fancy  designs,  either  embossed  or  incised.  Although  the  style,  like 

singular  that  in  some  of  the  bas-reliefs  large  metal  caldrons  supported  on  brazen  oxen 
are  represented. 

* See  particularly  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  1st  series,  Plate  24.,  and  2d  series,  Plate 
35.,  and  on  the  black  obelisk.  They  were  carried  away  by  the  Babylonians  from  Je- 
rusalem. Jerem.  lii.  18. 

t They  were  dedicated  to  the  gods  in  temples.  Colceus  dedicated  a large  vessel 
of  brass,  adorned  with  griffins,  to  Here.  Herod,  iv.  152. 

1 1 seize  this  opportunity  of  expressing  my  thanks  to  that  gentleman,  for  the  kind  as- 
sistance and  valuable  information  I have  received  from  him  during  my  connection  with 
the  British  Museum,  and  of  bearing  testimony  to  the  judgment  and  skill  he  has  dis- 
played as  well  in  the  disembarkation  and  removal  of  the  great  sculptures,  as  in  the 
cleaning  and  repairing  of  the  most  minute  and  delicate  objects  confided  to  his  care. 

$ Engravings  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  vessels  will  be  found  in  the  2d  series 
of  my  Monuments  of  Nineveh.  They  have  been  chiefly  executed  from  the  admirable 
drawings  of  Mr.  Prentice,  to  whom  I am  indebted  for  the  veiy  accurate  representa- 
tions of  the  ivories,  published  in  my  former  work.  The  Trustees  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum have  judiciously  employed  that  gentleman  to  make  exact  copies  of  these  inter- 
esting relics,  which,  it  is  feared,  will  ere  long  be  utterly  destroyed  by  a process  of 
natural  decomposition  in  the  metal,  that  no  ingenuity  can  completely  arrest. 


BRONZE  DISHES. 


155 


Chap.  VIII.] 

that  of  the  ivories  from  the  same  palace,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
is  frequently  Egyptian  in  character,  yet  the  execution  and  treatment,  as 
well  as  the  subjects,  are  peculiarly  Assyrian.  The  inside,  and  not  the  out- 
side, of  these  vessels  is  ornamented.  The  embossed  figures  have  been 
raised  in  the  metal  by  a blunt  instrument,  three  or  four  strokes  of  which 
in  many  instances  very  ingeniously  produce  the  image  of  an  animal.* 
Even  those  ornaments  which  are  not  embossed  but  incised,  appear  to  have 
been  formed  by  a similar  process,  except  that  the  punch  was  applied  on 
the  inside.  The  tool  of  the  graver  has  been  sparingly  used. 

The  most  interesting  dishes  in  the  collection  brought  to  England  are  : — 
No.  1,,  with  moving  circular  handle  (the  handle  wanting),  secured  by 

three  bosses ; diameter  lOf  inch- 
es, depth  2i  inches  ; divided  in- 
to two  friezes  surrounding  a cir- 
cular medallion  containing  a 
male  deity  with  bull's  ears  (?) 
and  hair  in  ample  curls, f wear- 
ing bracelets  and  a necklace  of 
an  Egyptian  character,  and  a 
short  tunic ; the  arms  crossed, 
and  the  hands  held  by  two  Egyp- 
tians (?),  who  place  their  other 
hands  on  the  head  of  the  centre 
figure.  The  inner  frieze  con- 
tains horsemen  draped  as  Egyp- 
tians, galloping  round  in  pairs ; 
the  outer  figures  also  wearing 
the  Egyptian  “ shenti”  or  tunic, 
hunting  lions  on  horseback,  on 
foot,  and  in  chariots.  The  hair 
of  these  figures  is  dressed  after 
a fashion,  which  prevailed  in 
Egypt  from  the  ninth  to  the  eighth  century  b.c.  Each  frieze  is  separated 
by  a band  of  guilloche  ornament. $ • 

No.  2.,  diameter  10^  inches,  having  a low  rim,  partly  destroyed  ; orna- 
mented with  an  embossed  rosette  of  elegant  shape,  surrounded  by  three 
friezes  of  animals  in  high  relief,  divided  by  a guilloche  band.  The  outer 
frieze  contains  twelve  walking  bulls,  designed  with  considerable  spirit ; be- 
tween each  is  a dwarf  shrub  or  tree.  The  second  frieze  has  a bull,  a winged 
griffin,  an  ibex,  and  a gazelle,  walking  one  behind  the  other,  and  the  same 

* The  embossing  appears  to  have  been  produced  by  a process  still  practised  by  sil- 
versmiths. The  metal  was  laid  upon  a bed  of  mixed  clay  and  bitumen,  and  then 
punched  from  the  outside. 

t The  Egyptian  goddess  Athor  is  represented  with  similar  ears  and  hair. 
t Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  Series.  Plate  65. 


156 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII 


Bronze  Dish,  from  Nimroud. 


animals  seized  by  leopards  or  lions,  in  all  fourteen  figures.  The  inner 

frieze  contain  twelve  gazelles 
The  handle  is  formed  by  a 
plain  movable  ring.*  The  or- 
naments on  this  dish,  as  well 
as  the  design,  are  of  an  Assyr- 
ian character.  The  bull,  the 
wild-goat,  and  the  griffin  are 
the  animals,  evidently  of  a sa- 
cred character,  which  occur  so 
frequently  in  the  sculptures  of 
Nimroud.  The  lion,  or  leop- 
ard, devouring  the  bull  and  ga- 
zelle, is  a well-known  symbol 
of  Assyrian  origin,  afterwards  adopted  by  other  Eastern  nations,  and  may 
typify,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  reader,  either  the  subjection  of  a prim- 
itive race  by  the  Assyrian  tribes,  or  an  astronomical  phenomenon. 

No.  3.,  diameter  lOf  inches,  and  1J  inch  deep,  with  a raised  star  in  the 
centre  ; the  handle  formed  by  two  rings,  working  in  sockets  fastened  to  a 
rim,  running  about  one  third  round  the  margin,  and  secured  by  five  nails 
or  bosses  ; four  bands  of  embossed  ornaments  in  low  relief  round  the  centre, 
the  outer  band  consisting  of  alternate  standing  bulls  and  crouching  lions, 
Assyrian  in  character  and  treatment ; the  others,  of  an  elegant  pattern, 
slightly  varied  from  the  usual  Assyrian  border  by  the  introduction  of  a fan- 
like  flower  in  the  place  of  the  tulip. f 

Other  dishes  were  found  still  better  preserved  than  those  just  described, 
but  perfectly  plain,  or  having  only  a star,  more  or  less  elaborate,  embossed 
or  engraved  in  the  centre.  Many  fragments  were  also  discovered  with 
elegant  handles,  some  formed  by  the  figures  of  rams  and  bulls. 

Of  the  plates  the  most  remarkable  are  : — 

No.  1.,  shallow,  and  8J  inches  in  diameter,  the  centre  slightly  raised  and 
incised  with  a star  and  five  bands  of  tulip-shaped  ornaments  ; the  rest  oc- 
cupied by  four  groups,  each  consisting  of  two  winged  hawk-headed  sphinxes, 
wearing  the  “ pshent,”  or  crown  of  the  upper  and  lower  country  of  Egypt ; 
one  paw  raised,  and  resting  upon  the  head  of  a man  kneeling  on  one  knee, 
and  lifting  his  hands  in  the  act  of  adoration.  Between  the  sphinxes,  on  a 
column  in  the  form  of  a papyrus-sceptre,  is  the  bust  of  a figure  "wearing  on 
his  head  the  sun’s  disc,  with  the  ursei  serpents,  a collar  round  the  neck,  and 
four  feathers ; above  are  two  winged  globes  with  the  asps,  and  a row  of' 


* Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series.  Plate  60. 

t Id.  A Plate  57.  I have  called  this  flower,  the  lotus  of  the  Egyptian  sculptures, 
a tulip,  as  it  somewhat  resembles  a bright  scarlet  tulip  which  abounds  in  early  spring 
on  the  Assyrian  plains,  and  may  have  suggested  this  elegant  ornament.  It  has  no 
resemblance  whatever  to  the  honeysuckle,  by  which  name  it  is  commonly  known, 
when  used  in  Greek  architecture. 


Chap.  VIII]  BRONZE  PLATES  157 

birds.  Each  group  is  inclosed  by  two  columns  with  capitals  in  the  form 


Handles  of  Bronze  Dishes,  from  Nimroud. 


of  the  Assyrian  tulip  ornament,  and  is  separated  from  that  adjoining  by  a 
scarab  with  out-spread  wings,  raising  the  globe  with  its  fore  feet,  and  rest- 
ing with  its  hind  on  a papyrus-sceptre  pillar.^  This  plate  is  in  good  pres- 
ervation, having  been  found  at  the  very  bottom  of  a heap  of  similar  relics. 
Part  of  the  bronze  was  still  bright,  and  of  a golden  color  ; hence  the  report 
spread  at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  that  an  immense  treasure  in  vessels  of 
gold  had  been  dug  up  at  Nimroud.  The  emblems  are  evidently  derived 
from  familiar  objects  in  Egyptian  mythology,  which  may  have  been  ap- 
plied by  the  Assyrians  to  other  ideas  The  workmanship,  although  not 
purely  Egyptian,  appears  to  be  more  so  than  that  of  any  other  specimen  in 
the  collection,  except  a fragment  very  closely  resembling  this  plate. f A 
scarab,  apparently  more  of  a Phoenician  than  of  an  Egyptian  form,  occurs 


Bronze  Cup,  6£  in.  diameter,  and  If  in  deep  Engraved  Scarab  in  Centre  of  same  Cup 
* Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series  Plate  63. 


t Id.  Plate  68 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


158 


[Chap.  VIII. 


as  an  ornament  on  many  of  these  bronzes  ; as  in  the  centre  of  a well-pre- 
served bowl  otherwise  plain,  and  on  a dish. 

No.  2.,  depth,  If  in.  ; diameter,  9J  in.,  with  a broad,  raised  rim,  like 
that  of  a soup  plate,  embossed  with  figures  of  greyhounds  pursuing  a hare. 
The  centre  contains  a frieze  in  high  relief,  representing  combats  between 
men  and  lions,  and  a smaller  border  of  gazelles,  between  guilloche  bands, 
encircling  an  embossed  star.*  In  this  very  fine  specimen,  although  the 
costumes  of  the  figures  are  Egyptian  in  character,  the  treatment  and  de- 
sign are  Assyrian. 

. No.  3.,  shallow;  9^  inches  diameter;  an  oval  in  the  centre,  covered 
with  dotted  lozenges,  and  set  with  nine  silver  bosses,  probably  intended  to 
represent  a lake  or  valley,  surrounded  by  four  groups  of  hills,  each  with 
three  crests  in  high  relief,  on  which  are  incised  in  outline  trees  and  stags, 
wild  goats,  bears,  and  leopards.  On  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in  relief,  are 
similar  figures  of  animals.  The  outer  rim  is  incised  with  trees  and  deer.f 
The  workmanship  of  this  specimen  is  Assyrian,  and  very  minute  and  curi- 
ous. The  subject  may  represent  an  Assyrian  paradise,  or  park,  in  a mount- 
ainous district. 

No.  4.,  diameter,  7f  inches,  the  centre  raised,  and  containing  an  eight- 
rayed  star,  with  smaller  stars  between  each  ray,  encircled  by  a guilloche 
band.  The  remainder  of  the  plate  is  divided  into  eight  compartments,  by 
eight  double-faced  figures  of  Egyptian  character  in  high  relief ; between 
each  figure  are  five  rows  of  animals,  inclosed  by  guilloche  bands  ; the  first 
three  consisting  of  stags  and  hinds,  the  fourth  of  lions,  and  the  fifth  of 
hares,  each  compartment  containing  thirteen  figures.  A very  beautiful 
specimen,  unfortunately  much  injured. $ 

No.  5.,  diameter,  8£  inches  ; depth,  lj  inch.  The  embossings  and  orna- 
ments on  this  plate  are  of  an  Egyptian  character.  The  centre  consists  of 
four  heads  of  the  cow-eared  goddess  Athor  (?),  forming,  with  lines  of  bosses, 
an  eight-rayed  star,  surrounded  by  fyills,  indicated  as  in  plate  No.  3.,  but 
filled  in  with  rosettes  and  other  ornaments.  Between  the  hills  are  incised 
animals  and  trees.  A border  of  figures,  almost  purely  Egyptian,  but  un- 
fortunately only  in  part  preserved,  encircles  the  plate  ; the  first  remaining 
group  is  that  of  a man  seated  on  a throne,  beneath  an  ornamented  arch 
with  the  Egyptian  Baal,  represented  as  on  the  coins  of  Cossura,  standing 
full  face  ; to  the  right  of  this  figure  is  a square  ornament  with  pendants 
(resembling  a sealed  document),  and  beneath  it  the  crux  ansata  or  Egyp- 
tian symbol  of  life.  The  next  group  is  that  of  a warrior  in  Egyptian  at- 
tire, holding  a mace  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left  a bow  and  arrow 
with  the  hair  of  a captive  of  smaller  proportions,  who  crouches  before  him. 
At  his  side  is  a tame  lion,  recalling  to  mind  the  pictures  on  Egyptian 
monuments  of  Raineses  II.,  accompanied  by  a lion  during  his  campaigns. 
A goddess,  wearing  a long  Egyptian  tunic,  presents  a falchion  with  her 

* Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series.  Plate  64.  t Id.  Plate  66. 

t Id  A.  Plate  61 


BRONZE  PLATES 


159 


(Jhap.  VIII.] 

right  hand  to  this  warrior,  and  holds  a sceptre  in  her  left  Between  these 
figures  are  two  hieroglyphs,  an  ox’s  head  and  an  ibis  or  an  heron.  Over 
the  goddess  is  a square  tablet  for  her  name.  The  next  group  represents 
the  Egyptian  Baal  (?),  with  a lion’s  skin  round  his  body,  and  plumes  on 
his  head,  having  on  each  side  an  Egyptian  figure  wearing  the  “ shent ,” 
or  short  tunic,  carrying  a bow,  and  plucking  the  plumes  from  the  head  of 
the  god,  perhaps  symbolical  of  the  victory  of  Horus  over  Typhon.  This 
group  is  followed  by  a female  figure,  draped  in  the  Assyrian  fashion,  but 
wearing  on  her  head  the  triple  crown  of  the  Egyptian  god  Pnebta,  hold- 
ing in  one  hand  a sword,  and  in  the  other  a bow  (?),  and  having  on  each 
side  men,  also  dressed  in  the  Assyrian  costume,  pouring  out  libations  to 
her  from  a jug  or  chalice  : the  Egyptian  symbol  of  life  occurs  likewise  in 
this  place.  The  Egyptian  god  Amon,  bearing  a bird  in  one  hand  and  a 
falchion  in  the  other,  with  female  figures  similar  to  that  last  described,  ap- 
pears to  form  the  next  group  ; but  unfortunately  this  part  of  the  plate  has 
been  nearly  destroyed  : the  whole  border,  however,  appears  to  have  rep- 
resented a mixture  of  religious  and  historical  scenes. ^ 

No.  6.,  diameter,  6 inches ; depth,  1 J inch  ; a projecting  rim,  ornamented 
with  figures  of  vultures  with  outspread  wings ; an  embossed  rosette,  en- 
circled by  two  rows  of  fan-shaped  flowers  and  guilloche  bands,  occupies  a 
raised  centre,  which  is  surrounded  by  a frieze,  consisting  of  groups  of  two 
vultures  devouring  a hare.  A highly  finished  and  very  beautiful  specimen. 
On  the  back  of  this  plate  are  five  letters,  either  in  the  Phoenician  or  As- 
syrian cursive  character.! 

Nos.  7.  and  8.,  covered  with  groups  of  small  stags,  surrounding  an  elab- 
orate star,  one  plate  containing  above  600  figures  ; the  animals  are  formed 
by  three  blows  from  a blunt  instrument  or  punch.  These  plates  are  orna- 
mented with  small  bosses  of  silver  and  gold  let  into  the  copper.! 

No.  9.,  diameter,  7f  inches  ; depth,  1J  inch,  of  fine  workmanship  ; the 
centre  formed  by  an  incised  star,  surrounded  by  guilloche  and  tulip  bands. 
Four  groups  on  the  sides  representing  a lion,  lurking  amongst  papyri  or 
reeds,  and  about  to  spring  on  a bull. 

No.  10.,  diameter  7J  inches.  In  the  centre  a winged  scarab  raising  the 
disc  of  the  sun,  surrounded  by  guilloche  and  tulip  bands,  and  by  a double 
frieze,  the  inner  consisting  of  trees,  deer,  winged  ursei,  sphinxes,  and  papy- 
rus plants;  the  outer,  of  winged  scarabs,  flying  serpents,  deer,  and  trees, 
all  incised. 

The  plates  above  described  are  the  most  interesting  specimens  brought 
to  this  country  : there  are  others,  indeed,  scarcely  less  remarkable  for 
beauty  of  workmanship, § or,  when  plain  or  ornamented  with  a simple  star 

* Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series.  B.  Plate  61.  f Id.  B.  Plate  62. 

t Id.  E.  Plate  57.  and  C.  Plate  59. 

4 I may  instance  in  particular  a fragment  covered  with  a very  elegant  and  classic 
design.  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series.  Plate  62.,  and  see  Plates  57,  58,  59 
of  same  work. 


160 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap  VIII. 

in  the  centre,  for  elegance  of  form.  Of  the  seventeen  deep  bowls  discov- 
ered, only  three  have  embossings,  sufficiently  well  preserved,  to  be  de- 
scribed ; the  greater  part  appear  to  be  perfectly  plain.  The  most  remark- 
able is  8J  inches  in  diameter,  and  3 j inches  deep,  and  has  at  the  bottom, 
in  the  centre,  an  embossed  star,  surrounded  by  a rosette,  and  on  the  sides 
a hunting  scene  in  bold  relief.  From  a chariot,  drawn  by  two  horses,  and 
driven  by  a charioteer,  a warrior  turning  back  shoots  an  arrow  at  a lion, 
which  is  already  wounded ; whilst  a second  huntsman  in  armour,  above 
whose  head  hovers  a hawk,  pierces  the  animal  from  behind  with  a spear 
These  figures  are  followed  by  a sphinx,  wearing  the  Egyptian  head-dress 
■ pshent”  and  a collar,  on  which  is  the  bust  of  a winged,  ram-headed  god 
Two  trees,  with  flowers  or  leaves  in  the  shape  of  the  usual  Assyrian  tulip 
ornament,  are  introduced  into  the  group. 

A second,  7J  inches  in  diameter,  and  3f  inches  deep,  has  in  the  centre 
a medallion  similar  to  that  in  the  one  last  described,  and  on  the  sides,  in 


Embossed  Figures  on  the  Bronze  Pedestal  of  a figure  from  Polledrara,  in  the  British  Museum 


very  high  relief,  two  lions  and  two  sphinxes  of  Egyptian  character,  wear- 
ing a collar,  feathers,  and  housings, 
and  a head-dress  formed  by  a disc 
with  two  urasi.  Both  bowls  are  re- 
markable for  the  boldness  of  the  re- 
lief and  the  archaic  treatment  of  the 
figures,  in  this  respect  resembling  the 
ivories  previously  discovered  at  Nim- 
roud  They  forcibly  call  to  mind  the 
early  remains  of  Greece,  and  especial- 
ly the  metal  work,  and  painted  potter}’ 
found  in  very  ancient  tombs  in  Etruria, 
which  they  so  closely  resemble  not 

Embossed  Figure  on  the  Bronze  Pedestal  of  a only  in  design  but  in  subject,  the  same 
Figure  from  Polledrara.  mythi0  animals  and  the  same  orna- 

ments  being  introduced,  that  we  cannot  but  attribute  to  both  the  same 


Chap.  VIII.] 


BRONZE  VESSELS. 


161 


origin.*'  I have  given  for  the  sake  of  com- 
parison, wood-cuts  of  the  bronze  pedestal  of 
a figure  found  at  Polledrara  in  Etruria,  and 
now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  animals 
upon  it  are  precisely  similar  to  those  upon 
the  fragment  of  a dish  brought  from  Nineveh, 
and,  moreover,  that  peculiar  Assyrian  orna- 
ment, the  guilloche,  is  introduced. 

The  third,  7f  inches  in  diameter,  and  2\ 
inches  deep,  has  in  the  centre  a star  formed 
by  the  Egyptian  hawk  of  the  sun,  hearing 
the  disc,  and  having  at  its  side  a whip,  be- 
tween two  rays  ending  in  lotus  flowers ; on 
the  sides  are  embossed  figures  of  wild  goats, 
iotus-shaped  shrubs,  and  dwarf  trees  of  peculiar  form.f 

Of  the  cups  the  most  remarkable  are  : — 

No.  1.,  diameter,  5§  inches,  and  2\  inches  deep,  very  elaborately  orna- 
mented with  figures  of  animals,  interlaced  and  grouped  together  in  singu- 
lar confusion,  covering  the  whole  inner  surface  ; apparently  representing  a 
combat  between  griffins  and  lions ; a very  curious  and  interesting  speci- 
men, not  unlike  some  of  the  Italian  chasing  of  the  cinque  cento  4 

No.  2.,  a fragment,  embossed  with  the  figures 
of  lions  and  bulls,  of  very  fine  workmanship. 

Of  the  remaining  cups  many  are  plain  but 
of  elegant  shape,  one  or  two  are  ribbed,  and 
some  have  simply  an  embossed  star  in  the  cen- 

Bronze  Cup,  from  Nimroud. 

About  150  bronze  vessels  discovered  in  this  chamber  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  without  including  numerous  fragments,  which,  although 
showing  traces  of  ornament,  are  too  far  destroyed  by  decomposition  to  be 
cleaned. 

I shall  add,  in  an  Appendix,  some  notes  on  the  bronze  and  other  sub- 
stances discovered  at  Nimroud,  obligingly  communicated  to  me  by  Dr 
Percy.  It  need  only  be  observed  here,  that  the  metal  of  the  dishes,  bowls, 
and  rings  has  been  carefully  analysed  by  Mr.  T.  T.  Philips,  at  the  Museum 
of  Practical  Geology,  and  has  been  found  to  contain  one  part  of  tin  to  ten 
of  copper,  being  exactly  the  relative  proportions  of  the  best  ancient  and  mod- 
ern bronze.  The  bells,  however,  have  fourteen  per  cent,  of  tin,  showing 
that  the  Assyrians  were  well  aware  of  the  effect  produced  by  changing 
the  proportions  of  the  metals.  These  two  facts  show  the  advance  made 
by  them  in  the  metallurgic  art. 

* For  the  two  Assyrian  bowls  see  Plate  68.  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd 
series.  These  bronzes  should  also  be  compared  with  the  vessels  found  at  Cervetri, 
and  engraved* in  Griffi’s  Monumenti  de  Ceri  Antica  (Roma,  1841),  and  with  various 
terracottas  in  the  British  Museum. 

+ Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series.  C.  Plate  57. 

L 


Bronze  Pedestal  of  Figure  from  Polle- 
drara. 


t Id.  Plate  67. 


162 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII. 


The  effect  of  age  and  decay  has  been  to  cover  the  surface  of  all  these 
bronze  objects  with  a coating  of  be&utiful  crystals  of  malachite,  beneath 
which  the  component  substances  have  been  converted  into  suboxide  of  cop- 
per and  peroxide  of  tin,  leaving  in  many  instances  no  traces  whatever  of 
the  metals. 

It  would  appear  that  the  Assyrians  were  unable  to  give  elegant  forms  or 
a pleasing  appearance  to  objects  in  iron  alone,  and  that  consequently  they 
frequently  overlaid  that  metal  with  bronze,  either  entirely,  or  partially,  by 
way  of  ornament.  Numerous  interesting  specimens  of  this  nature  are  in- 
cluded in  the  collection  in  the  British  Museum.  Although  brass  is  now 
frequently  cast  over  iron,  the  art  of  using  bronze  for  this  purpose  had  not, 
I believe,  been  introduced  into  modem  metallurgy.*  The  feet  of  the  ring 
tripods  previously  described,  furnish  highly  interesting  specimens  of  this 
process,  and  prove  the  progress  made  by  the  Assyrians  in  it.  The  iron  in- 
closed within  the  copper  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  same  decay  as  that 
detached  from  it,  and  will  still  take  a polish. 

The  tin  was  probably  obtained  from  Phoenicia ; and  consequently  that 
used  in  the  bronzes  in  the  British  Museum  may  actually  have  been  export- 
ed, nearly  three  thousand  years  ago,  from  the  British  Isles  ! "YVe  find  the 
Assyrians  and  Babylonians  making  an  extensive  use  of  this  metal,  which 
was  probably  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  trade  supplied  by  the  cities  of  the 
Syrian  coast,  whose  seamen  sought  for  it  on  the  distant  shores  of  the  At- 
lantic. 

The  embossed  and  engraved  vessels  from  Nimroud  afford  many  interest- 
ing illustrations  of  the  progress  made  by  the  ancients  in  metallurgy.  From 
the  Egyptian  character  of  the  designs,  and  especially  of  the  drapery  of  the 
figures,  in  several  of  the  specimens,  it  may  be  inferred  that  some  of  them 
were  not  Assyrian,  but  had  been  brought  from  a foreign  people.  As  in  the 
ivories,  however,  the  workmanship,  subjects,  and  mode  of  treatment  are 
more  Assyrian  than  Egyptian,  and  seemed  to  show  that  the  artist  either 
copied  from  Egyptian  models,  or  was  a native  of  a country  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  arts  and  taste  of  Egypt.  The  Sidonians,  and  other  inhab- 
itants of  the  Phoenician  coast,  were  the  most  renowned  workers  in  metal  of 
the  ancient  world,  and  their  intermediate  position  between  the  two  great 
nations,  by  which  they  were  alternately  invaded  and  subdued,  may  have 
been  the  cause  of  the  existence  of  a mixed  art  amongst  them.  In  the 
Homeric  poems  they  are  frequently  mentioned  as  the  artificers  who  fash- 
ioned and  embossed  metal  cups  and  bowls,  and  Solomon  sought  cunning 
men  from  Tyre  to  make  the  gold  and  brazen  utensils  for  his  temple  and 
palaces. f It  is,  therefore,  not  impossible  that  the  vessels  discovered  at 

* Mr.  Robinson  of  Pimlico  has,  I am  informed,  succeeded  in  imitating  some  of  the 
Assyrian  specimens. 

t 1 Kings,  vii.  13,  14.  2 Chron.  iv.  The  importance  attached  to  such  objects  in 

metal,  which  were  chiefly  used  for  sacred  purposes,  is  shown  by  its  being  especially 
recorded  that  Huram  (or  Hiram),  the  widow’s  son,  was  sent  for  to  make  “ the  pots, 


ASSYRIAN  ARMS. 


163 


Chap.  VIII.] 

Nimroud  were  the  work  of  Phoenician  artists,*  brought  expressly  from 
Tyre,  or  carried  away  amongst  the  captives  when  their  cities  were  taken 
by  the  Assyrians,  who,  we  know  from  many  passages  in  the  Bible, f always 
secured  the  smiths  and  artizans,  and  placed  them  in  their  own  immediate 
dominions.  They  may  have  been  used  for  sacrificial  purposes,  at  royal 
banquets,  or  when  the  king  performed  certain  religious  ceremonies,  for  in 
the  bas-reliefs  he  is  frequently  represented  on  such  occasions  with  a cup  or 


Bronze  Shields,  from  Nimroud. 


bowl  in  his  hand ; or  they  may  have  formed  part  of  the  spoil  of  some  Syr- 
ian nation,  placed  in  a temple  at  Nineveh,  as  the  holy  utensils  of  the  Jews, 

and  the  shovels,  and  the  basons.”  Homer  particularly  mentions  Sidonian  goblets  as 
used  at  the  funeral  games  of  Patroclus. 

* It  will  be  remembered  that  Phoenician  characters  occur  on  one  of  the  plates 
The  discovery  in  Cyprus  of  twelve  silver  bowls  very  closely  resembling  those  found 
at  Nimroud,  tend  further  to  confirm  the  idea  that  many  of  these  relics  were  the  works 
of  Phoenician  artists  ; unfortunately  only  two  of  these  curious  vessels  have  been  pre- 
served ; they  are  now  in  Paris ; one,  the  most  perfect,  in  the  collection  of  the  Due 
de  Luines,  the  other  placed  by  M.  de  Saulcy  in  the  Louvre. 

t 2 Kings,  xxiv.  14.  16.  Jeremiah,  xxiv.  1. ; xxix.  2. 


164 


NINEVEH  AND  BABVLON. 


[Chap.  VIII. 


after  the  destruction  of  the  sanctuary,  were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Babylon.* 
It  is  not,  indeed,  impossible,  that  some  of  them  may  have  been  actually 
brought  from  the  cities  round  Jerusalem  by  Sennacherib  himself,  or  from 
Samaria  by  Shalmaneser  or  Sargon,  who,  we  find,  inhabited  the  palace  at 
Nimroud,  and  of  whom  several  relics  have  already  been  discovered  in  the 
ruins. 

Around  the  vessels  I have  described  were  heaped  arms,  remains  of 
armour,  iron  instruments,  glass  bowls,  and  various  objects  in  ivory  and 
bronze.  The  arms  consisted  of  swords,  daggers,  shields,  and  the  heads  of 
spears  and  arrows,  which  being  chiefly  of  iron  fell  to  pieces  almost  as  soon 
as  exposed  to  the  air.  A few  specimens  have  alone  been  preserved,  includ- 
ing the  head  of  a weapon  resembling  a trident,  and  the  handles  of  some 
of  the  swords  (?),  which,  being  partly  in  bronze,  were  less  eaten  away  than 
the  rest.  The  shields  stood  upright,  one  against  the  other,  supported  by  a 
square  piece  of  brick  work,  and  were  so  much  decayed  that  with  great  dif- 
ficulty two  were  moved  and  sent  to  England.  They  are  of  bronze,  and  cir- 
cular, the  rim  bending  inwards,  and  forming  a deep  groove  round  the  edge. 
The  handles  are  of  iron,  and  fastened  by  six  bosses  or  nails,  the  heads  of 
which  form  an  ornament  on  the  outer  face  of  the  shield. f The  diameter 
of  the  largest  and  most  perfect  is  2 feet  6 inches.  Although  their  weight 
must  have  impeded  the  movements  of  an  armed  warrior,  the  Assyrian 
spearmen  are  constantly  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs  with  them.  Such, 
too,  were  probably  the  bucklers  that  Solomon  hung  on  his  towers. $ 

A number  of  thin  iron  rods,  adhering  together  in  bundles,  were  found 
amongst  the  arms.  They  may  have  been  the  shafts  of  arrows,  which,  it 
has  been  conjectured  from  several  passages  in  the  Old  Testament,  were 
sometimes  of  burnished  metal.  To  “make  bright  the  arrows”  § may,  how- 
ever, only  allude  to  the  head  fastened  to  a reed,  or  shaft  of  some  light  wood. 
Several  such  barbs,  both  of  iron  and  bronze,  have  been  found  in  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  ruins,  and  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  armour  consisted  of  parts  of  breast-plates  (?)  and  of  other  fragments, 
embossed  with  figures  and  ornaments. 

* In  ancient  history,  embossed  or  inlaid  goblets  are  continually  mentioned  amongst 
the  offerings  to  celebrated  shrines.  Gyges  dedicated  goblets,  Alyattes,  a silver  cup, 
and  an  inlaid  iron  saucer  (the  art  of  inlaying  having  been  invented,  according  to  He- 
rodotus, by  Glaucus),  and  Croesus  similar  vessels,  in  the  temple  of  Delphi.  (Herod, 
i.  14.  and  25.  Pausanias,  1.  x.)  They  were  also  given  as  acceptable  presents  to 
kings  and  distinguished  men,  as  we  see  in  2 Sam.  viii  10.  and  2 Chron.  ix.  23,  24. 
The  Lacedaemonians  prepared  for  Croesus  a brazen  xcssel  ornamented  with  forms  of 
animals  round  the  rim  (Herod,  i.  70.),  like  some  of  the  bowls  described  in  the  text. 
The  embossings  on  the  Nimroud  bronzes  may  furnish  us  with  a very  just  idea  of  the 
figures  and  ornaments  on  the  celebrated  shield  of  Achilles,  which  were  probably  much 
the  same  in  treatment  and  execution. 

t Such  may  have  been  “ the  bosses  of  the  bucklers”  mentioned  in  Job,  xv.  26. 

X 1 Kings,  x.  16,  17.;  xiv.  25,  26. 

$ Jer.  li.  11.  Ezek.  xxi.  21.,  and  compare  Isaiah,  xlix.  2.,  where  a polished  shaft 
is  mentioned. 


Chap.  VIII.] 


OBJECTS  OF  IVORY. 


165 


Amongst  the  iron  instruments  were  the  head  of  a pick,  a double-handled 


An  Iron  Pick,  from  Nimroud. 


saw  (about  3 feet  6 inches  in  length),  several  objects  resembling  the  heads 
of  sledge-hammers,  and  a large  blunt  spear-head,  such  as  we  find  from  the 


Sculptures  were  used  during  sieges  to  force  stones  from  the  walls  of  be- 
sieged cities.* 

The  most  interesting  of  the  ivory  relics  were,  a carved  staff,  perhaps  a 
royal  sceptre,  part  of  which  has  been  preserved,  although  in  the  last  stage 
of  decay ; and  several  entire  elephants’  tusks,  the  largest  being  about  2 feet 
5 inches  long.  Amongst  the  smaller  objects  were  several 
figures  and  rosettes,  and  four  oval  bosses,  with  the  nails 
of  copper  still  remaining,  by  which  they  were  fastened  to 
wood  or  some  other  material. 

The  ivory  could  with  difficulty  be  detached  from  the 
earth  in  which  it  was  imbedded.  It  fell  to  small  frag- 
ments, and  even  to  dust,  almost  as  Soon  as  exposed  to  the 
air.  Such  specimens  as  have  been  brought  to  this  coun- 
try have  been  restored,  and  further  decay  checked  by  the 
same  ingenious  process  that  was  applied  to  the  ivory 
carvings  first  placed  in  the  British  Museum.  Parts  only 
of  the  elephants’  tusks  have  been  preserved.  "VYe  find 
from  the  bas-reliefs  in  the  north-west  palace  of  Nimroud,! 
and  on  the  obelisk  (where  captives  or  tribute-bearers  are 
seen  carrying  tusks),  that  this  produce  of  the  far  East  was 
brought  at  an  early  period  in  considerable  quantities  to  As- 
syria. I have  described  elsewhere!  the  frequent  use  of  ivory  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  ancient  Eastern  palaces  and  temples,  as  well  as  for  the  thrones  and 

* Monuments  of  Nineveh,  1st  series.  Plate  66.  All  these  relics  are  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum. 

+ Id.  Plate  24.,  where  elephants’  tusks  are  represented  above  the  captives  as  part 
of  the  spoil.  % Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p 420. 


166 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  YIII. 


furniture.  Ezekiel  includes  “horns  of  ivory”  amongst  the  objects  brought 
to  Tyre  from  Dedan,  and  the  Assyrians  may  have  obtained  their  supplies  from 
the  same  country,  which  some  believe  to  have  been  in  the  Persian  Gulf.* 


Bronze  Cubes  inlaid  with  Gold.  (Original  Size.) 

Amongst  various  small  objects  in  bronze  were  two  cubes,  each  having  on 
one  face  the  figure  of  a scarab  with  outstretched  wings,  inlaid  in  gold  ;f  very 
interesting  specimens,  and  probably  amongst  the  earliest  known,  of  an  art 
carried  in  modern  times  to  great  perfection  in  the  East. 

Two  entire  glass  bowls,  with  fragments  of  others,  were  also  found  in  this 
chamber  the  glass,  like  all  that  from  the  ruins,  is  covered  with  pearly 
scales,  which,  on  being  removed,  leave  prismatic  opal-like  colors  of  the 
greatest  brilliancy,  showing,  under  different  lights,  the  most  varied  and 
beautiful  tints.  This  is  a well  known  effect  of  age,  arising  from  the  decom- 
position of  certain  component  parts  of  the  glass.  These  bowls  are  probably 
of  the  same  period  as  the  small  bottle  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  north-west 
palace  during  the  previous  excavations,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum 
On  this  highly  interesting  relic  is  the  name  of  Sargon,  with  his  title  of  king 
of  Assyria,  in  cuneiform  characters,  and  the  figure  of  a lion.  We  are,  there- 
fore, able  to  fix  its  date  to  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century  b.c.  It 
is,  consequently,  the  most  ancient  known  specimen  of  transparent  glass, 
none  from  Egypt  being,  it  is  believed,  earlier  than  the  time  of  the  Psamet- 
tici  (the  end  of  the  sixth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  B.c.  Opaque 
colored  glass  was,  however,  manufactured  at  a much  earlier  period,  and 
some  exists  of  the  fifteenth  century,  b.c).  The  Sargon  vase  was  blown  in 
one  solid  piece,  and  then  shaped  and  hollowed  out  by  a turning-machine, 
of  which  the  marks  are  still  plainly  visible.  With  it  were  found,  it  will  be 
remembered,  two  larger  vases  in  white  alabaster,  inscribed  with  the  name 
of  the  same  king.  They  were  all  probably  used  for  holding  some  ointment 
or  cosmetic. § 

With  the  glass  bowls  was  discovered  a rock-crystal  lens,  with  opposite 
* Ezek.  xxvii.  15.  Ivory  was  amongst  the  objects  brought  to  Solomon  by  the  navy 
of  Tharshish  (1  Kings,  x.  23.).  [weights, 

t They  weigh  respectively  8 264  oz.  and  5 299  oz.,  and  have  the  appearance  of 
t The  larger,  5 inches  in  diameter,  and  2|  inches  deep ; the  other,  4 inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  2$  deep. 

$ The  height  of  the  glass  vase  is  2\  inches ; of  the  alabaster,  7 inches.  In  an  ap- 


Chap.  VIII.] 


OBJECTS  OF  GLASS. 


167 


Glass  and  Alabaster  Vases  bearing  the  name  of  Sargon,  from  Nimroud. 


convex  and  plane  faces.  Its  properties  could  scarcely  have  been  unknown 
to  the  Assyrians,  and  we  have  consequently  the  earliest  specimen  of  a mag- 
nifying and  burning-glass.*  It  was  buried  beneath  a heap  of  fragments  of 
beautiful  blue  opaque  glass,  apparently  the  enamel  of  some  object  in  ivory 
or  wood,  which  had  perished. 

In  the  further  corner  of  the  chamber,  to  the  left  hand,  stood  the  royal 
throne.  Although  it  was  utterly  impossible,  from  the  complete  state  of  de- 
cay of  the  materials,  to  preserve  any  part  of  it  entire,  I was  able,  by  care- 
fully removing  the  earth,  to  ascertain  that  it  resembled  in  shape  the  chair 
of  state  of  the  king,  as  seen  in  the  sculptures  of  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsa- 
had,  and  particularly  that  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs  already  described, 
of  Sennacherib  receiving  the  captives  and  spoil,  after  the  conquest  of  the 

pendix  will  be  found  some  notes  by  Sir  D.  Brewster,  on  the  remarkable  nature  of  the 
process  of  decomposition  in  the  glass  from  Nineveh. 

* I am  indebted  to  Sir  David  Brewster,  who  examined  the  lens,  for  the  following 
note  : — “ This  lens  is  plano-convex,  and  of  a slightly  oval  form,  its  length  being  1T6^ 
inch,  and  its  breadth  1T4^  inch.  It  is  about  ~^ths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  a little  thicker 
at  one  side  than  the  other.  Its  plane  surface  is  pretty  even,  though  ill  polished  and 
scratched.  Its  convex  surface  has  not  been  ground,  or  polished,  on  a spherical  con- 
cave disc,  but  has  been  fashioned  on  a lapidary’s  wheel,  or  by  some  method  equally 
rude.  The  convex  side  is  tolerably  well  polished,  and  though  uneven  from  the  mode 
in  which  it  has  been  ground,  it  gives  a tolerably  distinct  focus,  at  the  distance  of  4} 
inches  from  the  plane  side.  There  are  about  twelve  cavities  in  the  lens,  that  have 
been  opened  during  the  process  of  grinding  it : these  cavities,  doubtless,  contained 
either  naphtha,  or  the  same  fluid  which  is  discovered  in  topaz,  quartz,  and  other  min- 
erals. As  the  lens  does  not  show  the  polarised  rays  at  great  obliquities,  its  plane 
surface  must  be  greatly  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  hexagonal  prism  of  quartz  from 
which  it  must  have  been  taken.  It  is  obvious,  from  the  shape  and  rude  cutting  of 
the  lens,  that  it  could  not  have  been  intended  as  an  ornament ; we  are  entitled,  there- 
fore, to  consider  it  as  intended  to  be  used  as  a lens,  either  for  magnifying,  or  for  con- 
centrating the  rays  of  the  sun,  which  it  does,  however,  very  imperfectly.” 


168 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII 


Bronze  Bull’s  Head  from  Throne.  Bronze  Head,  part  of  Throne,  showing  bitumen  inside. 

pression  of  the  carving,  showing  the  substance  upon  which  the  embossing 
had  been  hammered  out),  and  the  ornamental  scroll-work  of  the  cross-bars. 

* See  p.  127. 

t 1 Kings,  x,  18.  This  is  a highly  interesting  illustration  of  the  work  in  Solomon’s 
palaces.  The  earliest  use  of  metal  amongst  the  Greeks  appears  also  to  have  been 
as  a casing  to  wooden  objects. 


Fragments  of  Bronze  Ornaments  of  the  Throne  (Nimroud). 

city  of  Lachish.*  "With  the  exception  of  the  legs,  which  appear  to  have 
been  partly  of  ivory,  it  was  of  wood,  cased  or  overlaid  with  bronze,  as  the 
throne  of  Solomon  was  of  ivory,  overlaid  with  gold.f  The  metal  was 
most  elaborately  engraved  and  embossed  with  symbolical  figures  and  orna- 
ments, like  those  embroidered  on  the  robes  of  the  early  Nimroud  king,  such 
as  winged  deities  struggling  with  griffins,  mythic  animals,  men  before  the 
sacred  tree,  and  the  winged  lion  and  bull.  As  the  wood-work  over  which 
the  bronze  was  fastened  by  means  of  small  nails  of  the  same  material,  had 
rotted  away,  the  throne  fell  to  pieces,  but  the  metal  casing  was  partly  pre- 
served. Numerous  fragments  of  it  are  now  in  the  British  Museum,  includ- 
ing the  joints  of  the  arms,  and  legs ; the  rams’  or  bulls’  heads,  which  adorned 
the  $nd  of  the  arms  (some  still  retaining  the  clay  and  bitumen  with  the  im- 


Chap.  VIII.] 


THE  ROYAL  THRONE. 


169 


in  the  form  of  the  Ionic  volute.  The  legs  were  adorned 

with  lion’s  paws  resting  on  a pine-shaped  ornament, 

like  the  thrones  of  the  later  Assyrian  sculptures,*  and 

stood  on  a bronze  base.  A rod  with  loose  rings,  to 

which  was  once  hung  embroidered  drapery,  or  some 

rich  stuff,  appears  to  have  belonged  to  the  back  of  the 

chair,  or  to  a frame-work  raised  above  or  behind  it 

though  not  I think,  as  conjectured,  to  a curtain  con- 

Bronze  Binding  of  Joints  of  cealing  the  monarch  from  those  who  approached 
Throne.  . . , rr 

him.t 

In  front  of  the  throne  was  the  foot-stool,  also  of  wood  overlaid  with  em- 
bossed metal,  and  adorned  with  the  heads  of  rams  or  bulls.  The  feet  end- 
ed in  lion’s  paws  and  pine  cones,  like  those  of  the  throne.  The  two  pieces 
of  furniture  may  have  been  placed  together  in  a temple  as  an  offering  to 
the  gods,  as  Midas  placed  his  throne  in  the  temple  of  Delphi. $ The  orna- 
ments on  them  were  so  purely  Assyrian,  that  there  can  be  little  doubt  of 
their  having  been  expressly  made  for  the  Assyrian  king,  and  not  having 
been  the  spoil  of  some  foreign  nation. 

Near  the  throne,  and  leaning  against  the  mouth  of  the  well,  was  a cir 


Bronze  Casing,  from  the  Throne  (Nimroud) 


* I succeeded,  after  much  trouble,  in  moving  and  packing  two  of  these  legs ; but 
they  appear  to  have  since  fallen  to  pieces 
t That  Eastern  monarchs  were,  however,  accustomed  to  conceal  themselves  by 
some  such  contrivances  from  their  subjects,  we  know  from  the  history  of  Deioces 
(Herod  1 99.)  It  has  been  even  conjectured  that  the  Hebrew  word  fora  throne  in- 
fers a veiled  seat.  The  Assyrian  kings,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  bas-reliefs,  were 
more  accessible,  and  mingled  more  freely  with  their  subjects. 

t Herod,  i 14  I need  scarcely  remind  the  reader  of  the  frequent  mention,  in  an- 
cient historians,  of  thrones  and  couches  ornamented  with  metal  legs  in  the  shape  of 
the  feet  of  animals. 


170 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  VIII. 


cular  band  of  bronze,  2 feet  4 inches  in  diameter,  studded  with  nails.  It 
appears  to  have  been  the  metal  casing  of  a wheel,  or  of  some  object  of 
wood. 

Such,  with  an  alabaster  jar,*  and  a few  other  objects  in  metal,  were  the 
relics  found  in  the  newly-opened  room.  After  the  examination  I had  made 
of  the  building  during  my  former  excavations,  this  accidental  discovery 
proves  that  other  treasures  may  still  exist  in  the  mound  of  Nimroud,  and 
increases  my  regret  that  means  were  not  at  my  command  to  remove  the 
rubbish  from  the  centre  of  the  other  chambers  in  the  palace. 

* After  my  departure  from  Assyria,  a similar  alabaster  jar  was  discovered  in  an 
adjoining  chamber.  Colonel  Rawlinson  states  that  the  remains  of  preserves  were 
found  in  it,  and  hence  conjectures  that  the  room  in  which  the  bronze  objects  de- 
scribed in  this  chapter  were  found,  was  a kitchen.  There  is  nothing,  however,  to 
show  that  this  was  the  case,  even  if  the  contents  of  the  jar  are  such  as  Colonel  Raw- 
linson supposes  them  to  be.  It  is  much  more  probable,  that  it  was  a repository  firr* 
the  royal  arms  and  sacrificial  vessels. 


A Group  of  Yezidis. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

VISIT  TO  THE  WINGED  LIONS  BY  NIGHT. THE  BITUMEN  SPRINGS. REMOVAL  OF  THE 

WINGED  LIONS  TO  THE  RIVER. FLOODS  AT  NIMROUD. LOSS  AND  RECOVERY  OF  LION. 

YEZIDI  MARRIAGE  FESTIVAL BAAZANI. VISIT  TO  BAVIAN. SITE  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF 

ARBELA. DESCRIPTION  OF  ROCK-SCULPTURES. INSCRIPTIONS. THE  SHABBAKS. 

By  the  28th  of  January,  the  colossal  lions  forming  the  portal  to  the  great 
hall  in  the  north-west  palace  of  Nimroud  were  ready  to  be  dragged  to  the 
river-hank.  The  walls  and  their  sculptured  panelling  had  been  removed 
from  both  sides  of  them,  and  they  stood  isolated  in  the  midst  of  the  ruins. 
We  rode  one  calm  cloudless  night  to  the  mound,  to  look  on  them  for  the 
last  time  before  they  were  taken  from  their  old  resting-places.  The  moon 
was  at  her  full,  and  as  we  drew  nigh  to  the  edge  of  the  deep  wall  of  earth 
rising  around  them,  her  soft  light  was  creeping  over  the  stern  features  of 
the  human  heads,  and  driving  before  it  the  dark  shadows  which  still 
clothed  the  lion  forms.  One  by  one  the  limbs  of  the  gigantic  sphinxes 
emerged  from  the  gloom,  until  the  monsters  were  unveiled  before  us.  I 
shall  never  forget  that  night,  or  the  emotions  which  those  venerable  figures 
caused  within  me.  A few  hours  more  and  they  were  to  stand  no  longer 
where  they  had  stood  unscathed  amidst  the  wreck  of  man  and  his  works 
for  ages  It  seemed  almost  sacrilege  to  tear  them  from  their  old  haunts  to 
make  them  a mere  wonder-stock  to  the  busy  crowd  of  a new  world.  They 
were  better  suited  to  the  desolation  around  them  ; for  they  had  guarded 
the  palace  in  its  glory,  and  it  was  for  them  to  watch  over  it  in  its  ruin. 
Sheikh  Abd-ur-Rahman,  who  had  ridden  with  us  to  the  mound,  was  troub- 
led with  no  such  reflections  He  gazed  listlessly  at  the  grim  images,  won- 


172 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IX. 


(lered  at  the  folly  of  the  Franks,  thought  the  night  cold,  and  turned  his 
mare  towards  his  tents.  "We  scarcely  heeded  his  going,  but  stood  speech- 
less in  the  deserted  portal,  until  the  shadows  again  began  to  creep  over  its 
hoary  guardians. 

Beyond  the  ruined  palaces  a scene  scarcely  less  solemn  awaited  us.  I 
had  sent  a party  of  Jebours  to  the  bitumen  springs,  outside  the  walls  to  the 
east  of  the  inclosure.  The  Arabs  having  lighted  a small  fire  with  brush- 
wood awaited  our  coming  to  throw  the  burning  sticks  upon  the  pitchy 
pools.  A thick  heavy  smoke,  such  as  rose  from  the  jar  on  the  sea  shore 
when  the  fisherman  bad  broken  the  seal  of  Solomon,  rolled  upwards  in 
curling  volumes,  hiding  the  light  of  the  moon,  and  spreading  wide  over 
the  sky.  Tongues  of  flame  and  jets  of  gas,  driven  from  the  burning  pit, 
shot  through  the  murky  canopy.  As  the  fire  brightened,  a thousand  fan- 
tastic forms  of  light  played  amidst  the  smoke.  To  break  the  cindered  crust, 
and  to  bring  fresh  slime  to  the  surface,  the  Arabs  threw  large  stones  into 
the  springs ; a new  volume  of  fire  then  burst  forth,  throwing  a deep  red 
glare  upon  the  figures  and  upon  the  landscape.  The  Jebours  danced  round 
the  burning  pools,  like  demons  in  some  midnight  orgie,  shouting  their  war- 
cry,  and  brandishing  their  glittering  arms.  In  an  hour  the  bitumen  was 
exhausted  for  the  time,*  the  dense  smoke  gradually  died  away,  and  the 
pale  light  of  the  moon  again  shone  over  the  black  slime  pits. 

The  colossal  lions  were  moved  by  still  simpler  and  ruder  means  than 
those  adopted  on  my  first  expedition.  They  were  tilted  over  upon  loose 
earth  heaped  behind  them,  their  too  rapid  descent  being  checked  by  a haws- 
er, which  was  afterwards  replaced  by  props  of  wood  and  stone.  They 
were  then  lowered,  by  levers  and  jackscrews,  upon  the  cart  brought  un- 
der them.  A road  paved  with  flat  stones  had  been  made  to  the  edge  of 
the  mound,  and  the  sculpture  was,  without  difficulty,  dragged  from  the 
trenches. 

Beneath  the  lions,  embedded  in  earth  and  bitumen,  were  a few  bones, 
which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  fell  *o  dust  before  I could  ascertain  whether 
they  were  human  or  not.  The  sculptures  rested  simply  upon  the  platform 
of  sun-dried  bricks  without  any  other  sub-structure,  a mere  layer  of  bitu- 
men, about  an  inch  thick,  having  been  placed  under  the  plinth. 

Owing  to  recent  heavy  rains,  which  had  left  in  many  places  deep 
swamps,  we  experienced  much  difficulty  in  dragging  the  cart  over  the  plain 
to  the  river  side.  Three  days  were  spent  in  transporting  each  lion.  The 
men  of  Isaifa  and  Nimroud  again  came  to  our  help,  and  the  Abou-Salman 
horsemen,  with  Sheikh  Abd-ur-Rahman  at  their  head,  encouraged  us  by 
their  presence.  The  unwieldy  mass  was  propelled  from  behind  by  enor- 
mous levers  of  poplar  wood  ; and  in  the  costumes  of  those  who  worked,  as 
well  as  in  the  means  adopted  to  move  the  colossal  sculptures,  except  that 
we  used  a wheeled  cart  instead  of  a sledge,  the  procession  closely  resem- 
bled that  which  in  days  of  yore  transported  the  same  great  figures,  and 
* In  a few  hours  the  pits  are  sufficiently  filled  to  take  fire  again. 


MOVING  THE  LIONS 


173 


Chap.  IX.] 

which  we  see  so  graphically  represented  on  the  walls  of  Kouyunjik.*  As 
they  had  been  brought  so  were  they  taken  away. 

It  was  necessary  to  humor  and  excite  the  Arabs  to  induce  them  to  per- 
severe in  the  arduous  work  of  dragging  the  cart  through  the  deep  soft  soil 
into  which  it  continually  sank.  At  one  time,  after  many  vain  efforts  to 
move  the  buried  wheels,  it  was  unanimously  declared  that  Mr.  Cooper,  the 
artist,  brought  ill  luck,  and  no  one  would  work  until  he  retired.  The  cum- 
brous machine  crept  onward  for  a few  more  yards,  but  again  all  exertions 
were  fruitless.  Then  the  Frank  lady  would  bring  good  fortune  if  she  sat 
on  the  sculpture.  The  wheels  rolled  heavily  along,  but  were  soon  clogged 
once  more  in  the  yielding  soil.  An  evil  eye  surely  lurked  among  the 
workmen  or  the  bystanders.  Search  was  quickly  made,  and  one  having 
been  detected  upon  whom  this  curse  had  alighted,  he  was  ignominiously 
driven  away  with  shouts  and  execrations.  This  impediment  having  been 
removed,  the  cart  drew  nearer  to  the  village,  but  soon  again  eame  to  a 
standstill.  All  the  Sheikhs  were  now  summarily  degraded  from  their 
rank  and  honors,  and  a weak  ragged  boy  having  been  dressed  up  in  taw- 
dry kerchiefs,  and  invested  with  a cloak,  was  pronounced  by  Hormuzd  to 
be  the  only  fit  chief  for  such  puny  men.  The  cart  moved  forwards,  until 
the  ropes  gave  way,  under  the  new  excitement  caused  by  this  reflection 
upon  the  character  of  the  Arabs.  When  that  had  subsided,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  the  youthful  Sheikh  no  longer  encouraged  his  subjects,  he  was  as 
summarily  deposed  as  he  had  been  elected,  and  a greybeard  of  ninety  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  in  his  stead.  He  had  his  turn  ; then  the  most  unpop- 
ular of  the  Sheikhs  were  compelled  to  lie  down  on  the  ground,  that  the 
groaning  wheels  might  pass  over  them,  like  the  car  of  Juggernaut  over  its 
votaries.  With  yells,  shrieks,  and  wild  antics  the  cart  was  drawn  within 
a few  inches  of  the  prostrate  men.  As  a last  resource  I seized  a rope  my- 
self, and  with  shouts  of  defiance  between  the  different  tribes,  who  were 
divided  into  separate  parties  and  pulled  against  each  other,  and  amidst  the 
deafening  tahlel  of  the  women,  the  lion  was  at  length  fairly  brought  to  the 
water’s  edge.  • 

The  winter  rains  had  not  yet  swelled  the  waters  of  the  river  so  as  to  en- 
able a raft  bearing  a very  heavy  cargo  to  float  with  safety  to  Baghdad.  It 
was  not  until  the  month  of  April,  after  I had  left  Mosul  on  my  journey  to 
the  Khabour,  that  the  floods,  from  the  melting  of  the  snows  in  the  higher 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  swept  down  the  valley  of  the  Tigris.  I was 
consequently  obliged  to  confide  the  task  of  embarking  the  sculptures  to 
Behnan,  my  principal  overseer,  a Mosuleean  stonecutter  of  considerable 
skill  and  experience,  Mr.  Vice-consul  Bassam  kindly  undertaking  to  super- 
intend the  operation.  Owing  to  extraordinary  storms  in  the  hills,  the  river 
rose  suddenly  and  with  unexampled  rapidity.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Rassam  were 
at  the  time  at  Nimroud,  and  the  raftmen  had  prepared  the  rafts  to  receive 
the  lions.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  they  escaped  before  the  flood,  from 
* See  woodcut,  p.  93. 


174 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IX. 


my  house  in  the  village  to  the  top  of  the  ruins.  The  Jaif  was  one  vast 
sea,  and  a furious  wind  drove  the  waves  against  the  foot  of  the  mound.  The 
Arabs  had  never  seen  a similar  inundation,  and  before  they  could  escape 
to  the  high  land  many  persons  were  overwhelmed  in  the  waters. 

When  the  flood  had  subsided,  the  lions  on  the  river  bank,  though  cover- 
ed with  mud  and  silt,  were  found  uninjured.  They  were  speedily  placed 
on  the  rafts  prepared  for  them,  but  unfortunately  during  the  operation  one 
of  them,  which  had  previously  been  cracked  nearly  across,  separated  into 
two  parts.  Both  sculptures  were  doomed  to  misfortune.  Some  person,  un- 
covering the  other  during  the  night,  broke  the  nose.  I was  unable  to  dis- 
cover the  author  of  this  wanton  mischief.  He  was  probably  a stranger, 
who  had  some  feud  with  the  Arabs  working  in  the  excavations.* 

The  rafts  reached  Baghdad  in  safety.  After  receiving  the  necessary  re- 
pairs they  floated  onwards  to  Busrah.  The  waters  of  the  Tigris  through- 
out its  course  had  risen  far  above  their  usual  level.  The  embankments, 
long  neglected  by  the  Turkish  government,  had  given  way,  and  the  river, 
bursting  from  its  bed,  spread  itself  over  the  surrounding  country  in  vast 
lakes  and  marshes.  One  of  the  rafts  was  dragged  into  a vortex  which 
swept  through  a sluice  newly  opened  in  the  crumbling  bank.  Notwith- 
standing the  exertions  of  the  raftmen,  aided  by  the  crew  of  a boat  that  ac- 
companied them,  it  was  carried  far  into  the  interior,  and  left  in  the  middle 
of  a swamp,  about  a mile  from  the  stream.  The  other  raft  fortunately  es- 
caped, and  reached  Busrah  without  accident. 

For  some  time  the  stranded  raft  was  given  up  for  lost.  Fortunately  it 
bore  the  broken  lion,  or  its  recovery  had  probably  been  impossible.  Cap- 
tain Jones,  with  his  usual  skill  and  intrepidity,  took  his  steamer  over  the 
ruined  embankment,  and  into  the  unexplored  morass.  After  great  exer- 
tion, under  a burning  sun  in  the  midst  of  summer,  he  succeeded  in  placing 
the  two  parts  of  the  sculpture  on  large  boats,  provided  for  the  purpose,  and 
in  conveying  them  to  their  destination^ 

During  my  hasty  visit  in  the  autumn  to  Bavian,  I had  been  unable  either 
to  examine  the  rock-tablets  with  sufficient  care,  or  to  copy  the  inscriptions. 
The  lions  having  been  moved,  I seized  the  first  leisure  moment  to  return 
to  those  remarkable  monuments. 

Cawal  Yusuf  having  invited  me  to  the  marriage  of  his  niece  at  Baashiek- 
hah,  we  left  Nimroud  early  in  the  morning  for  that  village,  striking  across 
the  country  through  Tel  Yakoub,  Karakosh  (a  large  village  inhabited  by 
Catholic  Chaldaeans,  and  having  several  churches),  and  Bartolli.  We  were 
met  at  some  distance  from  Baashiekhah  by  the  Cawal,  followed  by  the 
principal  inhabitants  on  horseback,  and  by  a large  concourse  of  people  on 
foot,  accompanied  by  music,  and  by  children  bringing  lambs  as  offerings.  It 

* Both  sculptures  have,  however,  been  completely  restored  in  the  British  Museum, 
t These  accidents,  and  even  still  more  the  carelessness  afterwards  shown  in  bring- 
ing them  to  this  country,  have  much  injured  these  fine  specimens  of  Assyrian  sculp- 
ture. which  now  stand  in  a great  hall  of  the  British  Museum. 


A YEZIDI  MARRIAGE. 


175 


Chap.  IX.] 

was  already  the  second  day  of  the  marriage.  On  the  previous  day  the  par- 
ties had  entered  into  the  contract  before  the  usual  witnesses,  amidst  rejoic- 
ings and  dances.  After  our  arrival,  the  bride  was  led  to  the  house  of  the 
bridegroom,  surrounded  by  the  inhabitants,  dressed  in  their  gayest  robes, 
and  by  the  Cawals  playing  on  their  instruments  of  music.  She  was  cover- 
ed from  head  to  foot  by  a thick  veil,  and  was  kept  behind  a curtain  in  the 
corner  of  a darkened  room.  Here  she  remained  until  the  guests  had  feasted 
three  days,  after  which  the  bridegroom  was  allowed  to  approach  her. 

The  courtyard  of  the  house  was  filled  with  dancers,  and  during  the  day 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  night  nothing  was  heard  but  the  loud  signs  of 
rejoicing  of  the  women,  and  the  noise  of  the  drum  and  the  pipe. 

On  the  third  day  the  bridegroom  was  sought  early  in  the  morning,  and 
led  in  triumph  by  his  friends  from  house  to  house,  receiving  at  each  a tri- 
fling present.  He  was  then  placed  within  a circle  of  dancers,  and  the 
guests  and  bystanders,  wetting  small  coins,  stuck  them  on  his  forehead.* 
The  money  was  collected  as  it  fell,  in  an  open  kerchief  held  by  his  com- 
panions under  his  chin. 

After  this  ceremony  a party  of  young  men,  who  had  attached  themselves 
to  the  bridegroom,  rushed  into  the  crowd,  and  carrying  off  the  most  wealthy 
of  the  guests  locked  them  up  in  a dark  room  until  they  consented  to  pay  a 
ransom  for  their  release.  This  violence  and  restraint  were  cheerfully  sub- 
mitted to,  and  the  money  thus  collected  was  added  to  the  dowry  of  the 
newly  married  couple.  There  was  feasting  during  the  rest  of  the  day, 
with  raki-drinking  and  music,  and  the  usual  accompaniments  of  an  East- 
ern wedding. 

Leaving  the  revellers  I rode  to  Baazani  with  Cawal  Yusuf,  Sheikh 
Jindi  (the  stern  leader  of  the  religious  ceremonies  at  Sheikh  Adi),  and  a 
few  Yezidi  notables,  to  examine  the  rocky  valleys  behind  the  village.  I 
once  more  searched  in  vain  for  some  traces  of  ancient  quarries  from  whence 
the  Assyrians  might  have  obtained  the  slabs  used  in  their  buildings.  At 
the  entrance  of  one  of  the  deep  ravines,  which  runs  into  the  Gebel  Mak- 
loub,  a clear  spring  gushes  from  a grotto  in  the  hill-side.  Tradition  says 
that  this  is  the  cave  of  the  Seven  Sleepers  and  their  Dog,  and  the  Yezichs 
have  made  the  spot  a ziareh , or  place  of  pilgrimage.! 

In  the  sides  of  the  same  ravine  are  numerous  excavated  sepulchral 
chambers,  with  recesses  or  troughs  in  them  for  the  reception  of  the  dead, 
such  as  I have  so  frequently  had  occasion  to  describe. 

Our  road  from  Baashiekhah  to  Bavian  lay  across  the  rocky  range  of  the 
Gebel  Makloub.  We  found  it  difficult  and  precipitous  on  the  western  face. 

* This  custom  of  sticking  coins  to  the  forehead  of  a bridegroom  is  common  to  sev- 
eral races  of  the  East,  amongst  others  to  the  Turcomans,  who  inhabit  the  villages 
round  Mosul. 

t No  tradition  is  more  generally  current  in  the  East  than  the  well  known  story  of 
the  Seven  Sleepers  and  their  Dog.  There  is  scarcely  a district  without  the  original 
cave  in  which  the  youths  were  concealed  during  their  miraculous  slumber. 


176 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IX. 


and  scarcely  practicable  to  laden  beasts  ; on  the  eastern,  it  sank  gradually 
into  a broad  plain.  We  passed  the  village  of  Giri  Mohammed  Araba, 
built  near  an  artificial  mound  of  considerable  size.  Similar  mounds  are 
scattered  here  and  there  over  the  flat  country,  and  under  almost  every  one 
is  a Kurdish  or  Arab  hamlet. 

A ride  of  seven  hours  brought  us  to  the  foot  of  the  higher  limestone 
range,  and  to  the  mouth  of  the  ravine  containing  the  rock-sculptures. 
Bavian  is  a mere  Kurdish  hamlet  of  five  or  six  miserable  huts  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Ghazir.  We  stopped  at  the  larger  village  of  Khinnis ; the 
two  being  scarcely  half  a mile  apart,  the  place  is  usually  called  “ Khinnis- 
Bavian.”  The  Arab  population  ceases  with  the  plains,  the  villages  in  the 
hills  being  inhabited  by  Kurds,  and  included  in  the  district  of  Missouri 
Adjoining  Khinnis  is  the  Yezidi  district  of  Sheikhan. 

The  rock- sculptures  of  Bavian  are  the  most  important  that  have  yet 
been  discovered  in  Assyria.*  They  are  carved  in  relief  on  the  side  of  a 
narrow,  rocky  ravine,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gomel,  a brawling  mount- 
ain torrent  issuing  from  the  Missouri  hills,  and  one  of  the  principal  feeders 
of  the  small  river  Ghazir,  the  ancient  Bumadus.  The  Gomel  or  Goraela 
may,  perhaps,  be  traced  in  the  ancient  name  of  Gaugamela,t  celebrated 
for  that  great  victory  which  gave  to  the  Macedonian  conqueror  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Eastern  world.  Although  the  battlefield  was  called  after  Ai- 
bela,  a neighbouring  city,  we  know  that  the  river  Zab  intervened  between 
them,  and  that  the  battle  was  fought  near  the  village  of  Gaugamela,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Bumadus  or  Ghazir,  the  Gomela  of  the  Kurds.  It  is  re- 
markable that  tradition  has  not  preserved  any  record  of  the  precise  scene 
of  an  event  which  so  materially  affected  the  destinies  of  the  East.  The 
history  of  this  great  battle  is  unknown  to  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
country ; nor  does  any  local  name,  except  perhaps  that  which  I have 
pointed  out,  serve  to  connect  it  with  these  plains.  The  village,  which 
once  stood  near  the  mound  of  Nimroud,  was,  indeed,  said  to  have  been 
called  Dariousha,  after  the  Persian  monarch,  who  slept  there  on  the  night 
preceding  the  defeat  that  deprived  him  of  his  empire.J  Some  have  fan- 

* They  were  first  visited  by  the  late  M.  Rouet,  French  consul  at  Mosul.  In  my 
Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  142.  note,  will  be  found  a short  description  of 
the  sculptures  by  my  friend  Mr.  Ross.  These  are  the  rock-tablets  which  have  been 
recently  described  in  the  French  papers,  as  a new  discovery  by  M.  Place,  and  as  con- 
taining a series  of  portraits  of  the  Assyrian  kings  ! 

t In  some  MSS.  of  Quintus  Curtius,  the  Bumadus  or  Ghazir  is  called  the  “Bumc- 
/mj,”  which  would  not  be  far  from  the  modem  name  of  the  upper  branch  of  the  river. 
It  will,  of  course,  be  remembered,  that  Gaugamela,  according  to  ancient  historians, 
signifies  “a  camel,”  as  derived  probably  from  Gcmel,  the  Semitic  word  for  that 
animal. 

t I never  heard  any  similar  tradition  from  the  people  of  the  country.  According 
to  the  Shemutti,  who  inhabit  the  new  village  the  name  was  Darawish,  i.  e.  the  place 
of  Dervishes.  It  belonged  to  Turcomans,  who  mostly  died  of  the  plague,  the  remain- 
der migrating  to  Selamiyah. 


SCULPTURES  AT  BAVIAN. 


177 


Chap.  IX.] 

cied  a similarity  between  the  name  of  Gaugamela  and  that  of  the  modern 
village  of  Karamless.  The  battlefield  was  probably  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Tell  Aswad,  or  between  it  and  the  junction  of  the  Ghazir  with  the  Zab, 
on  the  direct  line  of  march  to  the  fords  of  that  river.  We  had  undoubted- 
ly crossed  the  very  spot  during  our  ride  to  B avian.  The  whole  of  the 
country  between  the  Makloub  range  and  the  Tigris  is  equally  well  suited 
to  the  operations  of  mighty  armies,  but  from  the  scanty  topographical  de- 
tails given  by  the  historians  of  Alexander  we  are  unable  to  identify  the 
exact  place  of  his  victory.  It  is  curious  that  hitherto  no  remains  or  relics 
have  been  turned  up  by  the  plough  which  would  serve  to  mark  the  pre- 
cise site  of  so  great  a battle  as  that  of  Arbela. 

The  principal  rock-tablet  at  Bavian  contains  four  figures,  sculptured  in 
relief  upon  the  smoothed  face  of  a limestone  cliff,  rising  perpendicularly 
from  the  bed  of  the  torrent.  They  are  inclosed  by  a kind  of  frame  28  feet 
nigh  by  30  feet  wide,  and  are  protected  by  an  overhanging  cornice  from  the 
water  which  trickles  down  the  face  of  the  precipice.  Two  deities,  facing 
each  other,  are  represented,  as  they  frequently  are  on  monuments  and  rel- 
ics of  the  same  period,  standing  on  mythic  animals  resembling  dogs.  They 
wear  the  high  square  head-dress,  with  horns  uniting  in  front,  peculiar  to 
the  human-headed  bulls  of  the  later  Assyrian  palaces.  One  holds  in  the 
left  hand  a kind  of  staff  surmounted  by  the  sacred  tree.  To  the  centre  of 
this  staff  is  attached  a ring  encircling  a figure,  probably  that  of  the  king. 
The  other  hand  is  stretched  forth  towards  the  opposite  god,  who  carries  a 
similar  staff,  and  grasps  in  the  right  hand  an  object  which  is  too  much  in- 
jured to  be  accurately  described.*  These  two  figures  may  represent  but 
one  and  the  same  great  tutelary  deity  of  the  Assyrians,  as  the  two  kings 
who  stand  in  act  of  adoration  before  them  are  undoubtedly  but  one  and  the 
same  king.  The  monarch,  thus  doubly  portrayed,  is  behind  the  god.  He 
raises  one  hand,  and  holds  in  the  other  the  sacred  mace,  ending  in  a ball. 
His  dress  resembles  that  of  the  builder  of  the  Kouyunjfe  palace,  Sennache- 
rib, with  whom  the  inscriptions  I shall  presently  describe,  identify  him. 
The  peak  projecting  from  the  conical  royal  tiara  is  longer  and  more  pointed 
than  usual.  The  ornaments  of  the  costumes  of  the  four  figures  are  rich 
and  elaborate.  The  sword-scabbards  end  in  lions,  and  the  earrings  are  pe- 
culiarly elegant  in  design.  Resting  on  the  cornice  above  the  sculptures, 
and  facing  the  ravine,  are  the  remains  of  two  crouching  sphinxes,  proba- 
bly similar  in  form  to  those  at  the  grand  entrance  to  the  south-west  palace 
of  Nimroud.t  Behind  them  is  a narrow  recess  or  platform  in  the  rock. 

This  bas-relief  has  suffered  greatly  from  the  effects  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  in  many  parts  the  details  can  no  longer  be  distinguished.  But  they 
have  been  still  more  injured  by  those  who  occupied  the  country  after  the 
fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  Strangers,  having  no  reverence  for  the  records 
or  sacred  monuments  of  those  who  went  before  them,  excavated  in  the 

* See  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2nd  series,  Plate  51.  for  an  illustration  of  these 
rock-sculptures.  t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  349. 

M 


178 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap  IX 


ready- scarped  rocks  the  sepulchral  chambers  of  their  dead.*  In  this  great 
tablet  there  are  four  such  tombs.  Two  have  been  cut  between  the  figures 
of  the  god,  and  have  spared  the  sculptures  The  others  have  destroyed 
the  head  of  one  king  and  a part  of  the  robes  of  the  opposite  figure.  The 
entrances  to  the  two  largest  were  once  ornamented  with  columns,  which 
have  been  broken  away.  Round  the  walls  of  these  excavated  chambers 
are  the  usual  troughs  for  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  I entered  the  tombs  by 
means  of  a rope  lowered  from  above  by  a party  of  Kurds.  They  were 
empty,  their  contents  having,  of  course,  been  long  before  carried  away,  or 
destroyed. 

To  the  left  of  this  great  bas-relief,  and  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  ravine. 

is  a second  tablet  containing 
a horseman  at  full  speed,  and 
the  remains  of  other  figures. 
Both  horse  and  rider  are  of 
colossal  proportions,  and  re- 
markable for  the  spirit  of  the 
outline.  The  warrior  wears 
the  Assyrian  pointed  helmet, 
and  couches  a long  ponder- 
ous spear,  as  in  the  act  of 
charging  the  enemy  Before 
him  is  a colossal  figure  of 
the  king,  and  behind  him  a 
Rock  sculpture  (Bavian ) deity  with  the  horned  cap  ; 

above  his  head  a row  of  smaller  figures  of  gods  standing  on  animals  of  vari- 
ous forms,  as  in  the  rock-sculptures  of  Malthaiyah. 

This  fine  bas-relief  has,  unfortunately,  suffered  even  more  than  the  other 
monuments  from  the  effects  of  the  atmosphere,  and  would  easily  escape 
notice  without  an  acquaintance  with  its  position. 

Scattered  over  the  cliff,  on  each  side  of  the  principal  bas-reliefs,  are 
eleven  small  tablets,  some  easily  accessible,  others  so  high  up  on  the  face 
of  the  precipice,  that  they  are  scarcely  seen  from  below  One  is  on  a level 

* It  is  evident  that  these  tombs  are  not  of  the  Assyrian  epoch,  supposing  even  the 
Assyrians  to  have  placed  their  dead  in  chambers  excavated  in  the  rooks.  I have 
never  met  with  rock-tombs  which  could  be  referred  with  any  certainty  to  that  period 
In  a bas-relief  discovered  at  Khorsabad  one  writer  (Bonomi,  Nineveh  and  its  Palaces, 
p 196  ) detects  the  representation  of  such  excavations  in  a rock  on  which  stands 
a castle  ; but  I believe  that  houses  are  meant,  as  in  a similar  subject  from  Kouyun- 
jik  (see  2nd  Series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  39.).  It  is  e v ident  that  these 
supposed  rock-tombs  cannot  indicate  the  sepulchres  of  the  Valley  < f Jehoshaphat, 
which  are  of  a very  different  period,  nor,  as  the  same  writer  has  inferred,  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  The  Jews,  as  well  as  other  nations  of  antiquity,  were,  however,  accus- 
tomed to  make  such  rock-chambers  for  their  dead,  as  we  learn  from  Isaiah,  xxii.  16 
•‘What  hast  thou  here  ? and  whom  hast  thou  here,  that  thou  hast  hewed  thee  out  a 
sepulchre  here,  as  he  that  hewclh  him  out  a sepulchre  on  high , and  that  graveth  an  hab- 
itation for  himself  in  a rockl” 


Chap.  IX.] 


INSCRIPTIONS  AT  B AVI  AN 


17!) 


with  the  bed  of  the  stream,  and  was,  indeed,  almost  covered  by  the  mud 
deposit  of  the  floods.  Each  arched  recess,  for  they  are  cut  into  the  rock, 
contains  a figure  of  the  king,  as  at  the  Nahr-el-Kelb,  near  Beyrout  in  Syr- 
ia,*  5 feet  6 inches  high.  Above  his  head  are  the  sacred  symbols,  ar- 
ranged in  four  distinct  groups.  The  first  group  consists  of  three  tiaras,  like 
those  worn  by  the  gods  and  human-headed  bulls,  and  of  a kind  of  altar  on 
which  stands  a staff  ending  in  the  head  of  a ram  ; the  second  of  a cres- 
cent and  of  the  winged  disk,  or  globe  ; the  third  of  a pedestal,  on  which 
are  a trident  and  three  staffs,  one  topped  by  a cone,  another  without  orna- 
ment, and  the  last  ending  in  two  bull’s  heads  turned  in  opposite  directions ; 
and  the  fourth  of  a Maltese  cross  (?  symbolical  of  the  Sun)  and  the  seven 
stars  Some  of  these  symbols  have  reference,  it  would  seem,  to  the  astral 


Sacred  Symbols  or  Royal  Tablets  (Bavian). 


worship  of  the  Assyrians ; whilst  others,  probably,  represent'  instruments 
used  during  sacrifices,  or  sacred  ceremonies. 

Across  three  of  these  royal  tablets  are  inscriptions.  One  can  be  reached 
from  the  foot  of  the  cliff,  the  others,  being  on  the  higher  sculptures,  cannot 
be  seen  from  below  They  are  all  more  or  less  injured,  but  being  very 
nearly,  word  for  word,  the  same,  they  can  to  some  extent  be  restored.  I 
was  lowered  by  ropes  to  those  on  the  face  of  the  precipice,  which  are  not 
otherwise  accessible.  Standing  on  a ledge  scarcely  six  inches  wide,  over- 
looking a giddy  depth,  and  in  a constrained  and  painful  position,  I had 
some  difficulty  in  copying  them.  The  stupidity  and  clumsiness,  moreover, 
of  the  Kurds,  who  had  never  aided  in  such  proceedings  before,  rendered  my 
attempts  to  reach  the  sculptures  somewhat  dangerous. 

The  inscriptions,  the  longest  of  which  contains  sixty-three  lines,  are  in 
many  respects  of  considerable  importance,  and  have  been  partly  translated 
by  Dr.  Hincks.  They  commence  with  an  invocation  to  Ashur  and  the 

* I examined  the  remarkable  tablets  at  the  Nahr-el-Kelb,  on  my  return  to  Europe 
in  1851.  They  were  sculptured,  as  I stated  in  my  first  work,  by  Sennacherib,  the 
king  of  the  Bavian  monuments.  The  only  inscription  partly  preserved  is  unfortu- 
nately so  much  injured  as  to  have  hitherto  defied  transcription.  The  tablets  are  seven 
in  number,  and,  as  it  is  well  known,  are  cut  upon  a rock  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nahr- 
el-Kelb  river,  adjoining  three  Egyptian  inscriptions  and  bas-reliefs  with  the  name  of 
Rameses. 


180 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IX. 

great  deities  of  Assyria,  the  names  of  only  eleven  of  whom  are  legible,  al- 
though probably  the  whole  thirteen  are  enumerated,  as  on  the  monuments 
from  Nimroud.  Then  follow  the  name  and  titles  of  Sennacherib.  -Next 
there  is  an  account  of  various  great  works  for  irrigation  undertaken  by  this 
king.  From  eighteen  districts,  or  villages,  he  declares  he  dug  eighteen 
canals  to  the  Ussur  or  Khusur  (?),  in  which  he  collected  their  waters.  He 
also  dug  a canal,  from  the  borders  of  the  town  or  district  of  Kisri  to  Nine- 
veh. and  brought  these  waters  through  it ; he  called  it  the  canal  of  Senna- 
cherib. No  traces  now  remain,  as  far  as  I know,  of  such  a canal,  unless 
the  bed  of  the  Khauser  (Ussur  ?)  was  deepened  by  this  king,  and  other  small 
streams  of  the  surrounding  country  led  into  it.  Then  the  Ussur  may  mean 
the  great  ditch  defending  the  inclosure  of  Kouyunjik  to  the  east,  through 
which  the  Khauser  now  flows.  If  such  he  the  case,  the  canal,  fed  by  the 
united  streams,  may  have  been  intended  for  defence  as  well  as  for  irriga- 
tion. Or  else  it  may  have  been  mainly  derived  from  the  Gomel  or  Ghazir, 
here  called  Ussur  (?),  and  carried  to  some  other  part  of  the  great  city. 
We  can  then  understand  why  the  execution  of  this  work  was  recorded  on 
the  rock-tablets  near  the  source  of  the  river.  However,  this  part  of  the  in- 
scription has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  interpreted,  and  may  hereafter  he 
found  to  contain  details  which  may  help  to  identify  the  site  of  these  artifi 
cial  water-courses. 

A long  obscure  passage  precedes  a very  detailed  account  of  the  expedi 
tion  to  Babylon  and  Kar-Duniyas  against  Merodach  Baladan,  recorded  un 
der  the  first  year  of  the  annals  on  the  Kouyunjik  bulls.*  After  mention- 
ing some  canals  which  he  had  made  in  the  south  of  Assyria,  Sennacherib 
speaks  of  the  army  which  defended  the  workmen  being  attacked  by  the 
king  of  Elam  and  the  king  of  Babylon,  with  many  kings  of  the  hills  and 
the  plains  who  were  their  allies.  He  defeated  them  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Kahlul  (site  undetermined).  Many  of  the  great  people  of  the  king  of 
Elam  and  the  son  of  the  king  of  Kar-Duniyas  were  either  killed  or  taken 
prisoners,  while  the  kings  themselves  fled  to  their  respective  countries. 
Sennacherib  then  mentions  his  advance  to  Babylon,  his  conquest  and  plun- 
der of  it,  and  concludes  with  saying,  that  he  brought  back  from  that  city 
the  images  of  the  gods  which  had  been  taken  by  Merodach-adakhe  (?), 
the  king  of  Mesopotamia,  from  Assyria  418  years  before,  and  put  them  in 
their  places.  A name  imperfectly  deciphered  is  given  as  that  of  the  king 
of  Assyria  of  that  day.  Dr.  Hincks  would  read  it  Shimishti-Pal-Bithkira, 
but  admits  that  the  last  element  in  particular  is  very  doubtful.  The  same 
name  is  found  in  the  inscriptions  of  Nimroud,  as  that  of  a predecessor  of 
the  buildar  of  the  north-west  palace,  as  also  in  an  inscription  of  the  time 
of  Tiglath  Pilesai;  or  Pul.  In  this  place  the  earlier  king  is  probably  intend- 
ed. Sennacherib,  after  his  victory,  appears  to  have  transported  the  inhab- 
itants of  Babylon  to  Arakhti  (?  the  river  Araxes),  but  the  whole  passage  is 


See  p.  118. 


SCULPTURES  AT  BAVIAN. 


l8l 


Chap.  IX.] 

doubtful,  owing  to  some  important  words  being  destroyed  in  the  three  in- 
scriptions. 

After  his  return  from  this  expedition  “ at  the  mouth  (?)  of  the  river  he 
had  dug  he  set  up  six  tablets,  and  beside  them  he  put  up  the  full  length 
(?)  images  of  the  great  gods.” 

Now,  the  importance  of  this  inscription,  presuming  it  to  be  correctly  in- 
terpreted, will  at  once  be  perceived,  for  it  proves  almost  beyond  a doubt, 
that  at  that  remote  period  the  Assyrians  kept  an  exact  computation  of 
time.  We  may  consequently  hope  that  sooner  or  later  chronological  ta- 
bles may  be  discovered,  which  will  furnish  us  with  minute  and  accurate 
information  as  to  the  precise  epoch  of  the  occurrence  oi  various  important 
events  in  Assyrian  history.  It  is,  indeed,  remarkable  that  Sennacherib 
should  mark  so  exactly  the  year  of  the  carrying  away  of  the  Assyrian  gods. 
This  very  date  enables  us,  as  will  hereafter  be  seen,  to  restore  much  of  the 
chronology,  and  to  place,  almost  with  certainty,  in  the  dynastic  lists,  a king 
whose  position  was  before  unknown. 

We  find  also  that  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  rock-sculp- 
tures were  executed  either  at  the  end  of  the  first,  or  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second,  year  of  the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  As  he  particularly  describes 
six  tablets,  it  is  probable  that  the  others  were  added  at  some  future  period, 
and  after  some  fresh  victory.  The  mention,  too,  of  the  transportation  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Babylon  to  so  remote  a locality  as  the  Araxes  is  highly 
interesting,  and,  if  the  translation  of  the  passage  may  be  relied  on,  we  may 
perhaps  trace  in  these  colonies  the  origin  of  those  Chaldaean  tribes  which 
Xenophon  and  Strabo  describe  as  still,  in  their  time,  inhabiting  the  same 
region.  When  the  whole  inscription  is  restored  we  shall  probably  obtain 
many  other  important  details  which  are  wanting  in  the  annals  of  Kouyun- 
jik,  and  in  the  records  of  the  same  period. 

Beneath  the  sculptured  tablets,  and  in  the  bed  of  the  Gomel,  are  two 
enormous  fragments  of  rock,  which  appear  to  have  been  torn  from  the  over- 
hanging cliff,  and  to  have  been  hurled  by  some  mighty  convulsion  of  nature 
into  the  torrent  below.  The  pent  up  waters  eddy  round  them  in  deep  and 
dangerous  whirlpools,  and  when  swollen  by  the  winter  rains  sweep  com- 
pletely over  them.*  They  still  bear  the  remains  of  sculpture.  One  has 
been  broken  by  the  fall  into  two  pieces.  On  them  is  the  Assyrian  Her- 
cules strangling  the  lion  between  two  winged  human-headed  bulls,  back  to 
back,  as  at  the  grand  entrances  of  the  palaces  of  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsa- 
bad.f  Above  this  group  is  the  king,  worshipping  between  two  deities,  who 
stand  on  mythic  animals,  having  the  heads  of  eagles,  the  bodies  and  fore 
feet  of  lions,  and  hind  legs  armed  with  the  talons  of  a bird  of  prey.  The 
height  of  the  whole  sculpture  is  24  feet,  that  of  the  winged  bull  8 feet  0 
inches. 

* It  was  at  this  spot  that  Mr.  Bell,  the  youthful  artist  sent  out  by  the  Trustees  of 
the  British  Museum,  was  unfortunately  drowned  when  bathing,  in  the  month  of  July, 
1851,  shortly  after  my  departure  from  Mosul.  t See  woodcut,  p.  116 


162 


NINEVEII  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chain  IX. 


Fallen  Rock-Sculptures  (Bavian). 

Near  the  entrance  to  the  ravine  the  face  of  the  cliff  has  been  scarped  lor 
some  yards  to  the  level  of  the  bed  of  the  torrent.  A party  of  Kurds  were 
hired  to  excavate  at  this  spot,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  narrow  val- 
ley. Remains  and  foundations  of  buildings*  in  well-hewn  stone  were  dis- 
covered under  the  thick  mud  deposited  by  the  Gomel  when  swollen  by 
rains.  Higher  up  the  gorge,  on  removing  the  earth,  I found  a series  of  ba- 
sins cut  in  the  rock,  and  descending  in  steps  to  the  stream.  The  water  had 
originally  been  led  from  one  to  the  other  through  small  conduits,  the  lowest 
of  which  was  ornamented  at  its  mouth  with  two  rampant  lions  in  relief. 
These  outlets  were  choked  up,  but  we  cleared  them,  and  by  pouring  water 
into  the  upper  basin  restored  the  fountain  as  it  had  been  in  the  time  of  the 
Assyrians. 

From  the  nature  and  number  of  the  monuments  at  Bavian,  it  would  seem 
that  this  ravine  was  a sacred  spot,  devoted  to  religious  ceremonies  and  to 
national  sacrifices.  When  the  buildings,  whose  remains  still  exist,  were 
used  for  these  purposes,  the  waters  must  have  been  pent  up  between  quays 
or  embankments.  They  now  occasionally  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  val- 
ley, leaving  no  pathway  at  the  foot  of  the  lofty  cliffs.  The  remains  of  a 
well-built  raised  causeway  of  stone,  leading  to  Bavian  from  the  city  of 
Nineveh,  may  still  be  traced  across  the  plain  to  the  east  of  the  Gebel  Mak. 
loub. 

The  place,  from  its  picturesque  beauty  and  its  cool  refreshing  shade  even 
in  the  hottest  day  of  summer,  is  a grateful  retreat,  well  suited  to  devotion 
and  to  holy  rites.  The  brawling  stream  almost  fills  the  bed  of  the  narrow 


Chap.  IX.] 


RETURN  TO  MOSUL. 


183 


Assyrian  Fountain  (Bavian). 


ravine  with  its  clear  and  limpid  waters.  The  beetling  cliffs  rise  abruptly 
on  each  side,  and  above  them  tower  the  wooded  declivities  of  the  Kurdish 
hills.  As  the  valley  opens  into  the  plain,  the  sides  of  the  limestone  mount- 
ains are  broken  into  a series  of  distinct  strata,  and  resemble  a vast  flight 
of  steps  leading  up  to  the  high  lands  of  central  Asia.  The  hanks  of  the 
torrent  are  clothed  with  shrubs  and  dwarf  trees,  amongst  which  are  the 
green  myrtle  and  the  gay  oleander,  bending  under  the  weight  of  its  rosy 
blossoms. 

I remained  two  days  at  Bavian  to  copy  the  inscriptions,  and  to  explore 
the  Assyrian  remains.  Hannah  the  overseer,  with  a party  of  poor  Nesto- 
rians,  who,  driven  by  want  from  the  district  of  Tkhoma,  chanced  to  pass 
through  the  valley,  was  left  to  clear  away  the  earth  from  the  lower  monu- 
ments, and  to  excavate  amongst  the  ruins.  No  remains  were  discovered  ; 
and  after  working  for  a few  days  without  results,  they  came  to  Mosul. 

Wishing  to  visit  the  Yezidi  chiefs,  I took  the  road  to  Ain  Sifni,  passing 
through  two  large  Kurdish  villages,  Atrush  and  Om-es-sukr,  and  leaving 
the  entrance  to  the  valley  of  Sheikh  Adi  to  the  right.  The  district  to  the 
north-west  of  Khinnis  is  partly  inhabited  by  a tribe  professing  peculiar  re- 
ligious tenets,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Shabbak.  Although  strange  and 
mysterious  rite#  are,  as  usual,  attributed  to  them,  I suspect  that  they  are 
simply  the  descendants  of  Kurds,  who  emigrated  at  some  distant  period  from 
the  Persian  slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  who  still  profess  Sheeite  doctrines. 


164 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  IX. 
Their  chief,  with 


They  may,  however,  be  tainted  with  Ali-Illahism.* 
whom  I was  acquainted,  resides  near  Mosul. 

"We  passed  the  night  in  the  village  of  Esseeyah,  where  Sheikh  Nasr  had 
recently  built  a dwelling-house.  I occupied  the  same  room  with  the  Sheikh, 
Hussein  Bey,  and  a large  body  of  Yezidi  Cawals,  and  was  lulled  to  sleep 
by  an  interminable  tale,  about  the  prophet  Mohammed  and  a stork,  which, 
when  we  had  all  lain  down  to  rest,  a Yezidi  priest  related  with  the  same 
soporific  effect  upon  the  whole  party.  On  the  following  day  I hunted  ga- 
zelles with  Hussein  Bey,  and  was  his  guest  for  the  night  at  Baadri,  return- 
ing next  morning  to  Mosul. 

* A creed  professed  by  several  tribes  in  Kurdistan  and  Louristan,  and  by  some  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Lebanon  range  in  Syria.  It  consists  main- 
ly in  the  belief,  that  there  have  been  successive  incarnations  of  the  Deity,  the  prin- 
cipal having  been  in  the  person  of  Ali,  the  celebrated  son-in-law  of  the  prophet  Mo- 
hammed. The  name  usually  given  them,  Ali-IUahi,  means  “believers  that  Ali  is 
God.”  Various  abominable  rites  have  been  attributed  to  them,  as  to  the  Yezidis,  An- 
syris,  and  all  sects  whose  doctrines  are  not  known  to  the  surrounding  Mussulman  or 
Christian  population. 


Hussein  Bey,  the  Chief  of  the  Yezidis,  and  his  Brother. 


The  Author’s  House  at  Nimroud. 


CHAPTER  X. 

VISIT  TO  KALAH  SHERGHAT  PREVENTED. VISIT  TO  SHOMAMOK. KASHAF. THE  HOWAR. 

A BEDOUIN. HIS  MISSION. DESCENT  OF  ARAB  HORSES. THEIR  PEDIGREE. RUINS  OF 

MOKHAMOUR. THE  MOUND  OF  THE  KASR. PLAIN  OF  SHOMAMOK. THE  GLA  OR  KALAH. 

XENOPHON  AND  THE  TEN  THOUSAND. A WOLF. RETURN  TO  NIMROUD  AND  MOSUL. 

DISCOVERIES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 

The  mound  of  Kalah  Sherghat  having  been  very  imperfectly  examined 
during  my  former  residence  in  Assyria,*  I had  made  arrangements  to  re- 
turn to  the  ruins.  All  my  preparations  were  complete  by  the  22nd  of 
February,  and  I floated  down  the  Tigris  on  a raft  laden  with  provisions 
and  tools  necessary  for  at  least  a month’s  residence  and  work  in  the  desert 
I had  expected  to  find  Mohammed  Seyyid,  one  of  my  Jebour  Sheikhs,  with 
a party  of  the  Ajel,  his  own  particular  tribe,  ready  to  accompany  me.  The 
Bedouins,  however,  were  moving  to  the  north,  and  their  horsemen  had  al- 
ready been  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kalah  Sherghat.  Nothing  would 
consequently  induce  the  Ajel,  who  were  not  on  the  best  terms  with  the 
Shammar  Arabs,  to  leave  their  tents,  and,  after  much  useless  discussion,  I 
was  obliged  to  give  up  the  journey. 

Awad,  with  a party  of  Jehesh,  had  been  for  nearly  six  weeks  exploring 
the  mounds  in  the  plain  of  Shomamok,  the  country  of  the  Tai  Arabs,  and 
had  sent  to  tell  me  that  he  had  found  remains  of  buildings,  vases,  and  in- 
scribed bricks.  I determined,  therefore,  to  make  use  of  the  stores  collected 
for  the  Kalah-Sherghat  expedition  by  spending  a few  days  in  inspecting  his 
excavations,  and  in  carefully  examining  those  ruins  which  I had  only  hast- 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  chap.  12. 


186 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  X. 


ily  visited  on  my  previous  journey.  I accordingly  started  from  Nimroud 
on  the  2nd  of  March,  accompanied  by  Hormuzd,  the  doctor,  and  Mr.  Hol- 
land. We  descended  the  Tigris  to  its  junction  with  the  Zab,  whose  waters, 
swollen  by  the  melting  of  the  snows  in  the  Kurdish  mountains,  were  no 
longer  fordable.  Near  the  confluence  of  the  streams,  and  on  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Zab,  is  the  lofty  mound  of  Keshaf.  This  artificial  platform  of 
earth  and  unbaked  bricks  rests  upon  a limestone  rock,  projecting  abruptly 
from  the  soil.  Its  summit  is  crowned  by  a stone  wall,  with  an  arched  gate- 
way facing  the  south — the  remains  of  a deserted  fort,  commanding  the  two 
rivers.  It  was  garrisoned  a few  years  ago  by  an  officer  and  a company  of 
irregular  troops  from  Baghdad,  who  were  able  from  this  stronghold  to  check 
the  inroads  of  the  Bedouins,  as  well  as  of  the  Tai  and  other  tribes,  who 
plundered  the  Mosul  villages.  Since  it  has  been  abandoned,  the  country 
has  again  been  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  these  marauders,  who  now  cross 
the  rivers  unmolested,  and  lay  waste  the  cultivated  districts.  I could  find 
no  relics  of  an  early  date,  nor  did  subsequent  excavations  lead  to  their  dis- 
covery. The  mound  is,  nevertheless,  most  probably  of  Assyrian  origin. 
From  the  remotest  period  the  importance  of  the  position,  at  the  confluence 
of  two  great  rivers,  must  have  led  to  the  erection  of  a castle  on  this  spot. 

The  tents  of  the  Howar  were  about  five  miles  from  Keshaf.  Since  my 
last  visit,  he  had  received  his  cloak  of  investiture  as  Sheikh  from  the  Pasha 
of  Kerkouk,*  and  was  once  more  the  acknowledged  chief  of  the  Tai.  Faras 
had,  however,  withdrawn  from  his  rival,  and,  followed  by  his  own  adher- 
ents, had  moved  to  the  banks  of  the  Lesser  Zab.  The  Shammar  Bedouins, 
encouraged  by  the  division  in  the  tribe,  had,  only  three  days  before  our 
visit,  crossed  the  Tigris  and  fallen  suddenly  upon  the  Kochers,  or  Kurdish 
wanderers,  of  the  Herki  clans.  These  nomades  descend  annually  from  the 
highest  mountain  regions  to  winter  in  the  rich  meadows  of  Shomamok. 
They  pay  a small  tribute  to  the  Tai  for  permission  to  pasture  their  flocks, 
and  for  protection  against  the  desert  Arabs.  The  Howar  was  consequently 
bound  to  defend  them,  and  had  sent  Saleh,  with  his  horsemen,  to  meet  the 
Shammar.  They  had  been  beaten,  and  had  lost  forty  of  their  finest  mares. 
The  Kurds  appear  to  have  little  courage  when  attacked  by  the  Bedouins 
in  the  plains,  although  they  can  oppose  the  rifle  to  the  simple  spear.  A 
large  number  of  them  had  been  slain,  and  several  thousand  of  their  sheep 
and  cattle  had  been  driven  across  the  Tigris. 

We  found  the  Howar  much  cast  down  and  vexed  by  his  recent  misfor- 
tunes. The  chiefs  of  the  tribe  were  with  him,  in  gloomy  consultation  over 

* The  great  pashalic  of  Baghdad,  formerly  one  of  the  most  important  and  wealthy 
in  the  Turkish  empire,  and  the  first  in  rank,  had  recently  been  divided  into  several 
distinct  governments.  It  once  extended  from  Diarbekr  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
was  first  curtailed  about  fifteen  years  ago,  when  Diarbekr  and  Mosul  were  placed  un- 
der independent  pachas.  Lately  it  has  been  reduced  to  the  districts  surrounding  the 
city,  with  the  Arab  tribes  who  encamp  in  the  neighbourhood ; Kerkouk,  Suleimani- 
yah,  and  Busrah  being  formed  into  separate  governments.  In  this  new  division  the 
Tai  were  included  within  the  pashalic  of  Kerkouk. 


TENTS  OF  THE  HOWAR. 


1S7 


Chap.  X.] 

their  losses.  A Bedouin,  wrapped  in  his  ragged  cloak,  was  seated  listlessly 
in  the  tent.  He  had  been  my  guest  the  previous  evening  at  Nimroud,  and 
had  announced  himself  on  a mission  from  the  Shammar  to  the  Tai,  to  learn 
the  breed  of  the  mares  which  had  been  taken  in  the  late  conflict.  His 
message  might  appear,  to  those  ignorant  of  the  customs  of  the  Arabs,  one 
of  insult  and  defiance.  But  he  was  on  a common  errand,  and  although 
there  was  blood  between  the  tribes,  his  person  was  as  sacred  as  that  of  an 
ambassador  in  any  civilised  community.  Whenever  a horse  falls  into  the 
hands  of  an  Arab,  his  first  thought  is  how  to  ascertain  its  descent.  If  the 
owner  be  dismounted  in  battle,  or  if  he  be  even  about  to  receive  his  death- 
blow from  the  spear  of  his  enemy,  he  will  frequently  exclaim,  “ 0 Fellan  ! 
(such  a one)  the  mare  that  fate  has  given  to  you  is  of  noble  blood.  She 
is  of  the  breed  of  Saklawiyah,  and  her  dam  is  ridden  by  Awaith,  a sheikh 
of  the  Fedhan”  (or  as  the  case  may  be).  Nor  will  a lie  come  from  the 
mouth  of  a Bedouin  as  to  the  race  of  his  mare.  He  is  proud  of  her  noble 
qualities,  and  will  testify  to  them  as  he  dies.  After  a battle  or  a foray, 
the  tribes  who  have  taken  horses  from  the  enemy  will  send  an  envoy  to 
ask  their  breed,  and  a person  so  chosen  passes  from  tent  to  tent  unharmed, 
hearing  from  each  man,  as  he  eats  his  bread,  the  descent  and  qualities  of 
the  animal  he  may  have  lost. 

Amongst  men  who  attach  the  highest  value  to  the  pure  blood  of  then 
horses,  and  who  have  no  written  pedigree,  for  amongst  the  Bedouins  docu- 
ments of  this  kind  do  not  exist,  such  customs  are  necessary.  The  descent 
of  a horse  is  preserved  by  tradition,  and  the  birth  of  a colt  is  an  event 
known  to  the  whole  tribe.  If  a townsman  or  stranger  buy  a horse,  and  is 
desirous  of  having  written  evidence  of  its  race,  the  seller,  with  his  friends, 
will  come  to  the  nearest  town  to  testify  before  a person  specially  qualified 
to  take  the  evidence,  called  “ the  cadi  of  the  horses,”  who  makes  out  a 
written  pedigree,  accompanied  by  various  prayers  and  formularies  from  the 
Koran  used  on  such  occasions,  and  then  affixes  to  it  his  seal.  It  would  be 
considered  disgraceful  to  the  character  of  a true  Bedouin  to  give  false 
testimony  on  such  an  occasion,  and  his  word  is  usually  received  with  im- 
plicit confidence. 

The  morning  following  our  arrival  at  the  tents  of  the  Howar  was  ush- 
ered in  by  a heavy  rain.  I thought  this  a good  opportunity  of  visiting  the 
ruins  of  Mokhamour,  as  the  Bedouins  rarely  leave  their  tents  on  plundering 
expeditions  in  wet  weather.  None  of  the  Tai,  however,  would  accompa- 
ny me.  They  still  dreaded  the  Shammar,  and  the  Howar  loudly  protested 
against  the  rashness  of  venturing  alone  into  the  plains  so  recently  overrun 
by  the  enemy.  Awad  professed  to  know  the  road,  and  accompanied  by 
Hormuzd  and  Mr.  B..,  I struck  across  the  low  hills  under  his  guidance. 

These  ruins,  of  which  I had  so  frequently  received  exaggerated  descrip- 
tions from  the  Arabs,  are  in  the  deserted  district  between  the  Karachok 
range  and  the  river  Tigris.  The  plains  in  which  they  are  situated  are 
celebrated  for  the  richness  of  their  pastures,  and  are  sought  in  spring  by 


188 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  X. 


the  Tai  and  the  Kurkish  Kochers.  Even  as  early  as  the  time  of  our  visit 
the  face  of  the  country  is  usually  covered  with  their  flocks  and  herds.  But 
the  dread  of  the  Shammar  had  now  scared  them  from  the  banks  of  the 
river,  and  they  had  migrated  to  the  inland  meadows,  further  removed  from 
the  forays  of  the  Bedouins.  From  the  tents  of  Howar,  on  the  low  undu- 
lating hills  forming  the  northern  spur  of  the  Karachok,  to  Mokhamour,  a 
distance  of  some  fifteen  miles,  we  did  not  see  a single  human  being. 

"We  kept  as  much  as  possible  in  the  broken  country  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  to  escape  observation.  The  wooded  banks  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
white  dome  of  the  tomb  of  Sultan  Abdallah  were  faintly  visible  in  the  dis- 
tance, and  a few  artificial  mounds  rose  in  the  plains.  The  pastures  were 
already  fit  for  the  flocks,  and  luxuriant  grass  furnished  food  for  our  horses 
amidst  the  ruins. 

The  principal  mound  of  Mokhamour  is  of  considerable  height,  and  ends 
in  a cone.  It  is  apparently  the  remains  of  a platform  built  of  earth  and 
sun-dried  bricks,  originally  divided  into  several  distinct  stages  or  terraces. 
On  one  side  are  the  traces  of  an  inclined  ascent,  or  of  a flight  of  steps, 
once  leading  to  the  summit.  It  stands  in  the  centre  of  a quadrangle  of 
lower  mounds,  about  480  paces  square.  I could  find  no  remains  of  ma- 
sonry, nor  any  fragments  of  inscribed  bricks,  pottery,  or  sculptured  alabaster 

The  ruins  are  near  the  southern  spur  of  Karachok,  where  that  mount- 
ain, after  falling  suddenly  into  low  broken  hills,  again  rises  into  a solitary 
ridge,  called  Bismar,  stretching  to  the  Lesser  Zab,  Mokhamour  being  be- 
tween the  two  rivers.  These  detached  limestone  ridges,  running  parallel 
to  the  great  range  of  Kurdistan,  such  as  the  Makloub,  Sinjar,  Karachok, 
and  Hamrin,  are  a peculiar  feature  in  the  geological  structure  of  the  coun- 
try lying  between  the  ancient  province  of  Cilicia  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Hog-backed  in  form,  they  have  an  even  and  smooth  outline  when  viewed 
from  a distance,  but  are  really  rocky  and  rugged.  Their  sides  are  broken 
into  innumerable  ravines,  producing  a variety  of  purple  shadows,  ever 
changing  and  contrasting  with  the  rich  golden  tint  of  the  limestone,  and 
rendering  these  solitary  hills,  when  seen  from  the  plain,  objects  of  great  in- 
terest and  beauty.*  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  but  scantily  wooded  with 
a dwarf  oak,  and  that  only  on  the  eastern  slope  ; their  rocky  sides  are  gen- 
erally, even  in  spring,  naked  and  bare  of  all  vegetation.  Few  springs  of 
fresh  water  being  found  in  them,  they  are  but  thinly  inhabited.  In  the 
spring  months,  when  the  rain  has  supplied  natural  reservoirs  in  the  ra- 
vines, a few  wandering  Kurdish  tribes  pitch  their  tents  in  the  most  shelter- 
ed spots. 

* I take  this  opportunity  of  mentioning,  with  the  praise  it  most  fully  deserves  as 
a work  of  art,  the  Panorama  of  Nimroud,  painted  and  exhibited  by  Mr.  Burford,  in 
which  the  Karachok  and  Makloub  are  introduced.  The  tints  produced  by  the  set- 
ting sun  on  those  hills  are  most  faithfully  portrayed,  and  the  whole  scene,  consider- 
ing the  materials  from  which  the  artist  worked,  is  a proof  of  his  skill  as  a painter, 
and  of  his  feeling  for  Eastern  scenery. 


RUINS  OF  SHOMAMOK. 


189 


Chap.  X.] 

Having  examined  the  ruins,  taken  bearings  of  the  principal  landmarks, 
and  allowed  our  horses  to  refresh  themselves  in  the  high  grass,  I returned 
to  the  encampment  of  the  Tai.  As  we  rode  back  we  spied  in  the  desert 
three  horses,  which  had  been  probably  left  by  the  Bedouins  in  their  retreat, 
and  were  now  quietly  grazing  in  the  pastures.  After  many  vain  efforts 
we  succeeded  in  driving  them  before  us,  and  on  our  arrival  at  the  tents  I 
presented  them  in  due  form  to  the  Howar,  who  was  rewarded,  by  this  un- 
expected addition  to  his  stud,  for  the  alarm  he  declared  he  had  felt  for  our 
safety  during  our  absence.  A ride  of  three  hours  next  morning,  across  the 
spurs  of  the  Karachok,  brought  us  to  the  ruins  of  Abou-Jerdeh,  near  which 
we  had  found  the  tents  of  Faras  on  our  last  visit.  The  mound  is  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  on  its  summit  are  traces  of  foundations  in  stone  mason- 
ry ; but  I could  find  no  remains  to  connect  it  with  the  Assyrian  period. 
The  eastern  base  is  washed  by  a small  stream  coming  from  the  Kordereh. 

We  breakfasted  with  our  old  host  Wali  Beg,  and  then  continued  our 
journey  to  one  of  the  principal  artificial  mounds  of  Shomamok,  called  the 
“ Kasr,”  or  palace.  The  pastures  were  covered  with  the  flocks  of  the 
Arabs,  the  Kochers,  and  the  Disdayi  Kurds.  A broad  and  deep  valley,  or 
rather  gully,  worn  by  a sluggish  stream  in  the  alluvial  soil,  crosses  the 
plain.  The  stranger  is  not  aware  of  its  existence  until  he  finds  himself 
actually  on  the  brink  of  the  lofty  precipices  which  hem  it  in  on  both  sides. 
Then  a long,  narrow  meadow  of  the  brightest  emerald  green,  studded  with 
flocks  and  tents,  opens  beneath  his  feet.  We  crossed  this  valley,  called 
the  Kordereh,  and  encamped  for  the  night  at  the  foot  of  the  Kasr,  on  the 
banks  of  a rivulet  called  As-surayji,  which  joins  the  Kordereh  below  Abou- 
Jerdeh,  near  a village  named  “ Salam  Aleik,”  or  “ Peace  be  with  you.” 

The  mound  is  both  large  and  lofty,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  remains  of 
an  earthen  embankment.  It  is  divided  almost  into  two  distinct  equal 
parts  by  a ravine  or  watercourse,  where  an  ascent  probably  once  led  from 
the  plain  to  the  edifice  on  the  summit  of  the  platform.  Above  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  buildings  stood  a modern  fort,  generally  garrisoned  by  troops 
belonging  to  the  Mutesellim  of  Arbil.  It  was  afterwards  inhabited  by 
some  families  of  the  Jehesh  tribe,  who  were  driven  away  by  the  exactions 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  Tai.  Awad  had  opened  several  deep  trenches  and 
tunnels  in  the  mound,  and  had  discovered  chambers,  some  with  walls  of 
plain  sun-dried  bricks,  others  panelled  round  the  lower  part  with  slabs  of 
reddish  limestone,  about  3|  or  4 feet  high.  He  had  also  found  inscribed 
bricks,  with  inscriptions  declaring  that  Sennacherib  had  here  built  a city,  or 

rather  palace,  for  the  name  of  which,  written  ^ — cannot  sug- 

gest a reading. 

I observed  a thin  deposit,  or  layer,  of  pebbles  and  rubble  above  the  re- 
mains of  the  Assyrian  building,  and  about  eight  feet  beneath  the  surface, 
as  at  Kouyunjik.  It  may  probably  have  been  the  flooring  or  foundation  of 
some  edifice  of  a more  recent  date  raised  above  the  buried  palaces.  I 


190 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  X. 


could  discover  no  traces  whatever  of  alabaster  in  the  ruins,  although  the 
material  is  common  in  the  neighborhood,  nor  could  I find  the  smallest 
fragment  of  sculptured  stone  which  might  encourage  a further  search  after 
bas-reliefs  or  inscriptions. 

From  the  summit  of  the  Kasr  of  Shomamok  I took  hearings  of  twenty- 
five  considerable  mounds,  the  remains  of  ancient  Assyrian  population  ;* 
the  largest  being  in  the  direction  of  the  Lesser  Zab.  Over  the  plain,  too. 
were  thickly  scattered  villages,  surrounded  by  cultivated  fields,  and  belong- 
ing to  a tribe  of  Kurds  called  Disdayi,  who  move  with  their  flocks  and 
tents  to  the  pastures  during  spring,  and  return  to  their  huts  in  the  summer 
to  gather  in  the  harvest  and  to  till  the  soil. 

Wishing  to  examine  several  ruins  in  the  neighbourhood,  I left  our  tents 
early  on  the  following  morning,  and  rode  to  the  mound  of  Abd-ul-Azeez 
about  eight  or  nine  miles  distant,  and  on  the  road  between  Baghdad  and 
Arbil.  The  latter  town,  with  its  castle  perched  upon  a lofty  artificial 
mound,  all  that  remains  of  the  ancient  city  of  Arbela,  which  gave  its  name 
to  one  of  the  greatest  battles  the  world  ever  saw,  was  visible  during  the 
greater  part  of  our  day’s  ride.  The  plain  abounds  in  villages  and  canals 
for  irrigation,  supplied  by  the  As-Surayji.  When  the  land  is  too  high  to 
be  watered  by  the  usual  open  conduits,  the  villagers  cut  subterranean  pas- 
sages like  the  Persian  Kanduks , which  are  frequently  at  a considerable 
depth  under  ground,  and  are  open  to  the  air  at  certain  regular  distances 
by  shafts  sunk  from  above.  The  soil  thus  irrigated  produces  cotton,  rice, 
tobacco,  millet,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  a few  vegetables.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Tai  Sheikh  ends  at  the  Kasr  ; the  villages  beyond  are  under  the 
immediate  control  of  the  governor  of  Arbil,  to  whom  they  pay  their  taxes. 
The  inhabitants  complained  loudly  of  oppression,  and  appeared  to  be  an 
active,  industrious  race.  Upon  the  banks  of  the  Lesser  Zab,  below  Altun 
Kupri  (or  Guntera,  the  “ Bridge,”  as  the  Arabs  call  the  place),  encamp  the 
Arab  tribe  of  Abou-Iiamdan,  renowned  for  the  beauty  of  its  women. 

The  mounds  I examined,  and  particularly  that  of  Abd-ul-Azeez,  abound 
in  sepulchral  urns  and  in  pottery,  apparently  not  Assyrian. 

The  most  remarkable  spot  in  the  district  of  Shomamok  is  the  Gla  (an 
Arab  corruption  of  Kalah),  or  the  Castle,  about  two  miles  distant  from  the 
Kasr.  It  is  a natural  elevation,  left  by  the  stream  of  the  Kordereh,  which 
has  worn  a deep  channel  in  the  soil,  and  dividing  itself  at  this  place  into 
two  branches  forms  an  island,  whose  summit,  but  little  increased  by  arti- 
ficial means,  is  therefore,  nearly  on  a level  with  the  top  of  the  opposite 
precipices.  The  valley  may  be  in  some  places  about  a mile  wide,  in  others 
only  four  or  five  hundred  yards.  The  Gla  is  consequently  a natural  strong- 
hold, above  one  hundred  feet  high,  furnished  on  all  sides  with  outworks 
resembling  the  artificial  embankments  of  a modern  citadel.  A few  isolated 
mounds  near  it  have  the  appearance  of  detached  forts,  and  nature  seems 

* The  names  of  the  principal  are  Tel-el-Barour,  Abbas,  Kadreeyah,  Abd-ul-Azeez, 
Baghurtha,  Elias  Tuppeh,  Tarkheena,  and  Doghan. 


Chap.  X.] 


RUINS  OF  SHOMAMOK 


191  ' 


to  have  formed  a complete  system  of  fortification  I have  rarely  seen  a 
more  curious  place. 

There  are  no  remains  of  modern  habitations  on  the  summit  of  the  Gla, 
which  can  only  be  ascended  without  difficulty  from  one  side.  Awad  ex- 


Awad,  Sheikh  of  the  Jehesh 


cavated  by  my  directions  in  the  mound,  and  discovered  traces  of  Assyrian 
buildings,  and  several  inscribed  bricks,  bearing  the  name  of  Sennacherib 

and  of  a castle  or  palace,  which,  like  that  on  the  bricks  from  the 

Kasr,  I am  unable  to  interpret.  It  is  highly  probable  that  a natural  strong- 
hold, so  difficult  of  access,  almost  impregnable  before  the  use  of  artillery, 
should  have  been  chosen  at  a very  early  period  for  the  site  of  a castle  Even 
at  this  day  it  might  become  a position  of  sortie  importance,  especially  as  a 
check  upon  the  Arabs  and  Kurds,  who  occasionally  lay  waste  these  rich 
districts  Numerous  valleys,  worn  by  the  torrents,  descending  from  the 
Karachok  hills,  open  into  the  Kordereh  They  have  all  the  same  character 
deep  gulleys,  rarely  more  than  half  a mile  in  width,  confined  between  lofty 
perpendicular  banks,  and  watered  during  summer  by  small  sluggish  rivu- 
lets. These  sheltered  spots  furnish  the  best  pastures,  and  are  frequented 
by  the  Disdayi  Kurds,  whose  flocks  were  already  scattered  far  and  wide 
over  their  green  meadows. 

From  the  Gla  I crossed  the  plain  to  the  mount  of  AbourSheetha,  in 
which  Awad  had  excavated  for  some  time  without  making  any  discovery 
of  interest.  Near  this  ruin,  perhaps  at  its  very  foot,  must  have  taken  place 
an  event  which  led  to  one  of  the  most  celebrated  episodes  of  ancient  his- 
tory. Here  were  treacherously  seized  Clearchus,  Proxenus,  Menon,  Agias. 


192 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  X. 


and  Socrates ; and  Xenophon,  elected  to  the  command  of  the  Greek  auxil- 
iaries, commenced  the  ever-memorable  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand.  The 
camp  of  Tissaphernes,  dappled  with  its  many-colored  tents,  and  glittering 
with  golden  arms  and  silken  standards,  the  gorgeous  display  of  Persian 
pomp,  probably  stood  on  the  Kordereh,  between  Abou-Sheetha  and  the 
Kasr.  The  Greeks  having  taken  the  lower  road,  to  the  west  of  the  Kar- 
achok  range,  through  a plain  even  then  as  now  a desert,*  turned  to  the 
east,  and  crossed  the  spur  of  the  mountain,  where  we  had  recently  seen  the 
tents  of  the  Howar,  in  order  to  reach  the  fords  of  the  Zab.  I have  already 
pointed  out  the  probability  of  their  having  forded  that  river  above  the 
junction  of  the  Ghazir,f  and  to  this  day  the  ford  to  the  east  of  Abou- 
Sheetha  is  the  best,  and  that  usually  frequented  by  the  Arabs.  Still  not 
openly  molested  by  the  Persians,  the  Greeks  halted  for  three  days  on  the 
banks  of  the  stream,  and  Clearchus,  to  put  an  end  to  the  jealousies  which 
had  broken  out  between  the  two  armies,  sought  an  interview  with  the 
Persian  chief.  The  crafty  Eastern,  knowing  no  policy  but  that  to  which 
the  descendants  of  his  race  are  still  true,  inveigled  the  Greek  commanders 
into  his  power,  and  having  seized  them  sent  them  in  chains  to  the  Persian 
monarch.  He  then  put  to  death  many  of  their  bravest  companions  and 
soldiers,  who  had  accompanied  their  chiefs.  The  effect  which  this  perfid- 
ious act  had  on  the  Greek  troops,  surrounded  by  powerful  enemies,  wan- 
dering in  the  midst  of  an  unknown  and  hostile  country,  betrayed  by  those 
they  had  come  so  far  to  serve,  and  separated  from  their  native  land  by  im- 
passable rivers,  waterless  deserts,  and  inaccessible  mountains,  without  even 
a guide  to  direct  their  steps,  is  touchingly  described  by  the  great  leader 
and  historian  of  their  retreat : “ Few  ate  anything  that  evening,  few  made 
fires,  and  many  that  night  never  came  to  their  quarters,  but  laid  them- 
selves down,  every  man  in  the  place  where  he  happened  to  be,  unable  to 
sleep  through  sorrow  and  longing  for  their  country,  their  parents,  their 
wives,  and  children,  whom  they  never  expected  to  see  again.”  But  there 
was  one  in  the  army  who  was  equal  to  the  difficulties  which  encompassed 
them,  and  who  had  resolved  to  encourage  his  hopeless  countrymen  to  make 
one  great  effort  for  their  liberty  and  their  lives.  Before  the  break  of  day, 
Xenophon  had  formed  his  plans.  Dressed  in  the  most  beautiful  armour 
he  could  find,  “ for  he  thought  if  the  gods  granted  him  victory  these  orna- 
ments would  become  a conqueror,  and  if  he  were  to  die  they  would  deco- 
rate his  fall,”  he  harangued  the  desponding  Greeks,  and  showed  them  how 

* Anab.  b.  ii.  c.  4.  It  is  remarkable  that  Xenophon  does  not  mention  the  Lesser 
Zab,  which  he  crossed  near  its  junction  with  the  Tigris.  The  Greeks  must  have 
followed  the  road  indicated  in  the  text,  and  not  that  to  the  east  of  the  Karachok,  now 
the  highway  between  the  two  rivers,  as  Xenophon  particularly  mentions  that  the  Ti- 
gris was  on  his  left,  and  that  he  saw,  at  the  end  of  the  first  day’s  journey,  on  its  op- 
posite bank,  a considerable  city  named  Caenae,  which  must  be  identified  with  Kalah- 
Sherghat,  as  there  are  no  other  ruins  to  mark  the  site  of  a large  place,  and  no  open 
ground  below  it  upon  which  one  could  have  stood.  The  distance  of  twenty  parasangs, 
or  five  days’  journey,  agrees  very  accurately  with  this  route.  t See  p.  51. 


XENOPHON’S  RETREAT 


193 


Ohap.  X.] 

alone  they  could  again  see  their  homes.  His  eloquence  and  courage  gave 
them  new  life.  Having  made  their  vows  to  the  eternal  gods,  and  singing 
pseans,  they  burnt  their  carriages,  tents,  and  superfluous  baggage,  and  pre- 
pared for  the  last  great  struggle.  The  sun  must  have  risen  in  burning 
splendor  over  the  parched  and  yellow  plains  of  Shomamok,  for  it  was  early 
in  the  autumn.  The  world  has  rarely  seen  a more  glorious  sight  than 
was  witnessed  on  the  banks  of  the  Zab  on  that  memorable  morning.  The 
Ten  Thousand,  having  eaten,  were  permitted  by  the  enemy,  who  were 
probably  unprepared  for  this  earnest  resistance,  to  ford  the  river.  Reach- 
ing the  opposite  bank  they  commenced  that  series  of  marches,  directed  with 
a skill  and  energy  unequalled,  which  led  them  through  difficulties  almost 
insurmountable  to  their  native  shores. 

Near  Abou-Sheetha,  too,  Darius,  a fugitive,  urged  his  flying  horses  through 
the  Zab,  followed  by  the  scattered  remnants  of  an  army  which  numbered 
in  its  ranks  men  of  almost  every  race  and  clime  of  Asia.  A few  hours  after, 
the  Macedonian  plunged  into  the  ford  in  pursuit  of  the  fallen  monarch,  at 
the  head  of  those  invincible  legions  which  he  was  to  lead,  without  almost 
a second  check,  to  the  banks  of  the  Indus.  The  plains  which  stretch  from 
the  Zab  below  Abou-Sheetha  have  since  been  more  than  once  the  battle- 
field of  Europe  and  Asia. 

I gazed  with  deep  interest  upon  the  scene  of  such  great  events — a plain, 
where  nothing  remains  to  tell  of  the  vast  armies  which  once  moved  across 
it,  of  European  valour,  or  of  Eastern  magnificence. 

We  had  expected  to  find  a raft  ready  for  us  near  Abou-Sheetha.  The 
raftmen,'  however,  having  chosen  a more  convenient  place  nearer  Negoub. 
we  had  to  follow  the  windings  of  the  river  for  some  miles,  crossing  the  mouth 
of  the  Kordereh,  which  joins  it  five  or  six  miles  below  Abou-Sheetha.  Whilst 
riding  through  the  jungle  a wolf  rose  before  me  from  its  lair,  and  ran  to- 
wards the  plain.  Following  the  animal,  I wounded  it  with  one  barrel  of 
my  pistol,  and  was  about  to  discharge  the  second,  when  my  horse  slipt  on 
some  wet  straw  left  by  a recent  encampment,  and  we  fell  together  upon 
the  wolf.  It  struggled  and  freed  itself,  leaving  me  besmeared  with  its  blood. 
The  cock  of  the  pistol  fortunately  broke  in  going  off  whilst  the  muzzle  was 
close  to  my  head,  and  I escaped  without  other  injury  than  a bruised  hand, 
the  complete  use  of  which  I did  not  recover  for  some  months. 

On  my  return  to  Nimroud,  I remained  there  a few  days  to  give  directions 
to  the  overseers  for  continuing  the  work  during  a prolonged  absence  which 
I meditated  in  the  desert.  On  a level  with  the  north-west  palace,  and  on 
the  south  side  of  the  high  pyramidal  mound,  some  chambers,  ornamented 
with  sculptures,  had  already  been  discovered,  and  it  was  chiefly  in  this  part 
of  the  ruins  that  the  excavations  were  now  carried  on ; but  I will  defer  an 
account  of  the  remarkable  monuments  existing  there  until  I can  describe 
the  entire  building  from  which  the  earth  was  removed  during  our  trip  to 
the  Khabour. 

At  Kouyunjik  several  new  chambers  had  been  opened.  The  western 

N 


194 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  X. 


portal  of  the  great  hall,  whose  four  sides  were  now  completely  uncovered,* 
led  into  a long  narrow  chamber  (eighty-two  feet  by  twenty-six),  the  walls 
of  which  had  unfortunately  been  almost  entirely  destroyed.!  On  such  frag- 
ments, however,  as  remained  were  traces  of  the  usual  subjects, — battles  and 
victories.  There  was  nothing  remarkable  in  the  dresses  of  the  captives,  or 
in  the  details,  to  give  any  clue  to  the  conquered  people,  whose  country  was 
simply  represented  by  wooded  mountains  and  a broad  river. 

In  the  chamber  beyond!  a few  slabs  were  still  standing  in  their  original 
places.  In  length  this  room  was  the  same  as  that  parallel  to  it,  hut  in 
breadth  it  was  only  eighteen  feet.  The  bas-reliefs  represented  the  siege  and 
sack  of  one  of  the  many  cities  taken  by  the  great  king,  and  the  transfer  of 
its  captives  to  some  distant  province  of  Assyria.  The  prisoners  were  dressed 
in  garments  falling  to  the  calves  of  their  legs,  and  the  women  wore  a kind 
of  turban.  Although  the  country  was  mountainous,  its  inhabitants  used  the 
camel  as  a beast  of  burden,  and  in  the  sculptures  it  was  represented  laden 
with  the  spoil.  The  Assyrians,  as  was  their  custom,  carried  away  in  tri- 
umph the  images  of  the  gods  of  the  conquered  nation,  which  were  placed 
on  poles  and  borne  in  procession  on  men’s  shoulders.  “Hath  any  god  of 
the  nations  delivered  his  land  out  of  the  hand  of  the  king  of  Assyria?”  ex- 
claimed the  Assyrian  general  to  the  Jews.  “Where  are  the  gods  of  Ha- 
math and  Arphad  ? where  are  the  gods  of  Sepharvaim  ?”$  They  had  been 
carried  away  with  the  captives,  and  the  very  idols  that  were  represented  in 
this  bas-relief  may  be  amongst  those  to  which  Rabshakeh  made  this  boast- 
ing allusion.  The  captured  gods  were  three,  a human  figure  with  out- 
stretched arms,  a lion-headed  man  carrying  a long  staff  in  one  hand,  and  an 
image  inclosed  by  a square  frame.  Within  a fortified  camp,  defended  by 
towers  and  battlements,  the  priests  were  offering  up  the  sacrifices  usual 
upon  a victory ; the  pontiff  was  distinguished  by  a high  conical  cap,  and, 
as  is  always  the  case  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  was  beardless.  By  his 
side  stood  an  assistant.  Before  the  altar,  on  which  were  some  sacrificial 
utensils,  was  the  sacred  chariot,  with  its  elaborate  yoke.  On  a raised  band, 
across  the  centre  of  the  castle,  was  inscribed  the  name  and  titles  of  feenna- 
cherib.ll 

On  the  northern  side  of  the  great  hall  the  portal  formed  by  the  winged 
bulls,  and  the  two  smaller  doorways  guarded  by  colossal  winged  figures,  led 
into  a chamber  one  hundred  feet  by  twenty-four,  which  opened  into  a further 
room  of  somewhat  smaller  dimensions. IT  In  the  first,  a few  slabs  were  still 
standing,  to  show  that  on  the  walls  had  been  represented  some  warlike  ex- 
pedition of  the  Assyrian  king,  and,  as  usual,  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  cam- 
paign. The  monarch,  in  his  chariot,  and  surrounded  by  his  body-guards, 
was  seen  receiving  the  captives  and  the  spoil  in  a hilly  country,  whilst  his 
warriors  were  dragging  their  horses  up  a steep  mountain  near  a fortified 

* No.  vi.  Plan  1.  t No.  ix.  Same  Plan.  t No.  x.  Same  Plan. 

§ Isaiah,  xxxvi.  18, 19. 

11  Plate  50.  2d  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


H Nos.  vii.  and  vui.  Plan  1 


BAS-RELIEFS  DESCRIBED 


195 


Chai\  X.] 

town,  driving  their  chariots  along  the  banks  of  a river,  and  slaying  with 
the  spear  the  flying  enemy.* * * § 

The  bas-reliefs,  which  had  once  ornamented  the  second  chamber,  had 
been  still  more  completely  destroyed.  A few  fragments  proved  that  they 
had  recorded  the  wars  of  the  Assyrians  with  a maritime  people,  whose  over- 
throw was  represented  on  more  than  one  sculptured  wall  in  the  palace,  and 
who  may  probably  be  identified  with  some  nation  on  the  Phoenician  coast 
conquered  by  Sennacherib,  and  mentioned  in  his  great  inscriptions.  Their 
galleys,  rowed  by  double  banks  of  oarsmen,  and  the  high  conical  head-dress 
of  their  women,  have  already  been  described.!  On  the  best  preserved 
slab  was  the  interior  of  a fortified  camp,  amidst  mountains.  Within  the 
walls  were  tents  whose  owners  were  engaged  in  various  domestic  occupa- 
tions, cooking  in  pots  placed  on  stones  over  the  fire,  receiving  the  blood  of  a 
slaughtered  sheep  in  ajar,  and  making  ready  the  couches.  Warriors  were 

seated  before  a table,  with  their  shields  hung 
to  the  tent-pole  above  them.  This  bas-relief 
may  confirm  what  I have  elsewhere  stated, 
that  the  Assyrians  were  accustomed  to  dwell 
in  tents  within  the  walls  of  their  cities,  as  a 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  many  Eastern 
towns  still  do ; though  it  is  more  probable  that, 
in  this  sculpture,  a fortified  camp  is  intended 
by  the  turretted  ground-plan.! 

To  the  south  of  the  palace,  but  part  of  the 
same  great  building,  though  somewhat  re- 
moved from  the  new  excavations,  and  adjoin- 
ing those  formerly  carried  on,  an  additional 
chamber  had  been  opened,  in  which  several 
bas-reliefs  of  considerable  interest  had  been  dis- 
covered. $ Its  principal  entrance,  facing  the 
west,  was  formed  by  a pair  of  colossal  human- 
headed lions,  carved  in  coarse  limestone,  so 
much  injured  that  even  the  inscriptions  on  the 
lower  part  of  them  were  nearly  illegible.  Un- 

fortunately  the  bas-reliefs  were  equally  muti- 

a captive  (of  the  Tokkari?)  Kou-  lated,  four  slabs  only  retaining  any  traces  of 
ynn^-  sculpture.  One  of  them  represented  Assyrian 

* Plate  29.  of  2d  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  128. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  243.  It  was  first  suggested  by  a recent 
writer  on  Nineveh,  and,  I think,  for  good  reasons,  that  these  ground-plans  of  fortifi- 
cations in  the  bas-reliefs  represent  a fortified  camp,  and  not  a city.  (“  Assyria,  her 
Manners  and  Customs,  &c.,”  p.  327  , by  Mr.  Goss, — a work  the  general  accuracy  of 
which  I take  the  opportunity  of  acknowledging.) 

§ No.  xxii.  Plan  1.  Some  of  the  slabs  had  been  originally  sculptured  on  the  face 
now  turned  to  the  wall  of  sun-dried  bricks,  but  they  had  not,  I think,  been  brought 


Bas-relief  from  Kouyunjik,  representing  fortified  City,  a River  with  a Boat  and  Raft,  and  a Canal. 

describing  belonged  to  them.  Unfortunately  no  epigraph,  or  vestige  of  an 
inscription,  remained  on  the  sculptures  themselves,  to  enable  us  to  identify 
them.f 

On  a second  slab,  preserved  in  this  chamber,  was  represented  a double- 
walled  city  with  arched  gateways  and  inclined  approaches  leading  to  them 
from  the  outer  walls.  Within  were  warriors  with  horses  ; outside  the  for- 
tifications was  a narrow  stream  or  canal,  planted  on  both  sides  with  trees, 
and  flowing  into  a broad  river,  on  which  were  large  boats,  holding  several 

from  any  other  building.  The  style  of  sculpture  was  similar  to  that  on  the  walls  of 
Kouyunjik,  and  it  is  most  probable  that  some  error  having  been  made  in  the  bas-re- 
lief, it  was  destroyed,  and  the  opposite  face  carved  afresh 

* See  p.  123.  t Plate  44.  2d  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


196 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  X. 


warriors  leading  captives,  who  differed  in  costume  from  any  other  conquer- 
ed people  hitherto  found  on  the  walls  of  the  palaces.  Their  head-dress 
consisted  of  high  feathers,  forming  a kind  of  tiara  like  that  of  an  Indian 
chief,  and  they  wore  a robe  confined  at  the  waist,  by  an  ornamented  girdle. 
Some  of  them  carried  an  object  resembling  a torch.  Amongst  the  enemies 
of  the  Egyptians  represented  on  their  monuments  is  a tribe  similarly  at- 
tired. Their  name  has  been  read  Tokkari,  and  they  have  been  identified 
with  an  Asiatic  nation.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  inscriptions  on  the 
bulls,  the  Tokkari  are  mentioned  amongst  the  people  conquered  by  Senna- 
cherib,* and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  captives  in  the  bas-reliefs  I am 


Bas-relief  representing  a River,  and  Gardens  watered  by  Canals  (Kouyunjik). 


198 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  X. 


persons,  and  a raft  of  skins,  bearing  a man  fishing,  and  two  others  seated 
' before  a pot  or  caldron.  Along  the  banks,  and  apparently  washed  by  the 
stream,  was  a wall  with  equidistant  towers  and  battlements.  On  another 
part  of  the  same  river  were  men  ferrying  horses  across  the  river  in  boats, 
whilst  others  were  swimming  over  on  inflated  skins.  The  water  swarmed 
with  fish  and  crabs.  Gardens  and  orchards,  with  various  kinds  of  trees, 
appeared  to  be  watered  by  canals  similar  to  those  which  oncp  spread  fer- 
tility over  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  and  of  which  the  choked-up  beds  still 
remain.  A man,  suspended  by  a rope,  was  being  lowered  into  the  water. 
Upon  the  corner  of  a slab  almost  destroyed,  was  a hanging  garden,  support- 
ed upon  columns,  whose  capitals  were  not  unlike  those  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  This  representation  of  ornamental  gardens  was  highly  curious.  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  bas-reliefs  had  sustained  too  much  injury 
to  be  restored  or  removed. 


Our  first  Encampment  in  the  Desert. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  A JOURNEY  TO  THE  KHABOUR. SCULPTURES  DISCOVERED  THERE. 

SHEIKH  SUTTUM. HIS  REDIFF. DEPARTURE  FROM  MOSUL. FIRST  ENCAMPMENT. ABOU 

KHAMEERA. A STORM. TEL  ERMAH. A STRANGER. TEL  JEMAL. THE  CHIEF  OF  TEL 

AFER. A SUNSET  IN  THE  DESERT. A JEBOUR  ENCAMPMENT. THE  BELLED  SINJAR. 

THE  SINJAR  HILL. MIRKAN. BUKRA. THE  DRESS  OF  THE  YEZIDIS. THE  SHOMAL. 

OSSOFA. ALDINA. RETURN  TO  THE  BELLED. A SNAKE-CHARMER. JOURNEY  CONTIN- 
UED IN  THE  DESERT. RISHWAN. ENCAMPMENT  OF  THE  BORAIJ. DRESS  OF  ARAB  WOM- 
EN.  RATHAIAH. HAWKING. A DEPUTATION  FROM  THE  YEZIDIS. ARAB  ENCAMP- 
MENTS.  THE  KHABOUR. MOHAMMED  EMIN. ARRIVAL  AT  ARBAN. 

I had  long  wished  to  visit  the  hanks  of  the  Khabour.  This  river,  the 
Chaboras  of  the  Greek  geographers,  and  the  Habor,  or  Chebar,  of  the  Sa- 
maritan captivity,*  rises  in  the  north  of  Mesopotamia,  and  flowing  to  the 
west  of  the  Sinjar  hill,  falls  into  the  Euphrates  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Carchemishf  or  Circesium,  still  known  to  the  Bedouins  by  the 
name  of  Carkeseea.  As  it  winds  through  the  midst  of  the  desert,  and  its 
rich  pastures  are  the  resort  of  wandering  tribes  of  Arabs,  it  is  always  difficult 
of  access  to  the  traveller.  It  was  examined,  for  a short  distance  from  its 
mouth,  by  the  expedition  under  Colonel  Chesney  ; but  the  general  course 
of  the  river  was  imperfectly  known,  and  several  geographical  questions  of 
interest  connected  with  it  were  undetermined  previous  to  my  visit. 

With  the  Bedouins,  who  were  occasionally  my  guests  at  Mosul  or  Nim- 
* 2 Kings,  xviii.  11.  Ezek.  i.  1.  t 2 Chron.  xxxv.  20. 


200 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


roud,  as  well  as  with  the  Jebours,  whose  encamping  grounds  were  origin- 
ally on  its  hanks,  the  Khabour  was  a constant  theme  of  exaggerated  praise. 
The  richness  of  its  pastures,  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  its  jungles  teeming 
with  game  of  all  kinds,  and  the  leafy  thickness  of  its  trees  yielding  an 
agreeable  shade  during  the  hottest  days  of  summer,  formed  a terrestrial 
paradise  to  which  the  wandering  Arab  eagerly  turned  his  steps  when  he 
could  lead  his  flocks  thither  in  safety.  Ruins,  too,  as  an  additional  attrac- 
tion, were  declared  to  abound  on  its  banks  and  formed  the  principal  induce- 
ment for  me  to  undertake  a long  and  somewhat  hazardous  journey.  I was 
anxious  to  determine  how  far  the  influence  of  Assyrian  art  and  manners  ex- 
tended, and  whether  monuments  of  the  same  period  as  those  discovered  at 
Nineveh  existed  so  far  to  the  west  of  the  Tigris.  During  the  winter  my 
old  friend  Mohammed  Emin,  Sheikh  of  one  of  the  principal  branches  of  the 
Jebour  tribe,  had  pitched  his  tents  on  the  river.  Arabs  from  his  encamp- 
ment would  occasionally  wander  to  Mosul.  They  generally  bore  an  invi- 
tation from  their  chief,  urging  me  to  visit  him  when  the  spring  rendered  a 
march  through  the  desert  both  easy  and  pleasant.  But  when  a note  ar- 
rived from  the  Sheikh,  announcing  that  two  colossal  idols,  similar  to  those 
of  Nimroud,  had  suddenly  appeared  in  a mound  by  the  river  side,  I hesita- 
ted no  longer,  and  determined  to  start  at  once  for  the  Khabour.  To  avoid, 
however,  any  disappointment,  I sent  one  of  my  own  workmen  to  examine 
the  pretended  sculptures.  As  he  confirmed,  on  his  return,  the  account  I 
had  received,  I lost  no  time  in  making  preparations  for  the  journey. 

As  the  Shammar  Bedouins  were  scattered  over  the  desert  between  Mo- 
sul and  the  Khabour,  and  their  horsemen  continually  scoured  the  plains  in 
search  of  plunder,  it  was  necessary  that  we  should  be  protected  and  ac- 
companied by  an  influential  chief  of  the  tribe.  I accordingly  sent  to  Sut- 
tum,  a Sheikh  of  the  Boraij,  one  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Shammar. 
whose  tents  were  at  that  time  pitched  between  the  river  and  the  ruins  of 
El  Hather.  Suttum  was  well  known  to  me,  and  had  already  given  proofs 
of  his  trustworthiness  and  intelligence  on  more  than  one  similar  occasion. 
He  lost  no  time  in  obeying  the  summons.  Arrangements  were  soon  made 
with  him.  He  agreed  to  furnish  camels  for  our  baggage,  and  to  remain 
with  me  himself  until  he  had  seen  my  caravan  in  safety  again  within  the 
gates  of  Mosul.  He  returned  to  the  desert  to  fetch  the  camels,  and  to 
make  other  preparations  for  our  journey,  promising  to  be  with  me  in  a few 
days. 

Punctual  to  his  appointment,  Sheikh  Suttum  brought  his  camels  to  Mo- 
sul on  the  19th  of  March.  He  was  accompanied  by  Khoraif,  his  rediff,  as 
the  person  who  sits  on  the  dromedary*  behind  the  principal  rider  is  called 
by  the  Bedouins.  Amongst  the  two  great  nomade  tribes  of  the  Shammar 
and  Aneyza,  the  word  “ rediff”  frequently  infers  a more  intimate  connee- 

* I use  the  word  “ dromedary”  for  a swift-riding  camel,  the  Deloul  of  the  Arabs, 
and  Hejin  of  the  Turks : it  is  so  applied  generally,  although  incorrectly  by  Europeans 
in  the  East. 


DEPARTURE  FOR  THE  DESERT. 


201 


Chap.  XI.] 

tion  than  a mere  companionship  on  a camel.  It  is  customary  with  them 
for  a warrior  to  swear  a kind  of  brotherhood  with  a person  not  only  not  re- 
lated to  him  by  blood,  but  frequently  even  of  a different  tribe.  Two  men 
connected  by  this  tie  are  inseparable  They  go  together  to  war,  they  live 
in  the  same  tent,  and  are  allowed  to  see  each  other’s  wives.  They  be- 
come, indeed,  more  than  brothers.  Khoraif  was  of  the  tribe  of  the  Aneyza, 
who  have  a deadly  feud  with  the  Shammar.  Having  left  his  own  kith 
and  kin  on  account  of  some  petty  quarrel,  he  had  joined  their  enemies,  and 
had  become  the  rediff  of  Suttum,  dwelling  under  his  canvass,  accompany- 
ing him  in  his  expeditions,  and  riding  with  him  on  his  deloul.  Although 
he  had  deserted  his  tribe,  Khoraif  had  not  renounced  all  connection  with 
his  kindred,  nor  had  he  been  cut  off  by  them.  Being  thus  allied  to  two 
powerful  clans,  he  was  able  to  render  equal  services  to  any  of  his  old  or 
new  friends,  who  might  fall  into  each  other’s  hands.  It  is  on  this  account 
that  a warrior  generally  chooses  his  rediff  from  a warlike  tribe  with  which 
he  is  at  enmity,  for  if  taken  in  war,  he  would  then  be  dakheel , that  is,  pro- 
tected, by  the  family,  or  rather  particular  sept,  of  his  companion.  On  the 
other  hand,  should  one  of  the  rediff’ s friends  become  the  prisoner  of  the  sub- 
tribe into  which  his  kinsman  has  been  adopted,  he  would  be  under  its  pro- 
tection, and  could  not  be  molested.  Thus  Khoraif  would  have  been  an  im- 
portant addition  to  our  party,  had  we  fallen  in,  during  our  journey,  with 
Aneyza  Arabs,  against  whom,  of  course,  Suttum  could  not  protect  us.  On 
warlike  expeditions  the  rediff  generally  leads  the  mare  which  is  to  be  rid- 
den by  his  companion  in  the  fight.  When  in  face  of  the  enemy  he  is  left 
in  charge  of  the  dromedary,  and  takes  part  in  the  battle  from  its  back. 
He  rides,  when  travelling,  on  the  naked  back  of  the  animal,  clinging  to 
the  hinder  part  of  the  saddle,  his  legs  crouched  up  almost  to  his  chin — a 
very  uncomfortable  position  for  one  not  accustomed  from  childhood  to  a 
hard  seat  and  a rough  motion. 

As  our  desert  trip  would  probably  last  for  more  than  two  months,  during 
which  time  we  should  meet  with  no  villages,  or  permanent  settlements,  we 
were  obliged  to  take  with  us  supplies  of  all  kinds,  both  for  ourselves  and 
the  workmen  ; consequently,  flour,  rice,  burghoul  (prepared  wheat,  to  be 
used  as  a substitute  for  rice),  and  biscuits,  formed  a large  portion  of  our 
baggage.  Two  enormous  boxes,  each  half  a camel-load,  were  under  the 
particular  protection  of  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  with  whom  they  became  a 
kind  of  hobby,  notwithstanding  my  repeated  protests  against  their  size  and 
inconvenience.  They  held  various  luxuries,  such  as  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  and 
spices,  with  robes  of  silk  and  cotton,  and  red  and  yellow  boots,  presents  for 
the  various  chiefs  whom  we  might  meet  in  the  desert.  Baskets,  tools  for 
excavating,  tents,  and  working  utensils,  formed  the  rest  of  our  baggage. 

I knew  that  I should  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  workmen  when  once 
in  Mohammed  Emin’s  encampment.  As,  however,  it  was  my  intention  to 
explore  any  ruins  of  importance  that  we  might  see  on  our  way,  I chose 
about  fifty  of  my  best  Arab  excavators,  and  twelve  Tiyari,  or  Nestorians, 


202 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


to  accompany  us.  They  were  to  follow  on  foot,  but  one  or  two  extra  cam- 
els were  provided  in  case  any  were  unable  from  fatigue  to  keep  up  with 
the  caravan.  The  camels  were  driven  into  the  small  Mussulman  burial- 
ground,  adjoining  my  house  in  Mosul.  The  whole  morning  was  spent,  in 
dividing  and  arranging  the  loads,  always  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
preparations  for  a journey  in  the  East.  The  pack-saddles  of  the  Bedouins, 
mere  bags  of  rough  canvass  stuffed  with  straw,  were  ill  adapted  to  carry 
anything  but  sacks  of  wheat  and  flour.  As  soon  as  a load  was  adjusted,  it 
was  sure  to  slip  over  the  tail,  or  to  turn  over  on  one  side.  When  this  dif- 
ficulty was  overcome,  the  animals  would  suddenly  kneel  and  shake  off  their 
burdens.  Their  owners  were  equally  hard  to  please  : this  camel  was 
galled,  another  vicious,  a third  weak.  Suttum  and  Khoraif  exerted  them- 
selves to  the  utmost,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  quarter,  together  with  stray 
passers-by,  joined  in  the  proceedings,  adding  to  the  din  and  confusion,  and 
of  course  considerably  to  our  difficulties.  At  length,  as  the  muezzin  called 
to  midday  prayer,  the  last  camel  issued  from  the  Sinjar  gate.  A place  of 
general  rendezvous  had  been  appointed  outside  the  walls,  that  our  party 
might  be  collected  together  for  a proper  start,  and  that  those  who  were 
good  Mussulmans  might  go  through  their  prayers  before  commencing  a 
perilous  journey. 

I did  not  leave  the  town  until  nearly  an  hour  and  a half  after  the  cara- 
van, to  give  time  for  the  loads  to  be  finally  adjusted,  and  the  line  of  march 
to  be  formed.  When  we  had  all  assembled  outside  the  Sinjar  gate,  our  party 
had  swollen  into  a little  army.  The  Doctor,  Mr.  Cooper,  and  Mr.  Hormuzd 
Rassam,  of  course,  accompanied  me.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Holland,  with  their  serv- 
ants, had  joined  our  expedition.  My  Yezidi  fellow-traveller  from  Constan- 
tinople, Cawal  Yusuf,  with  three  companions,  was  to  escort  me  to  the  Sin- 
jar, and  to  accompany  us  in  our  tour  through  that  district.  Several  J ebour 
families,  whose  tribe  was  encamped  at  Abou-Psera,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Khabour,  seized  this  opportunity  to  join  their  friends,  taking  with  them 
their  tents  and  cattle.  Thirteen  or  fourteen  Bedouins  had  charge  of  the 
camels,  so  that,  with  the  workmen  and  servants,  our  caravan  consisted  of 
nearly  one  hundred  well-armed  men  ; a force  sufficient  to  defy  almost  any 
, hostile  party  with  which  we  were  likely  to  fall  in  during  our  journey.  We 
had  about  five  and  twenty  camels  and  as  many  horses,  some  of  which  were 
led.  As  it  was  spring  time  and  the  pastures  were  good,  it  was  not  neces- 
sary to  carry  much  provender  for  our  animals.  Hussein  Bey,  the  Yezidi 
chief,  and  many  of  our  friends,  as  it  is  customary  in  the  East,  rode  with  us 
during  part  of  our  first  stage  ; and  my  excellent  friend,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Ford, 
an  American  missionary,  then  resident  in  Mosul,  passed  the  first  evening 
under  our  tents  in  the  desert.  / 

Suttum,  with  his  rediff,  rode  a light  fleet  dromedary,  which  had  been 
taken  in  a plundering  expedition  from  the  Aneyza.  Its  name  was  Dhwaila. 
Its  high  and  picturesque  saddle  wes  profusely  ornamented  with  brass  boss- 
es and  nails  ; over  the  seat  was  thrown  the  Baghdad  double  bags  adorned 


Chav  XI  ] 


SHEIKH  SUTTUM. 


203 


with  long  tassels  and  fringes  of  many-colored  wools,  so  much  coveted  by  the 
Bedouin.  The  Sheikh  had  the  general  direction  and  superintendence  of 
our  march.  The  Mesopotamian  desert  had  been  his  home  from  his  birth, 
and  he  knew  every  spring  and  pasture.  He  was  of  the  Saadi,  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  families  of  the  Shammar,*  and  he  possessed  great  personal 
influence  in  the  tribe.  His  intelligence  was  of  a very  high  order,  and  he 
was  as  well  known  for  his  skill  in  Bedouin  intrigue,  as  for  his  courage  and 
daring  in  war.  In  person  he  was  of  middle  height,  of  spare  habit,  but  well 


i i 


Sheikh  Suttum. 


made,  and  of  noble  and  dignified  carriage  ; although  a musket  wound  in 
the  thigh,  from  which  the  ball  had  not  been  extracted,  gave  him  a slight 
lameness  in  his  gait.  His  features  were  regular  and  well-proportioned, 
and  of  that  delicate  character  so  frequently  found  amongst  the  nomades  of 
the  desert.  A restless  and  sparkling  eye  of  the  deepest  black  spoke  the 
inner  man,  and  seemed  to  scan  and  penetrate  every  thing  within  its  ken. 

* An  Arab  tribe  is  divided  into  septs,  and  each  sept  is  composed  of  certain  fami- 
lies. Thus  Suttum  was  a Shammar,  of  the  branch  called  the  Boraij,  and  of  the  fam- 
ily of  the  Saadi,  besides  being  a member  of  a peculiar  division  of  the  great  tribe  called 
the  Khorusseh. 


.204 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


His  dark  hair  was  platted  into  many  long  tails  ; his  beard,  like  that  of  the 
Arabs  in  general,  was  scanty.  He  wore  the  usual  Arab  shirt,  and  over  it 
a cloak  of  blue  cloth,  trimmed  with  red  silk  and  lined  with  fur,  a present 
from  some  Pasha  as  he  pretended,  but  more  probably  a part  of  some  great 
man’s  wardrobe  that  had  been  appropriated  without  its  owner’s  consent. 
A colored  kerchief,  or  keffieh,  was  thrown  loosely  over  his  head,  and  con- 
fined above  the  temples  by  a rope  of  twisted  camel’s  hair.  At  his  side 
hung  a scimitar,  an  antique  horse-pistol  was  held  by  a rope  tied  as  a girdle 
round  his  waist,  and  a long  spear,  tufted  with  black  ostrich  feathers,  and 
ornamented  with  scarlet  streamers,  rested  on  his  shoulder.  He  was  the 
very  picture  of  a true  Bedouin  Sheikh,  and  his  liveliness,  his  wit,  and  his 
singular  powers  of  conversation,  which  made  him  the  most  agreeable  of 
companions,  did  not  belie  his  race.*  The  rest  of  my  party,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  workmen,  who  were  on  foot,  or  who  contrived  to  find  places 
on  the  loads,  and  spare  camels,  were  on  horseback.  The  Bairakdar  had 
the  general  management  of  the  caravan,  superintending,  with  untiring  zeal 
and  activity,  the  loading  and  unloading  of  the  animals,  the  pitching  of  the 
tents,  and  the  night  watches,  which  are  highly  necessary  in  the  desert. 

As  we  wound  slowly  over  the  low  rocky  hills  to  the  west  of  the  town  of 
Mosul,  in  a long  straggling  line,  our  caravan  had  a strange  and  motley  ap- 
pearance ; Europeans,  Turks,  Bedouins,  town-Arabs,  Tiyari,  and  Yezidis, 
were  mingled  in  singular  confusion  ; each  adding,  by  difference  of  costume 
and  a profusion  of  bright  colors,  to  the  general  picturesqueness  and  gaiety 
of  the  scene. 

The  Tigris,  from  its  entrance  into  the  low  country  at  the  foot  of  the 
Kurdish  mountains  near  Jezireh,  to  the  ruined  town  of  Tekrit,  is  separated 
from  the  Mesopotamian  plains  by  a range  of  low  limestone  hills.  We  rode 
over  this  undulating  ground  for  about  an  hour  and  a half,  and  then  de- 
scended into  the  plain  of  Zerga,  encamping  for  the  night  near  the  ruins  of 
a small  village,  with  a falling  Kasr,  called  Sahaghi,  about  twelve  miles 
from  Mosul.  The  place  had  been  left  by  its  inhabitants,  like  all  others  on 
the  desert  side  of  the  town,  on  account  of  the  depredations  of  the  Bedouins. 
There  is  now  scarcely  one  permanent  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 
from  Jezireh  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Baghdad,  with  the  exception  of  Mo- 
sul and  Tekrit.  One  of  the  most  fertile  countries  in  the  world,  watered  by 

* Burckhardt,  the  English  traveller  best  acquainted  with  the  Bedouin  character,  and 
admirably  correct  in  describing  it,  makes  the  following  remarks : “ With  all  their 
faults,  the  Bedouins  are  one  of  the  noblest  nations  with  which  I ever  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  becoming  acquainted.  . . . The  sociable  character  of  a Bedouin,  when  there 
is  no  question  of  profit  or  interest,  may  be  described  as  truly  amiable.  His  cheerful- 
ness, wit,  softness  of  temper,  good-nature,  and  sagacity,  which  enable  him  to  make 
shrewd  remarks  on  all  subjects,  render  him  a pleasing,  and  often  a valuable,  compan- 
ion. His  equality  of  temper  is  never  ruffled  by  fatigue  or  suffering.”  (Notes  on  the 
Bedouins,  pp.  203.  208.)  Unfortunately,  since  Burckhardt’s  time,  closer  intercourse 
with  the  Turks  and  with  Europeans,  has  much  tended  to  destroy  many  good  features 
in  the  Arab  character. 


ENCAMP  AT  SAHAGHI. 


205 


Chap.  XI.] 

a river  navigable  for  nearly  six  hundred  miles,  has  been  turned  into  a des- 
ert and  a wilderness,  by  continued  misgovernment,  oppression,  and  neglect. 

Our  tents  were  pitched  near  a pool  of  rain  water,  which,  although  mud- 
dy and  scant,  sufficed  for  our  wants.  There  are  no  springs  in  this  part  of 
the  plain,  and  the  Bedouins  are  entirely  dependent  upon  such  temporary 
supplies.  The  remains  of  ancient  villages  show,  however,  that  water  is  not 
concealed  far  beneath  the  surface,  and  that  wells  once  yielded  all  that  was 
required  for  irrigation  and  human  consumption. 

The  loads  had  not  yet  been  fairly  divided  amongst  the  camels,  and  the 
sun  had  risen  above  the  horizon  before  the  Bedouins  had  arranged  them  to 
their  satisfaction,  and  were  ready  to  depart.  The  plain  of  Zerga  was  car- 
peted with  tender  grass,  scarcely  yet  forward  enough  to  afford  pasture  for 
our  animals.  Scattered  here  and  there  were  tulips  of  a bright  scarlet  hue, 
the  earliest  flower  of  the  spring. 

A ride  of  three  hours  and  a quarter  brought  us  to  a second  line  of  lime- 
stone hills,  the  continuation  of  the  Tel  Afer  and  Sinjar  range,  dividing  the 
small  plain  of  Zerga  from  the  true  Mesopotamian  desert.  From  a peak 
which  I ascended  to  take  bearings,  the  vast  level  country,  stretching  to 
the  Euphrates,  lay  like  a map  beneath  me,  dotted  with  mounds,  but  other- 
wise unbroken  by  a single  eminence.  The  nearest  and  most  remarkable 
group  of  ruins  was  called  Abou  Khameera,  and  consisted  of  a lofty,  conical 
mound  surrounded  by  a square  inclosure,  or  ridge  of  earth,  marking,  as  at 
Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud,  the  remains  of  ancient  walls.  From  the  foot  of 
the  hill  on  which  I stood  there  issued  a small  rivulet,  winding  amongst 
rushes,  and  losing  itself  in  the  plain.  This  running  water  had  drawn  to- 
gether the  black  tents  of  the  Jehesh,  a half  sedentary  tribe  of  Arabs,  who 
cultivate  the  lands  around  the  ruined  village  of  Abou  Maria.  Their  flocks 
grazing  on  the  plain,  and  the  shepherds  who  watched  them,  were  the  only 
living  objects  in  that  boundless  expanse.  The  hill  and  the  stream  are  call- 
ed Mohallibiyah,  from  the  sweetness  of  the  water,  the  neighbouring  springs 
being  all  more  or  less  brackish.* 

As  the  caravan  issued  from  the  defile  leading  from  the  hills  into  the 
plain,  the  Arabs  brought  out  bowls  of  sour  milk  and  fresh  water,  inviting 
us  to  spend  the  night  in  their  encampment.  Eight  or  ten  of  my  workmen, 
under  a Christian  superintendent,  had  been  for  some  days  excavating  in 
the  ruins  of  Abou  Khameera.  I therefore  ordered  the  tents  to  be  pitched 
near  the  reedy  stream,  and  galloped  to  the  mounds,  which  were  rather 
more  than  a mile  distant. 

In  general  plan  the  ruins  closely  resemble  those  of  Mokhamour  in  the 
Tai  country .f  A broad  and  lofty  mound  shows  the  traces  of  several  dis- 
tinct platforms  or  terraces  rising  one  above  the  other.  It  is  almost  perpen- 

* There  is  a second  spring  of  fresh  water  called  Sheikh  Ibrahim,  beneath  a high 
rock  named  Maasoud.  The  whole  line  of  hills  bounding  the  plain  of  Zerga  to  the 
west  is  called  Kebritiyah,  “the  sulphur  range,”  from  a sulphurous  spring  rising  at 
their  feet.  In  this  range  are  several  remarkable  peaks,  serving  as  landmarks  from 
great  distances  in  the  desert.  t See  p.  187. 


206 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI 


dicular  on  its  four  sides,  except  where,  on  the  south-eastern,  there  appears 
to  have  been  an  inclined  ascent,  or  a flight  of  steps,  leading  to  the  summit, 
and  it  stands  nearly  in  the  centre  of  an  inclosure  of  earthen  walls  forming 
a regular  quadrangle  about  660  paces  square.  The  workmen  had  opened 
deep  trenches  and  tunnels  in  several  parts  of  the  principal  ruin,  and  had 
found  walls  of  sun-dried  brick,  unsculptured  alabaster  slabs,  and  some  cir- 
cular stone  sockets  for  the  hinges  of  gates,  similar  to  those  discovered  at 
Nimroud.  The  baked  bricks  and  the  pieces  of  gypsum  and  pottery  scat- 
tered amongst  the  rubbish  bore  no  inscriptions,  nor  could  I,  after  the  most 
careful  search,  find  the  smallest  fragment  of  sculpture.  I have  no  hesita- 
tion, however,  in  assigning  the  ruins  to  the  Assyrian  period. 

The  Jehesh  encamped  near  Abou  Khameera  were  under  Sheikh  Saleh, 
the  chief  of  this  branch  of  a tribe  scattered  over  the  pashalic,  and  once 
large  and  powerful.  They  pay  kowee,  or  black  mail,  to  the  Shammar  Be 
douins,  and  are  thus  able  to  pasture  their  flocks  free  from  molestation  in 
this  part  of  the  desert. 

One  of  those  furious  and  sudden  storms,  which  frequently  sweep  over  the 
plains  of  Mesopotamia  during  the  spring  season,  burst  over  us  in  the  night. 
Whilst  incessant  lightnings  broke  the  gloom,  a raging  wind  almost  drowned 
the  deep  roll  of  the  thunder.  The  united  strength  of  the  Arabs  could 
scarcely  hold  the  flapping  canvass  of  the  tents.  Rain  descended  in  tor- 
rents, sparing  us  no  place  of  shelter.  Towards  dawn  the  hurricane  had 
passed  away,  leaving  a still  and  cloudless  sky.  When  the  round  clear  sun 
rose  from  the  broad  expanse  of  the  desert,  a delightful  calm  and  freshness 
pervaded  the  air,  producing  mingled  sensations  of  pleasure  and  repose. 

The  vegetation  was  far  more  forward  in  that  part  of  the  desert  traversed 
during  the  day’s  journey  than  in  the  plain  of  Zerga.  We  trod  on  a carpet 
of  the  brightest  verdure,  mingled  with  gaudy  flowers.  Men  and  animals 
rejoiced  equally  in  these  luxuriant  pastures,  and  leaving  the  line  of  march 
strayed  over  the  meadows.  On  all  sides  of  us  rose  Assyrian  mounds,  now 
covered  with  soft  herbage.  I rode  with  Suttum  from  ruin  to  ruin,  examin- 
ing each,  but  finding  no  other  remains  than  fragments  of  pottery  and  baked 
bricks.  The  Bedouin  chief  had  names  for  them  all,  but  they  were  mere 
Arab  names,  derived  generally  from  some  local  peculiarity ; the  more  an- 
cient had  been  long  lost.  From  his  childhood  his  father’s  tents  had  been 
pitched  amongst  these  ruins  for  some  weeks  twice,  nearly  every  year  ; when 
in  the  spring  the  tribe  journeyed  towards  the  banks  of  the  Khabour,  and 
again  when  in  autumn  they  resought  their  winter  camping-grounds  around 
Babylon.  These  lofty  mounds,  seen  from  a great  distance,  and  the  best  of 
landmarks  in  a vast  plain,  guide  the  Bedouin  in  his  yearly  wanderings.* 

Tel  Ermah,  “ the  mound  of  the  spears,”  had  been  visible  from  our  tents, 

* The  following  are  the  names  of  the  principal  mounds  seen  during  this  day’s 
march : Ermah,  Shibbit,  Duroge,  Addiyah,  Abou-Kubbah,  and  Kharala,  each  name 
being  preceded  by  the  Arabic  word  Tel,  t.  e.  mound.  They  are  laid  down  in  the  map 
accompanying  this  volume,  their  positions  having  been  fixed  by  careful  bearings,  and 
in  some  instances  by  the  sextant. 


TEL  ERM-AH. 


207 


Chap.  XL] 

rising  far  above  the  surrounding  ruins.  As  it  was  a little  out  of  the  direct 
line  of  march,  Suttum  mounted  one  of  our  led  horses,  and  leaving  Khoraif 
to  protect  the  caravan,  rode  with  me  to  the  spot.  The  mound  is  precisely 
similar  in  character  to  Abou  Khameera  and  Mokhamour,  and,  like  them, 
stands  within  a quadrangle  of  earthen  walls.  On  its  south-eastern  side  also 
is  a ravine,  the  remains  of  the  ascent  to  the  several  terraces  of  the  building. 
The  principal  ruin  has  assumed  a conical  form,  like  the  high  mound  at 
Nimroud,  and  from  the  same  cause.  It  was,  I presume,  originally  square. 
Within  the  inclosure  are  traces  of  ancient  dwellings,  but  I was  unable  to 
find  any  inscribed  fragments  of  stone  or  brick. 

Whilst  I was  examining  the  ruins,  Suttum,  from  the  highest  mound,  had 
been  scanning  the  plain  with  his  eagle  eye.  At  length  it  rested  upon  a 
distant  moving  object.  Although  with  a telescope  I could  scarcely  distin- 
guish that  to  which  he  pointed,  the  Sheikh  saw  that  it  was  a rider  on  a 
dromedary.  He  now,  therefore,  began  to  watch  the  stranger  with  that 
eager  curiosity  and  suspicion  always  shown  by  a Bedouin  when  the  solitude 
of  the  desert  is  broken  by  a human  being  of  whose  condition  and  business 
he  is  ignorant.  Suttum  soon  satisfied  himself  as  to  the  character  of  the  sol- 
itary wanderer.  He  declared  him  to  be  a messenger  from  his  own  tribe, 
who  had  been  sent  to  lead  us  to  his  father’s  tents.  Mounting  his  horse, 
he  galloped  towards  him.  The  Arab  soon  perceived  the  approaching  horse- 
man, and  then  commenced  on  both  sides  a series  of  manoeuvres  practised 
by  those  who  meet  in  the  desert,  and  are  as  yet  distrustful  of  each  other. 
I marked  them  from  the  ruin  as  they  cautiously  approached,  now  halting, 
now  drawing  nigh,  and  then  pretending  to  ride  away  in  an  opposite  direc- 
% tion.  At  length,  recognising  one  another,  they  met,  and,  having  first  dis- 
mounted to  embrace,  came  together  towards  us.  As  Suttum  had  conject- 
ured, a messenger  had  been  sent  to  him  from  his  father’s  tribe.  The  Bo- 
raij  were  now  moving  towards  the  north  in  search  of  the  spring  pastures, 
and  their  tents  would  be  pitched  in  three  or  four  days  beneath  the  Sinjai 
hill-.  Suttum  at  once  understood  the  order  of  their  march,  and  made  ar 
rangements  to  meet  them  accordingly. 

Leaving  the  ruins  of  Tel  Ermah,  we  found  the  caravan  halting  near 
some  wells  of  sweet  water,  called  Marzib.  They  belong  to  a branch  of 
the  Jebours  under  Sheikh  Abd-ul-Azeez,  and  a few  patches  of  green  barley 
and  wheat  were  scattered  around  them,  but  the  tents  of  the  tribe  were  now 
nearer  the  hills,  and  the  cultivated  plots  were  left  unprotected. 

From  this  spot  the  old  castle  of  Tel  Afer,*  standing  boldly  on  an  eminence 
about  ten  miles  distant,  was  plainly  visible.  Continuing  our  march  we  reach- 
ed, towards  evening,  a group  of  mounds  known  as  Tel  Jemal,  and  pitched  in 
the  midst  of  them  on  a green  lawn,  enamelled  with  flowers,  that  furnished 
a carpet  for  our  tents  unequalled  in  softness  of  texture,  or  in  richness  of  col- 
or, by  the  looms  of  Cashmere.  A sluggish  stream,  called  by  the  Arabs  El 
Abra,  and  by  the  Turcomans  of  Tel  Afer,  Kharala,  crept  through  the  ruins. 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  313. 


208 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


The  tents  had  scarcely  been  raised  when  a party  of  horsemen  were  seen 
coming  towards  us.  As  they  approached  our  encampment  they  played  the 
Jerid  with  their  long  spears,  galloping  to  and  fro  on  their  well-trained 
mares.  They  were  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Tel  Afer  with  Ozair  Agha, 
their  chief,  who  brought  us  a present  of  lambs,  flour,  and  fresh  vegetables. 
The  Agha  rode  on  a light  chestnut  mare  of  beautiful  proportions  and  rare 
breed.  His  dress,  as  well  as  that  of  his  followers,  was  singularly  pictur- 
esque. His  people  are  Turcomans,  a solitary  colony  in  the  midst  of  the  des- 
ert ; and  although  their  connection  with  the  Bedouins  has  taught  them  the 
tongue  and  the  habits  of  the  wandering  tribes,  yet  they  still  wear  the  tur- 
ban of  many  folds,  and  the  gay  flowing  robes  of  their  ancestors.  They  al- 
low their  hair  to  grow  long,  and  to  fall  in  curls  on  their  shoulders. 

Ozair  Agha  was  an  old  friend,  who  had  more  than  once  found  refuge  in 
my  house  from  government  oppression.  He  now  sought  my  advice  and  pro- 
tection, for  he  was  accused  of  having  been  privy  to  some  recent  foray  of  the 
Bedouins,  and  was  summoned  to  Mosul  to  answer  the  charge,  of  which, 
however,  he  declared  himself  completely  innocent.  I urged  him  to  obey 
the  summons  without  delay,  to  avoid  the  suspicion  of  rebellion  against  the 
government.  I gave  him,  at  the  same  time,  letters  to  the  authorities. 

As  the  evening  crept  on,  I watched  from  the  highest  mound  the  sun  as 
it  gradually  sank  in  unclouded  splendour  below  the  sea-like  expanse  before 
me.  On  all  sides,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  rose  the  grass-covered  heaps 
marking  the  site  of  ancient  habitations.  The  great  tide  of  civilisation  had 
long  since  ebbed,  leaving  these  scattered  wrecks  on  the  solitary  shore.  Are 
those  waters  to  flow  again,  bearing  back  the  seeds  of  knowledge  and  of 
wealth  that  they  have  wafted  to  the  West  ? We  wanderers  were  seeking  * 
what  they  had  left  behind,  as  children  gather  up  the  colored  shells  on  the 
deserted  sands.  At  my  feet  there  was  a busy  scene,  making  more  lonely 
the  unbroken  solitude  which  reigned  in  the  vast  plain  around,  where  the 
only  thing  having  life  or  motion  were  the  shadows  of  the  lofty  mounds  as 
they  lengthened  before  the  declining  sun.  Above  three  years  before,  when, 
watching  the  approach  of  night  from  the  old  castle  of  Tel  Afer,  I had  count- 
ed nearly  one  hundred  ruins,*  now,  when  in  the  midst  of  them,  no  less  than 
double  that  number  were  seen  from  Tel  Jemal.  Our  tents  crowning  the 
lip  of  a natural  amphitheatre  bright  with  flowers,  Ozair  Agha  and  his  Tur- 
comans seated  on  the  greensward  in  earnest  talk  with  the  Arab  chief,  the 
horses  picketed  in  the  long  grass,  the  Bedouins  driving  home  their  camels 
for  the  night’s  rest,  the  servants  and  grooms  busied  with  their  various  la- 
bors ; such  was  the  foreground  to  a picture  of  perfect  calm  and  stillness. 
In  the  distance  was  the  long  range  of  the  Sinjar  hills,  furrowed  with  count- 
less ravines,  each  marked  by  a dark  purple  shadow,  gradually  melting  into 
the  evening  haze. 

We  had  a long  day’s  march  before  us  to  the  village  of  Sinjar.  The  wil- 
derness appeared  still  more  beautiful  than  it  had  done  the  day  before.  The 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  315. 


THE  BELLED  SINJAR. 


209 


Chap.  XL] 

recent  storm  had  given  new  life  to  a vegetation  which,  concealed  beneath 
a crust  of  apparently  unfruitful  earth,  only  waits  for  a spring  shower  to 
burst,  as  if  by  enchantment,  through  the  thirsty  soil.  Here  and  there  grew 
patches  of  a shrub-like  plant  with  an  edible  root,  having  a sharp  pungent 
taste  like  mustard,  eaten  raw  and  much  relished  by  the  Bedouins.  Among 
them  lurked  game  of  various  kinds.  Troops  of  gazelles  sprang  from  the  low 
cover,  and  bounded  over  the  plain.  The  greyhounds  coursed  hares  ; the 
horsemen  followed  a wild  boar  of  enormous  size,  and  nearly  white  from 
age  ; and  the  Doctor,  who  was  the  sportsman  of  the  party,  shot  a bustard, 
with  a beautiful  speckled  plumage,  and  a ruff  of  long  feathers  round  its 
neck.  This  bird  was  larger  than  the  common  small  bustard,  hut  appar- 
ently of  the  same  species.  Other  bustards,  the  great  and  the  middle-sized 
(the  Houbron  and  Houbara  of  the  Arabs*),  and  the  lesser,  besides  many 
birds  of  the  plover  kind,!  rose  from  these  tufts,  which  seemed  to  afford  food 
and  shelter  to  a variety  of  living  creatures.  We  scanned  the  horizon  in 
vain  for  the  wild  ass,  which  is  hut  thinly  scattered  over  the  plains.  The 
Arabs  found  many  eggs  of  the  middle  bustard.  They  were  laid  in  the  grass 
without  any  regular  nest,  the  bird  simply  making  a form  somewhat  like 
that  of  a hare,  and  sitting  very  close,  frequently  not  rising  until  it  was  near- 
ly trodden  under  foot.  One  or  two  eggs  of  the  great  bustard  were  also 
brought  to  me  during  the  day. 

We  still  wandered  amongst  innumerable  mounds.  The  largest  I exam- 
ined were  called  Hathail  and  Usgah.  They  resembled  those  of  Abou-Kha- 
meerah  and  Tel  Ermah,  with  the  remains  of  terraces,  the  ascent  to  them 
being  on  the  south-eastern  side,  and  the  inclosure  of  earthen  walls. 

We  rode  in  a direct  line  to  the  Belled  Sinjar,  the  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  district.  There  was  no  beaten  track,  and  the  camels  wander- 
ed along  as  they  listed,  cropping  as  they  went  the  young  grass.  The  horse- 
men and  footmen,  too,  scattered  themselves  over  the  plain  in  search  of 
game.  Suttum  rode  from  group  to  group  on  his  swift  deloul,  urging  them 
to  keep  together,  as  the  Aneyza  gazous%  occasionally  swept  this  part  of 
the  desert.  But  to  little  purpose  ; the  feeling  of  liberty  and  independence 
which  these  boundless  meadows  produced  was  too  complete . and  too  pleas- 
ing to  he  controlled  by  any  fear  of  danger,  or  by  the  Sheikh’s  prudent 
counsel.  All  shared  in  the  exhilarating  effects  of  the  air  and  scene.  Hor- 
muzd  would  occasionally  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Jehours,  and 
chant  their  war  songs,  improvising  words  suited  to  the  occasion.  The  men 
answered  in  chorus,  dancing  as  they  went,  brandishing  their  weapons,  and 
raising  their  bright-colored  kerchiefs,  as  flags,  on  the  end  of  their  spears. 
The  more  sedate  Bedouins  smiled  in  contempt  at  these  noisy  effusions  of 

* The  Houbron  is  the  Otis  tarda,  or  great  bustard ; the  Houbara,  the  Otis  Houbara. 
I believe  that  more  than  one  species  of  the  lesser  bustard  (Otis  tetrax)  is  found  in 
the  Mesopotamian  plains. 

t The  most  abundant  was  a large  grey  plover  called  by  the  Bedouins  “ Smoug.” 

X A plundering  party,  the  chappou  of  the  Persian  tribes. 

0 


210 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI 


joy,  only  worthy  of  tribes  who  have  touched  the  plough  ; hut  they  in 
dulged  in  no  less  keen,  though  more  suppressed,  emotions  of  delight.  Even 
the  Tiyari  caught  the  general  enthusiasm,  and  sung  their  mountain  songs 
as  they  walked  along. 

As  we  drew  near  to  the  foot  of  the  hills  we  found  a large  encampment, 
formed  partly  by  Jebours  belonging  to  Sheikh  Abd-ul-Azeez,  and  partly  by 
a Sinjar  tribe  called  Mendka,  under  a chief  known  as  the  “ EfFendi,”  who 
enjoys  considerable  influence  in  this  district.  His  tent  is  frequently  a place 
of  refuge  for  Bedouin  chiefs  and  others,  who  have  fled  from  successful  ri- 
vals, or  from  the  Turkish  authorities.  His  grandfather,  a Yezidi  in  creed, 
embraced  Mohammedanism  from  political  motives.  The  conversion  was 
not  consequently  very  sincere,  and  his  descendants  are  still  suspected  of  a 
leaning  to  the  faith  of  their  forefathers.  This  double  character  is  one  of 
the  principal  causes  of  the  Efiendi’s  influence.  His  tribe,  which  inhabits 
the  Belled  and  adjoining  villages  on  the  south  side  of  the  mountain,  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  Yezidis.  The  chief  himself  resides  during  the  win- 
ter and  spring  in  tents,  and  the  rest  of  the  year  in  a village  named  Soulak. 
The  Yezidis  of  the  Sinjar  are  divided  into  ten  distinct  tribes,  the  Heska, 
Mendka,  Houbaba,  Merkhan,  Bukra,  Beit-Khaled,  Amera,  A1  Dakhi,  Se- 
moki,  and  Kerani. 

I dismounted  at  a short  distance  from  the  encampment,  to  avoid  a breach 
of  good  manners,  as  to  refuse  to  eat  bread,  or  to  spend  the  night,  after 
alighting  near  a tent,  would  be  thought  a grave  slight  upon  its  owner. 
m The  caravan  continued  its  journey  towards  the  village.  I was  soon  sur- 
rounded by  the  principal  people  of  the  camp  ; amongst  them  was  one  of  my 
old  workmen,  Khuther,  who  now  cultivated  a small  plot  of  ground  in  the 
desert. 

It  was  with  difficulty  that  I resisted  the  entreaties  of  the  EfFendi  to  par- 
take of  his  hospitality.  We  did  not  reach  the  Belled  until  after  the  sun 
had  gone  down,  the  caravan  having  been  ten  hours  in  unceasing  march. 
The  tents  were  pitched  on  a small  plot  of  ground,  watered  by  numerous 
rills,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  ruins.  Although  almost  a swamp,  it  was  the 
only  spot  free  from  stones  and  rubbish.  In  front  of  the  tent  door  rose  a 
leaning  minaret,  part  of  a mosque,  and  other  ruins  of  Arab  edifices.  To 
the  right  was  an  old  wall  with  a falling  archway,  from  beneath  which 
gushed  a most  abundant  stream  of  clear  sweet  water,  still  retained  for  a 
moment  in  the  stone  basins  once  the  fountains  and  reservoirs  of  the  city. 

I had  scarcely  entered  my  tent  when  the  governor  of  the  district,  who. 
resides  in  a small  modern  castle  built  on  the  hill-side,  came  to  see  me.  He 
was  a Turkish  officer  belonging  to  the  household  of  Kiamil  Pasha,  and 
complained  bitterly  of  his  solitude,  of  the  difficulties  of  collecting  the  taxes, 
and  of  dealing  with  the  Bedouins  who  haunted  the  plains.  The  villages 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  mountain  were  not  only  in  open  rebellion  to  his 
authority,  but  fighting  one  with  the  other ; all,  however,  being  quite  of 
one  mind  in  refusing  to  contribute  to  the  public  revenues.  He  was  almost 


RUINS  O.F  THE  BELLED  SINJAR. 


211 


Chap.  XI.] 

shut  up  within  the  walls  of  his  wretched  fort,  in  company  with  a garrison 
of  a score  of  half-starved  Albanians.  This  state  of  things  was  chiefly 
owing  to  the  misconduct  of  his  predecessor,  who,  when  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Sinjar  were  quiet  and  obedient,  had  treacherously  seized  two  of  their 
principal  chiefs,  Mahmoud  and  Murad,  and  had  carried  them  in  chains  to 
Mosul,  where  they  had  been  thrown  into  prison.  A deputation  having 
been  sent  to  obtain  their  release,  I had  been  able  to  intercede  with  Kiamil 
Pasha  in  their  behalf,  and  now  bore  to  their  followers  the  welcome  news 
of  their  speedy  return  to  their  homes. 

The  tent  was  soon  filled  with  the  people  of  the  Belled,  and  they  remain- 
ed in  animated  discussion  until  the  night  was  far  spent. 

Early  on  the  following  morning,  I returned  the  visit  of  the  governor,  and, 
from  the  tower  of  the  small  castle,  took  bearings  of  the  principal  objects 
in  the  plain.  The  three  remarkable  peaks  rising  in  the  low  range  of 
Kebriteeyah,  behind  Abou  Khameera,  were  still  visible  in  the  extreme  dis- 
tance, and  enabled  me  to  fix  with  some  accuracy  the  position  of  many 
ruins.  They  would  be  useful  landmarks  in  a survey  of  this  part  of  the 
desert.  About  four  or  five  miles  distant  from  the  Belled,  which,  like  the 
fort,  is  built  on  the  hill-side,  is  another  large  group  of  mounds,  resembling 
that  of  Abou  Khameera,  called  by  the  Bedouins  simply  the  “ Hosh,”  the 
courtyard  or  inclosure. 

The  ruins  of  the  ancient  town,  known  to  the  Arabs  as  “ El  Belled,”  or 
the  city,  are  divided  into  two  distinct  parts  by  a range  of  rocky  hills,  which, 
however,  are  cleft  in  the  centre  by  the  bed  of  a torrent,  forming  a narrow 
ravine  between  them.  This  ravine  is  crossed  by  a strong  well-built  wall, 
defended  by  a dry  ditch  cut  into  the  solid  rock.  An  archway  admits  the 
torrent  into  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  which  appears  to  have  contained 
the  principal  edifices.  The  northern  half  is  within  the  valley,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  ruined  fortifications.  I could  find  no  traces  of  remains  of  any 
period  earlier  than  the  Mohammedan,  unless  the  dry  ditch  excavated  in  the 
rock  be  more  ancient ; nor  could  I obtain  any  relics,  or  coins,  from  the  in- 
habitants of  the  modern  village.  The  ruins  are,  undoubtedly,  those  of  the 
town  of  Sinjar,  the  capital  of  an  Arab  principality  in  the  time  of  the  Ca- 
liphs. Its  princes  frequently  asserted  their  independence,  coined  money, 
and  ruled  from  the  Khabour  and  Euphrates  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Mosul. 
The  province  was  included  within  the  dominions  of  the  celebrated  Saleh- 
ed-din  (the  Saladin  of  the  Crusades),  and  was  more  than  once  visited  by 
him. 

The  ruins  of  Sinjar  are  also  believed  to  represent  the  Singara  of  the  Ro- 
mans. On  coins  struck  under  the  Emperor  Gordian,  and  bearing  his  effigy 
with  that  of  the  Empress  Tranquillina,  this  city  is  represented  by  a female 
wearing  a mural  crown  surmounted  by  a centaur,  seated  on  a hill  with  a 
river  at  her  feet  (?).*  According  to  the  Arab  geographers,  the  Sinjar  was 

* There  were  also  coins  of  Alexander  Severus,  struck  in  Singara.  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked that,  in  consequence  of  considerable  discrepancies  in  the  accounts  of  ancient 


212 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


celebrated  for  its  palms.  This  tree  is  no  longer  found  there,  nor  does  it 
bear  fruit,  I believe,  anywhere  to  the  north  of  Tekrit  in  Mesopotamia. 


Roman  Coin  of  Gordian  and  Tranquillina,  struck  at  Singara  (British  Museum). 


Wishing  to  visit  the  villages  of  the  Shomal,  or  northern  side  of  the  mount- 
ain, and  at  the  same  time  to  put  an  end,  if  possible,  to  the  bloodshed  be- 
tween their  inhabitants,  and  to  induce  them  to  submit  to  the  governor,  I 
quitted  the  Belled  in  the  afternoon,  accompanied  by  Cawal  Yusuf  and  his 
Yezidi  companions,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  R.,  the  Doctor,  and  Mr.  Cooper.  The 
tents,  baggage,  and  workmen  were  left  under  the  charge  of  the  Bairak- 
dar.  Suttum  went  to  his  tribe  to  make  further  arrangements  for  our  jour- 
ney to  the  Khabour. 

We  followed  a precipitous  pathway  along  the  hill-side  to  Mirkan,  the 
village  destroyed  by  Tahyar  Pasha  on  my  first  visit  to  the  Sinjar.*  This 
part  of  the  mountain  is  coated  with  thin  strata  of  a white  fossiliferous  lime- 
stone, which  detach  themselves  in  enormous  flakes,  and  fall  into  the  val- 
leys and  ravines,  leaving  an  endless  variety  of  singular  forms  in  the  rocks 
above.  In  some  places  the  declivities  are  broken  into  stupendous  flights 
of  steps,  in  others  they  have  the  columnar  appearance  of  basalt.  This 
limestone  produces  scarcely  a blade  of  vegetation,  and  its  milk-white  color, 
throwing  back  the  intense  glare  of  the  sun’s  rays,  is  both  painful  and  hurt- 
ful to  the  sight. 

Mirkan  was  in  open  rebellion,  and  had  refused  both  to  pay  taxes  and  to 
receive  the  officer  of  the  Pasha  of  Mosul.  I was,  at  first,  somewhat  doubt- 
ful of  our  reception.  Esau,  the  chief,  came  out,  however,  to  meet  me,  and 
led  us  to  his  house.  We  were  soon  surrounded  by  the  principal  men  of  the 
village.  They  were  also  at  war  with  the  tribes  of  the  “ Shomal.”  A few 
days  before  they  had  fought  with  the  loss  of  several  men  on  both  sides 
Seconded  by  Cawal  Yusuf,  I endeavored  to  make  them  feel  that  peace  and 
union  amongst  themselves  was  not  only  essential  to  their  own  welfare,  but 
to  that  of  the  Yezidis  of  Kurdistan  and  Armenia,  who  had,  at  length,  re- 
ceived a promise  of  protection  from  the  Turkish  government,  and  who 

geographers,  several  authors  have  been  inclined  to  believe  that  there  were  two  cities 
of  the  same  name ; one,  according  to  Ptolemy,  on  the  Tigris,  the  other  under  the 
mountain.  It  was  long  a place  of  contention  between  the  Romans  and  Parthians. 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  317. 


VILLAGES  OF  THE  SINJAR. 


213 


Chap.  XI.] 

would  suffer  for  their  misdeeds.  After  a lengthened  discussion  the  chief 
consented  to  accompany  me  to  the  neighbouring  village  of  Bukra,  with  whose 
inhabitants  his  people  had  been  for  some  time  at  war. 

Mirkan  had  been  partly  rebuilt  since  its  destruction  three  years  before ; 
but  the  ruins  and  charred  timbers  of  houses  still  occupied  much  of  its  for- 
mer site.  We  crossed  the  entrance  to  the  ravine  filled  with  caverns  into 
which  the  Yezidis  had  taken  refuge,  when  they  made  the  successful  de- 
fence I have  elsewhere  described. 

There  are  two  pathways  from  Mirkan  to  the  “ Shomal,”  one  winding 
through  narrow  valleys,  the  other  crossing  the  shoulder  of  the  mountain.  I 
chose  the  latter,  as  it  enabled  me  to  obtain  an  extensive  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  to  take  bearings  of  many  points  of  interest.  The 
slopes  around  the  villages  are  most  industriously  and  carefully  cultivated. 
Earth,  collected  with  great  labor,  is  spread  over  terraces,  supported  by  walls 
of  loose  stones,  as  on  the  declivities  of  Mount  Lebanon.  These  stages,  ris- 
ing one  above  the  other,  are  planted  with  fig-trees,  between  which  is  occa- 
sionally raised  a scanty  crop  of  wheat  or  barley.  The  neatness  of  these 
terraced  plots  conveys  a very  favorable  impression  of  the  industry  of  the 
Yezidis. 

Near  the  crest  of  the  hill  we  passed  a white  conical  building,  shaded  by 
a grove  of  trees.  It  was  the  tomb  of  the  father  of  Murad,  one  of  Yusuf’s 
companions,  a Cawal  of  note,  who  had  died  near  the  spot  of  the  plague  some 
years  before.  The  walls  were  hung  with  the  horns  of  sheep,  slain  in  sacri- 
fice, by  occasional  pilgrims. 

I had  little  anticipated  the  beauty  and  extent  of  the  view  which  opened 
round  us  on  the  top  of  the  pass.  The  Sinjar  hill  is  a solitary  ridge  rising 
abruptly  in  the  midst  of  the  desert ; from  its  summit,  therefore,  the  eye 
ranges  on  one  side  over  the  vast  level  wilderness  stretching  to  the  Euphrates, 
and  on  the  other  over  the  plain  bounded  by  the  Tigris  and  the  lofty  mount- 
ains of  Kurdistan.  Nisibin  and  Mardintwere  both  visible  in  the  distance.  I 
could  distinguish  the  hills  of  Baadri  and  Sheikh  Adi,  and  many  well-known 
peaks  of  the  Kurdish  Alps.  Behind  the  lower  ranges,  each  distinctly 
marked  by  its  sharp,  serrated  outline,  were  the  snow-covered  heights  of 
Tiyari  and  Bohtan.  Whilst  to  the  south  of  the  Sinjar  artificial  mounds  ap- 
peared to  abound,  to  the  north  I could  distinguish  but  few  such  remains. 
We  dismounted  to  gaze  upon  this  truly  magnificent  scene  lighted  up  by 
the  setting  sun.  I have  rarely  seen  any  prospect  more  impressive  than 
these  boundless  plains  viewed  from  a considerable  elevation.  Besides  the 
idtfa  of  vastness  they  convey,  the  light  and  shade  of  passing  clouds  flitting 
over  the  face  of  the  land,  and  the  shadows  as  they  lengthen  towards  the 
close  of  day,  produce  constantly  changing  effects  of  singular  variety  and 
beauty.* 

* The  traveller  who  has  looked  down  fromMardin,  for  the  first  time,  upon  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia,  can  never  forget  the  impression  which  that  singular  scene  must  have 
made  upon  him.  The  view  from  the  Sinjar  hill  is  far  more  beautiful  and  varied. 


214  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XI 

It  was  night  before  we  reached  Bukra,  where  we  were  welcomed  with 
great  hospitality.  The  best  house  in  the  village  had  been  made  ready  for 
us,  and  was  scrupulously  neat  and  clean,  as  the  houses  of  the  Yezidis  usually 
are.  It  was  curiously  built,  being  divided  into  three  principal  rooms,  open- 
ing one  into  the  other.  They  were  separated  by  a wall  about  six  feet  high, 
upon  which  were  placed  wooden  pillars  supporting  the  ceiling.  The  roof 
rested  on  trunks  of  trees,  raised  on  rude  stone  pedestals  at  regular  intervals 
in  the  centre  chamber,  which  was  open  on  one  side  to  the  air,  like  a Per- 
sian Iwan.  The  sides  of  the  rooms  were  honeycombed  with  small  recesses 
like  pigeon-holes,  tastefully  arranged.  The  whole  was  plastered  with  the 
whitest  plaster,  fancy  designs  in  bright  red  being  introduced  here  and  there, 
and  giving  the  interior  of  the  house  a very  original  appearance. 


Interior  of  a Yezidi  House  at  Bukra,  in  the  Sinjar. 

The  elders  of  Bukra  came  to  me  after  we  had  dined,  and  seated  them- 
selves respectfully  and  decorously  round  the  room.  They  were  not  averse 
to  the  reconciliation  I proposed,  received  the  hostile  chief  without  hesita- 
tion, and  promised  to  accompany  me  on  the  morrow  to  the  adjoining  village 
of  Ossofa,  with  which  they  were  also  at  war.  Amongst  those  who  had  fol- 
lowed us  was  an  active  and  intelligent  youth,  one  of  the  defenders  of  the 
caverns  when  the  Turkish  troops  under  Tahyar  Pasha  attacked  Mirkan. 
He  related  with  great  spirit  and  zest  the  particulars  of  the  affair,  and  as- 


RECEPTION  AT  BUKRA. 


215 


Chap.  XI.] 

sured  me  that  he  had  killed  several  men  with  his  own  gun.  He  was  then 
but  a hoy,  and  it  was  the  first  time  he  had  seen  war.  His  father,  he  said, 
placed  a rifle  in  his  hand,  and  pointing  to  a soldier  who  was  scaling  the  rocks 
exclaimed,  “ How,  show  me  whether  thou  art  a man,  and  worthy  of  me. 
Shoot  that  enemy  of  our  faith,  or  I will  shoot  you !”  He  fired,  and  the  as- 
sailant rolled  back  into  the  ravine. 

In  the  morning  we  visited  several  houses  in  the  village.  They  were  all 
built  on  the  same  plan,  and  were  equally  neat  and  clean.  The  women  re- 
ceived us  without  concealing  their  faces,  which  are,  however,  far  from  pleas- 
ing, their  features  being  irregular,  and  their  complexion  sallow.  Those  who 
are  married  dress  entirely  in  white,  with  a white  kerchief  under  their  chins, 
and  another  over  their  heads  held  by  the  agal , or  woollen  cord,  of  the  Be- 
douins. The  girls  wear  white  shirts  and  drawers,  hut  over  them  colored 
zabouns , or  long  silk  dresses,  open  in  front,  and  confined  at  the  waist  by  a 
girdle  ornamented  with  pieces  of  silver.  They  twist  gay  kerchiefs  round 
their  heads,  and  adorn  themselves  with  coins,  and  glass  and  amber  beads, 
when  their  parents  are  able  to  procure  them.  But  the  Yezidis  of  the  Sin- 
jar  are  now  very  poor,  and  nearly  all  the  trinkets  of  the  women  have  long 
since  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Turkish  soldiery,  or  have  been  sold  to  pay 
taxes  and  arbitrary  fines.  The  men  have  a dark  complexion,  black  and 
piercing  eyes,  and  frequently  a fierce  and  forbidding  countenance.  They 
are  of  small  stature,  but  have  well-proportioned  limbs  strongly  knit  together, 
and  are  muscular,  active,  and  capable  of  bearing  great  fatigue.  Their  dress 
consists  of  a shirt,  loose  trowsers  and  cloak,  all  white,  and  a black  turban, 
from  beneath  which  their  hair  falls  in  ringlets.  Their  long  rifles  are  rarely 
out  of  their  hands,  and  they  carry  pistols  in  their  girdle,  a sword  at  their 
side,  and  a row  of  cartouche  cases,  generally  made  of  cut  reeds,  on  their 
breast.  These  additions  to  their  costume,  and  their  swarthy  features,  give 
them  a peculiar  look  of  ferocity,  which,  according  to  some,  is  not  belied  by 
their  characters. 

The  Yezidis  are,  by  one  of  their  religious  laws,  forbidden  to  wear  the  com- 
mon Eastern  shirt  open  in  front,  and  this  article  of  their  dress  is  always 
closed  up  to  the  neck.  This  is  a distinctive  mark  of  the  sect  by  which  its 
members  may  be  recognised  at  a glance.  The  language  of  the  people  of  Sin- 
jar  is  Kurdish,  and  few  speak  Arabic.  According  to  their  traditions  they 
are  the  descendants  of  a colony  from  the  north  of  Syria,  which  settled  in 
Mesopotamia  at  a comparatively  recent  period,  but  I could  obtain  no  posi- 
tive information  on  the  subject.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  they  did  not 
migrate  to  their  present  seats  before  the  fall  of  the  Arab  principality,  and 
the  invasion  of  Timourleng,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  north  side  of  the  mountain  is  thickly  inhabited,  and  well  cultivated 
as  far  as  the  scanty  soil  will  permit.  Scarcely  three  quarters  of  a mile  to 
the  west  of  Bukra  is  the  village  of  Naksi,  the  interval  between  the  two  be- 
ing occupied  by  terraces  planted  with  fig-trees.  We  did  not  stop,  although 
the  inhabitants  came  out  to  meet  us,  but  rode  on  to  Ossofa,  or  Usifa,  only 


216 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[CHA*.  XI 


separated  from  Naksi  by  a rocky  valley.  The  people  of  this  village  were 
at  war  with  their  neighbours,  and  as  this  was  one  of  the  principal  seats  of 
rebellion  and  discontent,  I was  anxious  to  have  an  interview  with  its  chief. 

The  position  of  Ossofa  is  very  picturesque.  It  stands  on  the  edge  of  a 
deep  ravine ; behind  it  are  lofty  crags  and  narrow  gorges,  whose  sides  are 
filled  with  natural  caverns.  On  overhanging  rocks,  towering  above  the 
village,  are  two  ziarehs , or  holy  places,  of  the  Yezidis,  distinguished  from 
afar  by  their  white  fluted  spires. 

Pulo,  the  chief,  met  us  at  the  head  of  the  principal  inhabitants  and  led 
me  to  his  house,  where  a large  assembly  was  soon  collected  to  discuss  the 
principal  object  of  my  visit.  The  chiefs  of  Mirkan  and  Bukra  were  induced 
to  make  offers  of  peace,  which  were  accepted,  and  after  much  discussion  the 
terms  of  an  amicable  arrangement  were  agreed  to  and  ratified  by  general 
consent.  Sheep  were  slain  to  celebrate  the  event.  The  meat,  after  the 
Yezidi  fashion,  was  boiled  in  onions,  and  a kind  of  parched  pea,  and  after- 
wards served  up,  like  porridge,  in  large  wooden  bowls.  The  mess  is  not 
unsavoury,  and  is  the  principal  dish  of  the  Sinjar.  Dried  figs,  strung  in 
rows  and  made  up  into  grotesque  figures,  were  brought  to  us  as  presents. 
After  the  political  questions  had  been  settled,  the  young  men  adjourned  to 
an  open  spot  outside  the  village  to  practise  with  their  rifles.  They  proved 
excellent  shots,  seldom  missing  the  very  centre  of  the  mark. 

The  villages  of  Bouran  (now  deserted),  Gundi-Gayli,  Kushna,  and  Aldi- 
na,  follow  to  the  west  of  Ossofa,  scarcely  half  a mile  intervening  between 
each.  They  are  grouped  together  on  the  mountain  side,  which,  above  and 
below  them,  is  divided  into  terraces  and  planted  with  fig-trees.  The  loose 
stones  are  most  carefully  removed  from  every  plot  of  earth,  however  small, 
and  built  up  into  walls  : on  the  higher  slopes  are  a few  vineyards. 

We  passed  the  night  at  Aldina,  in  the  house  of  Murad,  one  of  the  im- 
prisoned chiefs,  whose  release  I had  obtained  before  leaving  Mosul.  I was 
able  to  announce  the  good  tidings  of  his  approaching  return  to  his  wife,  to 
whom  he  had  been  lately  married,  and  who  had  given  birth  to  a child  dur- 
ing his  absence. 

Below  Aldina  stands  a remarkable  ziareh,  inclosed  by  a wall  of  cyclo- 
pean  dimensions.  In  the  plain  beneath,  in  the  midst  of  a grove  of  trees,  is 
the  tomb  of  Cawal  Hussein,  the  father  of  Cawal  Yusuf,  who  died  in  the  Sin 
jar  during  one  of  his  periodical  visitations.  He  was  a priest  of  sanctity 
and  influence,  and  his  grave  is  still  visited  as  a place  of  pilgrimage.  Sac- 
rifices of  sheep  are  made  there,  but  they  are  merely  in  remembrance  of  the 
deceased,  and  have  no  particular  religious  meaning  attached  to  them.  The 
flesh  is  distributed  amongst  the  poor,  and  a sum  of  money  is  frequently 
added.  Approving  the  ceremony  as  one  tending  to  promote  charity  and 
kindly  feeling,  I gave  a sheep  to  be  sacrificed  at  the  tomb  of  the  Cawal, 
and  one  of  my  fellow-travellers  added  a second,  the  carcases  being  after- 
wards divided  among  the  needy. 

All  the  villages  we  had  passed  during  our  short  day’s  journey  stand  high 


YEZIDI  SNAKE-CHARMERS. 


217 


Chap.  XI.] 

on  the  mountain  side,  where  they  have  been  built  for  security  against  the 
Bedouins.  They  command  extensive  views  of  the  plain,  the  white  bar- 
racks of  Nisibin,  although  certainly  between  twenty  and  thirty  miles  dis- 
tant, being  visible  from  them,  and  the  snowy  range  of  Kurdistan  forming 
a magnificent  back  ground  to  the  picture.  The  springs,  rising  in  the  hill, 
are  either  entirely  absorbed  in  irrigation,  or  are  soon  lost  in  the  thirsty 
plain  beneath.  Parallel  to  the  Sinjar  range  is  a long  narrow  valley,  scarce- 
ly half  a mile  in  width,  formed  by  a bold  ridge  of  white  limestone  tocks, 
so  friable  that  the  plain  for  some  distance  is  covered  with  their  fragments. 

A messenger  brought  me  word  during  the  night  that  Suttum  had  return- 
ed from  his  tribe,  and  was  waiting  with  a party  of  horsemen  to  escort  us 
to  his  tents.  I determined,  therefore,  to  cross  at  once  to  the  Belled  by  a 
direct  though  difficult  pass.  The  Doctor  and  Mr.  R.,  leaving  the  path- 
way, scaled  the  rocks  in  search  of  the  ibex,  or  wild  goat,  which  abounds 
in  the  highest  ridges  of  the  mountain. 

We  visited  Nogray  and  Ameera  before  entering  the  gorge  leading  to 
the  pass.  Only  two  other  villages  of  any  importance,  Semoka  and  Jafri, 
were  left  unseen.  The  ascent  of  the  mountain  was  extremely  precipitous, 
and  we  were  nearly  two  hours  in  reaching  the  summit.  We  then  found 
ourselves  on  a broad  green  platform  thickly  wooded  with  dwarf  oak.  I 
was  surprised  to  see  snow  still  lying  in  the  sheltered  nooks.  On  both  sides 
of  us  stretched  the  great  Mesopotamian  plains.  To  the  south,  glittering 
in  the  sun,  was  a small  salt  lake  about  fifteen  miles  distant  from  the  Sin- 
jar,  called  by  the  Arabs,  Munaif.  From  it  the  Bedouins,  when  in  their 
northern  pastures,  obtain  their  supplies  of  salt. 

We  descended  to  the  Belled  through  a narrow  valley  thick  with  oak  and 
various  shrubs.  Game  appeared  to  abound.  A Yezidi,  who  had  accom- 
panied us  from  Aldina,  shot  three  wild  boars,  and  we  put  up  several  coveys 
of  the  large  red  partridge.  The  Doctor  and  Mr.  R.,  who  joined  us  soon 
after  we  had  reached  our  tents,  had  seen  several  wild  goats,  and  had  found 
a carcase  half  devoured  by  the  wolves. 

In  the  valley  behind  the  Belled  we  passed  the  ruins  of  a large  deserted 
village,  whose  inhabitants,  according  to  Cawal  Yusuf,  had  been  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  the  plague.  We  were  nearly  five  hours  in  crossing  the  mount- 
ain. 

Suttum  and  his  Bedouin  companions  were  waiting  for  us,  but  were  not 
anxious  to  start  before  the  following  morning.  A Yezidi  snake-charmer, 
with  his  son,  a boy  of  seven  or  eight  years  old,  came  to  my  tents  in  the 
afternoon,  and  exhibited  his  tricks  in  the  midst  of  a circle  of  astonished  be- 
holders. He  first  pulled  from  a bag  a number  of  snakes  knotted  together, 
which  the  bystanders  declared  to  be  of  the  most  venomous  kind.  The 
child  took  the  reptiles  fearlessly  from  his  father,  and  placing  them  in  his 
bosom,  allowed  them  to  twine  themselves  round  his  neck  and  arms.  The 
Bedouins  gazed  in  mute  wonder  at  these  proceedings,  but  when  the  Sheikh, 
feigning  rage  against  one  of  the  snakes  which  had  drawn  blood  from  his 


218 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


son,  seized  it,  and  biting  off  its  head  with  his  teeth,  threw  the  writhing 
body  amongst  them,  they  could  no  longer  restrain  their  horror  and  indig- 
nation. They  uttered  loud  curses  on  the  infidel  snake-charmer  and  his 
kindred  to  the  remotest  generations.  Suttum  did  not  regain  his  compo- 
sure during  the  whole  evening,  frequently  relapsing  into  profound  thought, 
then  suddenly  breaking  out  in  a fresh  curse  upon  the  Sheikh,  who,  he 
declared,  had  a very  close  and  unholy  connection  with  the  evil  one.  Many 
days  passed  before  he  had  completely  got  over  the  horror  the  poor  Yezidi’s 
feats  had  caused  him. 

The  poisonous  teeth  of  the  snakes  which  the  Sheikh  carried  with  him 
had  probably  been  drawn,  although  he  offered  to  practise  upon  any  speci- 
mens we  might  procure  for  him.  I did  not,  however,  deem  it  prudent  to 
put  him  to  the  test.  The  ruins  of  the  Sinjar  abound  with  these  reptiles,  and 
I had  seen  many  amongst  them.  That  most  commonly  found  is  of  a dark 
brown  color,  nearly  approaching  to  black,  and,  I believe,  harmless.  I have 
met  with  them  above  six  feet  in  length.  Others,  however,  are  of  a more 
dangerous  character,  and  the  Bedouins  are  in  great  dread  of  them. 

Suttum  had  changed  his  deloul  for  a white  mare  of  great  beauty,  named 
Athaiba.  She  was  of  the  race  of  Kohaila,  of  exquisite  symmetry,  in  tem- 
per docile  as  a lamb,  yet  with  an  eye  of  fire,  and  of  a proud  and  noble  car- 
riage when  excited  in  war  or  in  the  chase.  His  saddle  was  the  simple 

stuffed  pad  generally  used  by  the  Bedouins,  without  stirrups.  A halter 

alone  served  to  guide  the  gentle  animal.  Suttum  had  brought  with  him 
several  of  the  principal  members  of  his  family,  all  of  whom  were  mounted 
on  high-bred  mares.  One  youth  rode  a bay  filly,  for  which,  I was  assured, 
one  hundred  camels  had  been  offered. 

We  followed  a pathway  over  the  broken  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  Sin- 
jar,  crossing  deep  watercourses  worn  by  the  small  streams,  which  lose 
themselves  in  the  desert.  The  villages,  as  on  the  opposite  slope,  or 

“ Shomal,”  are  high  up  on  the  hill-side.  The  first  we  passed  was  Gaba- 

ra,  inhabited  by  Yezidis  and  Mussulmans.  Its  chief,  Ruffo,  with  a party 
of  horsemen,  came  to  us,  and  entreated  me  to  show  him  how  to  open  a 
spring  called  Soulak,  which,  he  said,  had  suddenly  been  choked  up,  leav- 
ing the  village  almost  without  water.  Unfortunately,  being  ignorant  of 
the  art  for  which  he  gave  me  credit,  I was  unable  to  afford  him  any  help. 
Beyond  Gabara,  and  nearer  to  the  plain,  we  saw  some  modern  ruins  named 
Werdiyat,  and  encamped,  after  a short  ride,  upon  a pleasant  stream  beneath 
the  village  of  Jedaila. 

We  remained  here  a whole  day  in  order  to  visit  Suttum’s  tribe,  which 
was  now  migrating  towards  the  Sinjar.  Early  in  the  morning  a vast 
crowd  of  moving  objects  could  be  faintly  perceived  on  the  horizon.  These 
were  the  camels  and  sheep  of  the  Boraij,  followed  by  the  usual  crowd  of 
men,  women,  children,  and  beasts  of  burden.  We  watched  them  as  they 
scattered  themselves  over  the  plain,  and  gradually  settled  in  different  pas- 
tures. By  midday  the  encampment  had  been  formed  and  all  the  strag- 


VISIT  TO  SHEIKH  RISHWAN. 


219 


Chap.  XI.] 

glers  collected.  We  could  scarcely  distinguish  the  black  tents,  and  their 
site  was  only  marked  by  curling  wreaths  of  white  smoke. 

In  the  afternoon  Outturn’s  father,  Rishwan,  came  to  us,  accompanied  by 
several  Sheikhs  of  the  Boraij.  He  rode  on  a white  deloul  celebrated  for 
her  beauty  and  swiftness.  His  saddle  and  the  neck  of  the  animal  were 
profusely  adorned  with  woollen  tassels  of  many  colors,  glass  beads,  and 
small  shells,  after  the  manner  of  the  Arabs  of  Nejd.  The  well-trained 
dromedary  having  knelt  at  the  door  of  my  tent,  the  old  man  alighted, 
and,  throwing  his  arms  round  my  neck*  kissed  me  on  both  shoulders.  He 
was  tall,  and  of  noble  carriage.  His  beard  was  white  with  age,  but  his 
form  was  still  erect  and  his  footsteps  firm.  Rishwan  was  one  of  the  brav- 
est warriors  of  the  Shammar.  He  had  come,  when  a child,  with  his  fa- 
ther from  the  original  seat  of  the  tribe  in  northern  Arabia.  As  the  leader 
of  a large  branch  of  the  Boraij  he  had  taken  a prominent  part  in  the  wars 
of  the  tribe,  and  the  young  men  still  sought  him  to  head  their  distant  fo- 
rays. But  he  had  long  renounced  the  toils  of  the  gazou , and  left  his  three 
sons,  of  whom  Suttum  was  the  second,  to  maintain  the  honor  of  the  Saadi. 
He  was  a noble  specimen  of  the  true  Bedouin,  both  in  character  and  ap- 
pearance. With  the  skill  and  daring  of  the  Arab  warrior  he  united  the 
hospitality,  generosity,  and  good  faith  of  a hero  of  Arab  romance.  He 
spoke  in  the  rich  dialect  of  the  desert  tongue,  with  the  eloquence  peculiar 
to  his  race.  He  sat  with  me  during  the  greater  part  of  the  afternoon,  and 
having  eaten  bread  returned  to  his  tent. 

The  Yezidi  chiefs  of  Kerraniyah  or  Sekkiniyah  (the  village  is  known  by 
both  names)  came  to  our  encampment  soon  after  Rishwan’s  arrival.  As 
they  had  a feud  with  the  Bedouins,  I took  advantage  of  their  visit  to  effect 
a reconciliation,  both  parties  swearing  on  my  hospitality  to  abstain  from 
plundering  one  another  hereafter.  The  inhabitants  of  this  village  and  of 
Semokiyah  give  tithes  of  produce  (and  also  of  property  taken  in  forays)  to 
Hussein  Bey  alone  ; whilst  others  pay  tithes  to  Sheikh  Nasr  as  well  as  to 
the  chief. 

Being  anxious  to  reach  the  end  of  our  journey  I declined  Suttum’s  invi- 
tation to  sleep  in  his  tent,  but  sending  the  caravan  to  the  place  appointed 
for  our  night’s  encampment,  I made  a detour,  to  visit  his  father,  accompa- 
nied by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  R.,  the  Doctor,  Mr.  C.,  and  Hormuzd.  Although  the 
Boraij  were  above  six  miles  from  the  small  rivulet  of  Jedaila,  they  were 
obliged  to  send  to  it  for  water.*  As  we  rode  towards  their  tents  we  passed 
their  camels  and  sheep  slowly  wandering  towards  the  stream.  The  cam- 
els, spreading  far  and  wide  over  the  plain,  were  divided  according  to  their 
colors  ; some  herds  being  entirely  white,  some  yellow,  and  others  brown  or 

* In  the  spring  months,  when  the  pastures  are  good,  the  sheep  and  camels  of  the 
Bedouins  require  but  little  water,  and  the  tents  are  seldom  pitched  near  a well  or 
stream ; frequently  as  much  as  half  a day’s  journey  distant.  Suttum  assured  me 
that  at  this  time  of  the  year  the  camels  need  not  be  watered  for  two  months,  such  is 
the  richness  of  the  grass  of  the  Desert. 


220 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


black.  Each  animal  bore  the  well-known  mark  of  the  tribe  branded  on 
his  side.  The  Arabs,  who  drove  them,  were  mounted  on  dromedaries  car- 
rying the  capacious  rouivis , or  buckets  made  of  bullock  skins,  in  which 
water  is  brought  to  the  encampment  for  domestic  purposes. 

A Bedouin  warrior,  armed  with  his  long  tufted  spear,  and  urging  his 
fleet  deloul,  occasionally  passed  rapidly  by  us  leading  his  high-bred  mare 
to  water,  followed  by  her  colt  gambolling  unrestrained  over  the  greensward. 
In  the  throng  we  met  Sahiman,  the  elder  brother  of  Suttum.  He  was  rid- 
ing on  a bay  horse,  whose  fame  had  spread  far  and  wide  amongst  the  tribes, 
and  whose  exploits  were  a constant  theme  of  praise  and  wonder  with 
the  Shammar.  He  was  of  the  race  of  Obeyan  Sherakfi,  a breed  now  al- 
most extinct,  and  perhaps  more  highly  prized  than  any  other  of  the  Desert. 
He  had  established  his  fame  when  but  two  years  old.  Ferhan,  with  the 
principal  warriors  of  the  Khurusseh,*  had  crossed  the  Euphrates  to  plun- 
der the  Aneyza.  They  were  met  by  a superior  force,  and  were  completely 
defeated.  The  best  mares  of  the  tribe  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
and  the  bay  colt  alone,  although  followed  by  the  fleetest  horses  of  the 
Aneyza,  distanced  his  pursuers.!  Such  noble  qualities,  united  with  the 
purest  blood,  rendered  him  worthy  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  public  property 
of  the  Shammar,  and  no  sum  of  money  would  induce  his  owner  to  part 
with  him.  With  a celebrated  bay  horse  belonging  to  the  Hamoud,  a 
branch  of  the  same  tribe,  he  was  set  apart  to  propagate  the  race  of  the 
finest  horses  in  Mesopotamia.  In  size  he  was  small,  but  large  in  bone  and 
of  excellent  proportions.  On  all  sides  I heard  extraordinary  instances  of 
his  powers  of  endurance  and  speed. 

Neat  the  encampment  of  the  Boraij  was  a group  of  mounds  resembling 
in  every  respect  those  I have  already  described.  The  Bedouins  call  them 
Abou-Khaima.  Are  these  singular  ruins  those  of  towns  or  of  temples  ? 
Their  similarity  of  form, — a centre  mound  divided  into  a series  of  terraces, 
ascended  by  an  inclined  way  or  steps,  and  surrounded  by  equilateral  walls, 
— would  lead  to  the  conjecture  that  they  were  fire  temples,  or  vast  altars, 
destined  for  Astral  worship.  It  will  be  seen  hereafter  that  the  well-known 
ruin  of  the  Birs  Nimroud,  on  or  near  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon,  is  very 

* Five  sects  or  subdivisions  of  the  great  tribe  of  Shammar,  renowned  for  their  brav- 
ery and  virtues,  and  supposed  to  be  descended  from  the  same  stock,  are  so  called 
Their  hereditary  chief  is  Ferhan.  To  belong  to  the  Khurusseh  is  an  honorable  dis- 
tinction amongst  the  Shammar.  The  five  septs  are  the  Boraij,  the  Fedagha,  the 
Alayian,  the  Ghishm,  and  the  Hathba  ; of  this  last,  and  of  the  family  of  Ahl-Moham- 
med,  was  the  celebrated  Bedouin  chief  Sofuk.  The  other  clans  forming  the  tribe  of 
Shammar  are  the  Abde,  Assaiyah  (divided  into  As-Subhi  and  Al-Aslam),  Thabet,  Ha 
moud,  Theghavgheh,  Ghatha,  Dhirayrie,  Ghufayla,  and  Azumail.  All  these  tribes 
are  again  divided  into  numerous  septs.  The  Assaiyah  have  nearly  all  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  owing  to  a blood  feud  with  the  rest  of  the  Shammar,  and  have  united 
with  the  Aneyza.  The  Raffidi,  however,  a large  section  of  the  Aneyza,  have  left 
their  kindred,  and  are  now  incorporated  with  the  Shammar. 

t It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  Bedouins  never  ride  horses ; for  several  rea- 
sons, however,  they  seldom  do  so. 


ENCAMPMENT  OF  THE  BORAIJ. 


221 


Chap.  XI.] 

nearly  the  same  in  shape.  When  I come  to  describe  those  remarkable  re- 
mains, I will  add  some  farther  observations  upon  their  original  form. 

The  Bedouins  who  accompanied  us  galloped  to  and  fro,  engaging  in 
mimic  war  with  their  long  quivering  spears,  until  we  reached  the  encamp- 
ment of  the  Boraij . The  tents  were  scattered  far  and  wide  over  the  plain  ; 
for  so  they  are  pitched  during  this  season  of  the  year  when  the  pastures  are 
abundant,  and  no  immediate  danger  is  apprehended  from  hostile  tribes. 
At  other  times  they  are  ranged  in  parallel  lines  close  together,  the  Sheikh 
always  occupying  the  foremost  place,  facing  the  side  from  which  the  guest, 
as  well  as  the  enemy,  is  expected,  that  he  may  be  the  first  to  exercise  hos- 
pitality, and  the  first  to  meet  the  foe.  This  position,  however,  varies  in 
winter,  when  the  tent  must  be  closed  completely  on  one  side,  according  to 
the  prevailing  wind,  so  that  when  the  wind  changes,  the  whole  camp  sud- 
denly, as  it  were,  turns  round,  the  last  tent  becoming  the  foremost.  It  is 
thought  unmannerly  to  approach  by  the  back,  to  step  over  the  tent-ropes, 
or  to  ride  towards  the  woman’s  compartment,  which  is  almost  always  on 
the  right.  During  warm  weather  the  whole  canvass  is  raised  on  poles  to 
allow  the  air  to  circulate  freely,  a curtain  being  used  in  the  morning  and 
evening  to  ward  off  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  Bedouin  can  tell  at  once, 
when  drawing  near  to  an  encampment,  the  tent  of  the  Sheikh.  It  is  gen- 
erally distinguished  by  its  size,  and  frequently  by  the  spears  standing  in 
front  of  it.  If  the  stranger  be  not  coming  directly  towards  it,  and  wishes 
to  be  the  guest  of  the  chief,  he  goes  out  of  his  way,  that  on  approaching  he 
may  ride  at  once  to  it  without  passing  any  other,  as  it  is  considered  un- 
courteous  and  almost  an  insult  to  go  by  a man’s  tent  without  stopping  and 
eating  his  bread.  The  owner  of  a tent  has  even  the  right  to  claim  any  one 
as  his  guest  who  passes  in  front  of  it  on  entering  an  encampment. 

Rishwan,  Suttum,  Mijwell  his  younger  brother,  and  the  elders  of  the 
tribe,  were  standing  before  the  tent  ready  to  receive  us.  All  the  old  car- 
pets and  coverlets  of  the  family,  and  ragged  enough  they  were,  had  been 
spread  out  for  their  guests.  As  we  seated  ourselves  two  sheep  were  slain 
before  us  for  the  feast ; a ceremony  it  would  not  have  been  considered  suf- 
ficiently hospitable  to  perform  previous  to  our  arrival,  as  it  might  have  been 
doubtful  whether  the  animals  had  been  slain  wholly  for  us.  The  chief 
men  of  the  encampment  collected  round  us,  crouching  in  a wide  circle  on 
the  grass.  We  talked  of  Arab  politics  and  Arab  war,  ghazous  and  Aneyza 
mares  stolen  or  carried  off  in  battle  by  the  Shammar.  Huge  wooden  plat- 
ters, heavy  with  the  steaming  messes  of  rice  and  boiled  meat,  were  soon 
brought  in  and  placed  on  the  ground  before  us.  Immense  lumps  of  fresh 
butter  were  then  heaped  upon  them,  and  allowed  to  melt,  the  chief  occa- 
sionally mixing  and  kneading  the  whole  up  together  with  his  hands. 
When  the  dishes  had  cooled*  the  venerable  Rishwan  stood  up  in  the  cen- 

* It  is  considered  exceedingly  inhospitable  amongst  the  Shammar  to  place  a hot 
dish  before  guests,  as  they  are  obliged  to  eat  quickly  out  of  consideration  for  others, 
who  are  awaiting  their  turn,  which  they  cannot  do,  unless  the  mess  be  cool,  without 


222 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


tre  of  the  tent,  and  called  in  a loud  voice  upon  each  person  by  name  and 
in  his  turn  to  come  to  the  feast.  We  fared  first  with  a few  of  the  princi- 
pal Sheikhs.  The  most  influential  men  were  next  summoned,  each  how- 
ever resisting  the  honor,  and  allowing  himself  to  be  dragged  by  Suttum 
and  Mijwell  to  his  place.  The  children,  as  usual,  were  admitted  last,  and 
wound  up  the  entertainment  by  a general  scramble  for  the  fragments  and 
the  bones.  Neither  Rishwan  nor  his  sons  would  eat  of  the  repast  they 
had  prepared,  the  laws  of  hospitality  requiring  that  it  should  be  left  en- 
tirely to  their  guests. 

After  we  had  eaten,  I accompanied  Mrs.  R.  to  the  harem,  where  we 
found  assembled  the  wives  and  daughters  of  Rishwan,  of  his  sons,  and  of 

the  elders  of  the  tribe,  who  had  met  to- 
gether to  see  the  Frank  lady.  Amongst 
them  were  several  of  considerable  beau- 
ty. The  wife  of  Sahiman,  the  eldest  of 
the  three  brothers,  was  most  distinguish- 
ed for  her  good  looks.  They  were  all 
dressed  in  the  usual  long  blue  shirt,  and 
striped,  or  black,  abba,  with  a black 
headkerchief,  or  keffieh,  confined  by  a 
band  of  spun  camel’s  wool.  Massive 
rings  of  silver,  adorned  with  gems  and 
coral,  hung  from  their  noses,*  and  brace- 
lets in  the  same  metal,  and  also  set  with 
precious  stones,  encircled  their  wrists  and 
ankles.  Some  wore  necklaces  of  coins, 
coarse  amber,  agate,  cornelian  beads  and 
cylinders,  mostly  Assyrian  relics  picked 
up  amongst  ruins  after  rain.  These  ornaments  were  confined  to  the  un- 
married girls,  and  to  the  youngest  and  prettiest  wives,  who  on  waxing  old 
are  obliged  to  transfer  them  to  a more  favored  successor. 

When  Bedouin  ladies  leave  their  tents,  or  are  on  a march,  they  some- 
times wear  a black  kerchief  over  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  showing  only 
their  sparkling  eyes.  Like  the  men  they  also  use  the  keffieh,  or  head-ker- 
chief, to  cover  their  features.  Their  complexion  is  of  a dark  rich  olive. 
Their  eyes  are  large,  almond-shaped,  expressive,  and  of  extraordinary  brill- 
iancy and  fire.  They  suffer  their  black  and  luxuriant  hair  to  fall  in  clus- 

burning  their  mouths,  or  wasting  half  their  time  picking  out  the  colder  bits.  On  one 
occasion,  Ferhan,  the  great  chief  of  the  Shammar,  and  a large  number  of  horsemen 
having  alighted  at  my  tent,  I prepared  a dinner  for  them.  The  Sheikh  was  after- 
wards heard  to  say  that  the  Bey’s  feast  was  sumptuous,  but  that  he  had  not  treated 
his  guests  with  proper  hospitality,  as  the  dishes  were  so  hot  nobody  could  eat  his  fill. 

* These  are  “ the  rings  and  nose  jewels,”  which  Isaiah  (iff.  21.)  describes  as  worn 
by  the  Jewish  women.  It  is  curious  that  no  representation  of  them  has  hitherto  been 
found  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures.  I take  this  opportunity  of  mentioning,  that  I saw 
a finger-ring  sculptured  on  a fragment  at  Khorsabad. 


Arab  Nose  Ring  and  Bracelet  of  Silver. 


DEPARTURE. 


223 


Chap.  XI.] 

ters  of  curls.  Their  carriage  in  youth  is  erect  and  graceful.  They  are  able 
to  bear  much  fatigue,  and  show  great  courage  and  spirit  in  moments  of 
difficulty  and  danger.  But  their  beauty  is  only  the  companion  of  extreme 
youth.  With  few  exceptions,  soon  after  twenty,  and  the  birth  of  one  or  two 
children,  they  rapidly  change  into  the  most  hideous  of  old  hags,  the  light- 
ning-like brightness  of  the  eye  alone  surviving  the  general  wreck.  When 
young,  the  daughters  and  wives  of  the  chiefs  are  well  cared  for  ; they  move 
with  the  tribe  in  the  covered  camel-saddle,  shaded  by  carpets  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  Daughters  are  looked  upon  in  the  Desert*  as  a source  of  strength 
and  advantage,  from  the  alliances  they  enable  the  father  to  make  with 
powerful  and  influential  chiefs,  being  frequently  the  means  of  healing  feuds 
which  have  existed  for  many  years. 

The  children  of  Bishwan’s  family  were  naked,  and,  of  course,  dirty.  One 
who,  singularly  enough  for  a Bedouin,  had  light  fla&en  hair  and  blue  eyes, 
was  on  this  account  supposed  to  bear  a striking  likeness  to  Mr.  C.,  and  had, 
consequently,  been  nicknamed  the  Musauer,  the  artist,  a name  by  which 
he  will  probably  be  known  for  the  rest  of  his  days. 

Before  we  left  the  encampment  Suttum  led  before  me  as  a present  a hand- 
some grey  colt,  which  was  as  usual  returned  with  a request  to  take  care 
of  it  until  it  was  required,  the  polite  way  to  decline  a gift  of  this  nature.! 

Suttum  having  saddled  his  deloul  was  ready  to  accompany  us  on  our 
journey.  As  he  was  to  be  for  some  time  absent  from  his  tents,  he  asked  to 
take  his  wife  with  him,  and  I willingly  consented.  Bathaiyah  was  the 
sister  of  Suttam  el  Meekh,  chief  of  the  powerful  tribe  of  the  Abde,  one  of 
the  principal  divisions  of  the  Shammar.  Although  no  longer  young  she 
still  retained  much  of  her  early  beauty.  There  was  more  than  the  usual 
Bedouin  fire  in  her  large  black  eyes,  and  her  hair  fell  in  many  ringlets  on 
her  shoulders.  Her  temper  was  haughty  and  imperious,  and  she  evidently 

* Amongst  the  inhabitants  of  towns,  a daughter  is  considered  a kind  of  flaw  in  the 
family,  and  the  death  of  a girl,  too  frequently  purposely  brought  about,  is  rarely  a 
cause  of  grief. 

t As  this  was  known  to  be  a mere  matter  of  form  with  me,  as  I made  it  a rule 
never  to  accept  presents  of  this  kind,  Suttum  might  have  offered  me  his  bay  colt,  the 
most  valuable  horse  amongst  the  Shammar,  to  increase  the  display  of  hospitality 
The  reason  he  did  not  was  this,  that  although  he  knew  I would  have  returned  the 
horse,  I might  have  expressed  a wish  to  buy  it,  and  have  offered  a price.  An  offer 
of  this  kind  would  have  at  once  injured  the  value  of  the  animal  in  the  eyes  of  the  Be- 
douins, and  its  owner  might  have  been  ultimately  compelled  to  sell  it.  On  one  oc- 
casion, when  I was  amongst  the  Shammar,  at  A1  Hather,  an  Arab  rode  into  my  en- 
campment on  a beautiful  grey  colt.  I was  so  much  struck  with  the  animal,  that  I at 
once  expressed  a wish  to  its  rider  to  purchase  it.  He  merely  intimated  that  the  sum 
I named  was  beneath  the  value.  I increased  it,  but  he  only  shook  his  head,  and  rode 
off.  Nevertheless,  the  report  spread  amongst  the  tribes  that  he  had  bargained  for  the 
sale  of  his  horse.  Although  of  the  best  blood,  the  animal  was  looked  upon  with  sus- 
picion by  the  Bedouins,  and  the  owner  was,  some  months  after,  obliged  to  sell  him 
at  a lower  price  than  I had  bid,  to  a horse-dealer  of  Mosul ! A knowledge  of  such 
little  prejudices  and  customs  is  very  necessary  in  dealing  with  the  Arabs  of  the  Des- 
ert, who  are  extremely  sensitive,  and  easily  offended. 


224 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XI. 

held  more  sway  over  Suttum  than  he  liked  to  acknowledge,  or  was  quite 
consistent  with  his  character  as  a warrior.  He  had  married  her  from  mo- 
tives of  policy,  as  cementing  an  useful  alliance  with  a powerful  tribe.  She 
appears  to  have  soon  carried  matters  with  a high  hand,  for  poor  Suttum 
had  been  compelled,  almost  immediately  after  his  marriage,  to  send  back 
a young  and  beautiful  wife  to  her  fathers  tent.  This  prior  claimant  upon 
his  affections  was  now  on  the  Khabour  with  her  tribe,  and  it  was  probably 
on  this  account  that  Rathaiyah,  knowing  the  direction  he  was  about  to  take, 
was  so  anxious  to  accompany  her  husband.  She  rode  on  the  dromedary  be- 
hind her  lord,  a comfortable  seat  having  been  made  for  her  with  a rug  and 
coverlet.  The  Sheikh  carried  his  hawk,  Hattab,  on  his  wrist,  guiding  the 
deloul  by  a short  hooked  stick  held  in  the  right  hand.  Khoraif,  his  rediff 
rode  on  this  occasion  a second  dromedary  named  Sheaila,  with  a Shammar 
Bedouin. 

The  true  Sinjar  mountain  ends  about  nine  miles  from  Jedaila,  the  high 
ridge  suddenly  subsiding  into  low  broken  hills.  From  all  parts  of  the  plain 
it  is  a very  beautiful  object.  Its  limestone  rocks,  wooded  here  and  there 
with  dwarf  oak,  are  of  a rich  golden  color ; and  the  numberless  ravines, 
which  furrow  its  sides,  form  ribs  of  deep  purple  shadow.  The  western 
part  of  the  Sinjar  is  inhabited  by  the  Yezidi  tribe  of  Kherraniyah.  We 
rode  over  the  plain  in  a parallel  line  to  the  mountain,  and  about  seven  or 
eight  miles  from  it.  Towards  nightfall  we  skirted  a ridge  of  very  low  hills 
rising  to  our  left.  They  are  called  Alouvi  and  Yusuf  Beg. 

The  Desert  abounded  in  the  houbara,  or  middle-sized  bustard,  the  bird 
usually  hawked  by  the  Arabs,  and  esteemed  by  them  a great  delicacy. 
Hattab  had  been  principally  trained  to  this  game,  and  sat  on  the  raised 
wrist  of  Suttum,  scanning  the  plain  with  his  piercing  eye.  He  saw  the 
crouching  quarry  long  before  we  could  distinguish  it,  and  spreading  his 
wings  struggled  to  release  himself  from  the  tresses.  Once  free,  he  made  one 
straight,  steady  swoop  towards  the  bustard,  which  rose  to  meet  the  coming 
foe,  but  was  soon  borne  down  in  his  sharp  talons.  A combat  ensued,  which 
was  ended  by  a horseman  riding  up,  substituting  the  lure  for  the  game, 
and  hooding  the  hawk,  which  was  again  placed  on  its  master’s  wrist. 

Thus  we  rode  joyously  over  the  plain,  night  setting  in  before  we  could 
see  the  tents.  No  sound  except  the  mournful  note  of  the  small  desert  owl. 
which  has  often  misled  the  weary  wanderer,*  broke  the  deep  silence,  nor 
could  we  distinguish  the  distant  fires  usually  marking  the  site  of  an  en- 
campment. Suttum,  however,  well  knew  where  the  Bedouins  would  halt, 
and  about  an  hour  after  dark  we  heard  the  well-known  voice  of  Dervish, 
and  others  of  my  workmen,  who,  anxious  at  our  delay,  had  come  out  to 
seek  us.  The  tents  stood  near  a muddy  pool  of  salt  water,  thick  with 
loathsome  living  things  and  camels’  dung.  The  Arabs  call  the  place  Om- 
el-Dhiban,  “ the  mother  of  flies,”  from  the  insects  which  swarm  around  it. 

* Its  note  resembles  the  cry  of  the  camel-driver,  when  leading  the  herds  home  at 
night,  for  which  it  is  frequently  mistaken. 


ENCAMPMENT  AT  OM-EL-DHIBAN. 


225 


Chap.  XL] 

and  madden  by  their  sting  the  camels  and  horses  that  drink  at  the  stag- 
nant water. 

Our  encampment  was  full  of  Yezidis  of  the  Kherraniyah  tribe,  who  had 
ridden  from  the  tents  to  see  me,  bringing  presents  of  sheep,  flour,  and  figs. 
They  were  at  war,  both  with  the  Bedouins  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  mountain.  My  large  tent  was  soon  crowded  with  guests. 
They  squatted  down  on  the  ground  in  double  ranks.  For  the  last  time  I 
spoke  on  the  advantage  of  peace  and  union  amongst  themselves,  and  I ex- 
acted from  them  a solemn  promise  that  they  would  meet  the  assembled 
tribes  at  the  next  great  festival  in  the  valley  of  Sheikh  Adi,  referring  their 
differences  in  future  to  the  decision  of  Hussein  Bey,  Sheikh  Nasr,  and  the 
Cawals,  instead  of  appealing  to  arms.  I also  reconciled  them  with  the  Be- 
douins, Suttum  entering  into  an  engagement  for  his  tribe,  and  both  parties 
agreeing  to  abstain  from  lifting  each  other’s  flocks  when  they  should  again 
meet  in  the  pastures  at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Sin- 
jar  are  too  powerful  and  independent  to  pay  kowee ,*  or  black-mail,  to  the 
Shammar,  who,  indeed,  stand  in  much  awe  of  their  Yezidi  enemies.  They 
frequently  raise  their  annual  revenues,  and  enrich  themselves  almost  en- 
tirely, at  the  expense  of  the  Arabs.  They  watch  their  opportunity,  when 
the  tribes  are  migrating  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  and  falling  by  night  on 
their  encampments,  plunder  their  tents,  and  drive  off  their  cattle.  Return- 
ing to  the  hills,  they  can  defy  in  their  fastnesses  the  revenge  of  the  Bedouins 

The  Yezidis  returned  to  their  encampment  late  at  night,  but  about  a 
hundred  of  their  horsemen  were  again  with  me  before  the  tents  were  struck 
in  the  morning.  They  promised  to  fulfil  the  engagements  entered  into  on 
the  previous  evening,  and  accompanied  me  for  some  miles  on  our  day’s 
journey.  Cawal  Yusuf  returned  with  them  on  his  way  back  to  Mosul.  It 
was  agreed  that  he  should  buy,  at  the  annual  auction,  the  Mokhatta,  or 
revenues  of  the  Sinjar,f  and  save  the  inhabitants  from  the  tyranny  and  ex- 
actions of  the  Turkish  tax-gatherer.  I wrote  letters  for  him  to  the  author- 
ities of  Mosul,  recommending  such  an  arrangement,  as  equally  beneficial  to 
the  tranquillity  of  the  mountain  and  the  treasury  of  the  Pasha.J 

* Literally,  “strength-money the  small  tribes,  who  wander  in  the  Desert,  and 
who  inhabit  the  villages  upon  its  edge,  are  obliged  to  place  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  some  powerful  tribe  to  avoid  being  utterly  destroyed.  Each  great  division 
of  the  Shammar  receives  a present  of  money,  sheep,  camels,  corn,  or  barley,  from  some 
tribe  or  another  for  this  protection,  which  is  always  respected  by  the  other  branches 
of  the  tribe.  Thus  the  Jehesh  paid  kowee  to  the  Boraij,  the  Jebours  of  the  Khabour 
to  Ferhan  (the  hereditary  chief  of  all  the  Shammar),  the  people  of  Tel  Afer  to  the 
Assaiyah.  Should  another  branch  of  the  Shammar  plunder,  or  injure,  tribes  thus  pay- 
ing kowee,  their  protectors  are  bound  to  make  good,  or  revenge,  their  losses. 

t The  revenues,  i.  e.  the  different  taxes,  tithes,  &c.  of  some  pashalics  are  sold  by 
auction  in  the  spring  to  the  highest  bidders,  who  pay  the  purchase-money,  or  give 
sufficient  security,  and  collect  the  revenues  themselves.  This  is  a system  which  has 
contributed  greatly  to  the  ruin  of  some  of  the  finest  provinces  in  the  empire. 

t Cawal  Yusuf  actually  became  the  farmer  of  the  revenues  for  a sum  scarcely  ex- 
ceeding 350/.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Sinjar  were  greatly  pleased  by  this  concession 

P 


226 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI. 


After  leaving  Om-el-Dhiban  we  entered  an  undulating  country,  crossed 
by  deep  ravines,  worn  by  the  winter  torrents.  Veins  of  Mosul  marble,  the 
alabaster  of  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  occasionally  appeared  above  the  soil, 
interrupting  the  carpet  of  flowers  spread  over  the  face  of  the  country.  We 
drew  near  to  the  low  hills  into  which  the  Sinjar  subsides  to  the  west.  They 
are  called  Jeraiba,  are  well  wooded  with  the  ilex  and  dwarf  oak,  and  abound 
in  springs,  near  which  the  Shammar  Bedouins  encamp  during  the  summer. 
Skirting  them  we  found  a beaten  path,  the  first  we  had  seen  since  enter- 
ing the  Desert,  leading  to  the  Jebour  encampments  on  the  Khabour,  and  we 
followed  it  for  the  rest  of  the  day.  It  seemed  irksome  after  wandering,  as 
we  had  listed,  over  the  boundless  untrodden  plain,  to  be  again  confined  to 
the  narrow  track  of  the  footsteps  of  man.  However,  the  Bedouins  declared 
that  this  pathway  led  to  the  best  water,  and  we  had  committed  ourselves  to 
their  guidance.  Four  hours’  ride  brought  us  to  a scanty  spring;  half  an 
hour  beyond  we  passed  a second ; and  in  five  and  a half  hours  pitched  the 
tents,  for  the  rest  of  the  day,  near  a small  stream.  All  these  springs  are 
called  Maalaga,  and  rising  in  the  gypsum  or  Mosul  marble,  have  a brack- 
ish and  disagreeable  taste.  The  Bedouins  declare  that,  although  unpalat- 
able, they  are  exceedingly  wholesome,  and  that  even  their  mares  fatten  on 
the  waters  of  Jeraiba. 

Near  our  tents  were  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  village  surrounded  by  a 
wall.  The  spring  once  issued  from  the  midst  of  them,  but  its  source  had 
been  choked  by  rubbish,  which,  as  some  hours  of  daylight  still  remained, 
Hormuzd  employed  the  Jebours  and  Tiyari  in  removing.  Before  sunset  the 
supply  and  quality  of  the  water  had  much  improved.  Suttum,  who  could 
not  remain  idle,  wandered  over  the  plain  on  his  deloul  with  his  hawk  in 
search  of  game,  and  returned  in  the  evening  with  a bag  of  bustards.  He 
came  to  me  before  nightfall,  somewhat  downcast  in  look,  as  if  a heavy 
weight  were  on  his  mind.  At  length,  after  various  circumlocutions,  he  said 
that  his  wife  would  not  sleep  under  the  white  tent  which  I had  lent  her, 
such  luxuries  being,  she  declared,  only  worthy  of  city  ladies,  and  altogether 
unbecoming  the  wife  and  daughter  of  a Bedouin.  “ So  determined  is  she,” 
said  Suttum,  “ in  the  matter,  that,  Billah ! she  deserted  my  bed  last  night 
and  slept  on  the  grass  in  the  open  air ; and  now  she  swears  she  will  leave 
me  and  return  on  foot  to  her  kindred,  unless  I save  her  from  the  indignity 
of  sleeping  under  a white  tent.”  It  was  inconvenient  to  humour  the  fan- 
cies of  the  Arab  lady,  but  as  she  was  inexorable,  I gave  her  a black  Arab 
tent  used  by  the  servants  for  a kitchen.  Under  this  sheet  of  goat-hair  can- 
vass, open  on  all  sides  to  the  air,  she  said  she  could  breathe  freely,  and  feel 
again  that  she  was  a Bedouin. 

As  the  sun  went  down  we  could  distinguish,  in  the  extreme  distance,  a 
black  line  marking  the  wooded  banks  of  the  Khabour,  beyond  which  rose 
the  dark  hills  of  Abd-ul-Azeez.  Columns  of  thin  curling  smoke  showed 

to  one  of  their  own  faith,  and  were  encouraged  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  to  abstain 
from  mutual  aggressions. 


A ROBBERY.— THE  KHABOTJR. 


227 


Chap.  XI.] 

that  there  were  encampments  of  Bedouins  between  us  and  the  river,  but  we 
could  neither  see  their  tents  nor  their  cattle.  The  plains  to  the  south  of 
our  encampment  was  hounded  by  a range  of  low  hills,  called  Rhoua  and 
Haweeza. 

We  crossed,  during  the  following  evening,  a beautiful  plain  covered  with 
sweet  smelling  flowers  and  aromatic  herbs,  and  abounding  in  gazelles, 
hares,  and  bustards.  We  reached  in  about  two  hours  the  encampments, 
whose  smoke  we  had  seen  during  the  preceding  evening.  They  belonged 
to  Bedouins  of  the  Hamoud  branch  of  the  Sham  mar.  The  tents  were  pitch- 
ed closely  together  in  groups,  as  if  the  owners  feared  danger.  We  alighted 
at  some  distance  from  them  to  avoid  entering  them  as  guests.  The  chiefs 
soon  came  out  to  us,  bringing  camels’  milk  and  bread.  From  them  we 
learnt  that  they  had  lately  plundered,  on  the  high  road  between  Mosul  and 
Mardin,  a caravan  conveying,  amongst  other  valuable  loads,  a large  amount 
of  government  treasure.  The  Turkish  authorities  had  called  upon  Ferhan, 
as  responsible  chief  of  the  Shammar,  to  restore  the  money,  threatening,  in 
case  of  refusal,  an  expedition  against  the  whole  tribe.  The  Hamoud,  unwil- 
ling to  part  with  their  booty,  and  fearing  lest  the  rest  of  the  Shammar  might 
compel  them  to  do  so  in  order  to  avoid  a war,  were  now  retreating  toward 
the  north,  and,  being  strong  in  horsemen,  had  openly  defied  Ferhan.  They 
had  been  joined  by  many  families  from  the  Assaiyah,  who  had  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  and  united  with  the  Aneyza  on  account  of  a blood  feud  with  the 
Nejm.  The  Hamoud  are  notorious  for  treachery  and  cruelty,  and  certainly 
the  looks  of  those  who  gathered  round  us,  many  of  them  grotesquely  attired 
in  the  plundered  garments  of  the  slaughtered  Turkish  soldiery,  did  not  be- 
lie their  reputation.  They  fingered  every  article  of  dress  we  had  on,  to 
learn  its  texture  and  value. 

Leaving  their  encampments,  we  rode  through  vast  herds  of  camels  and 
flocks  of  sheep  belonging  to  the  tribe,  and  at  length  came  in  sight  of  the 
river. 

The  Khahour  flows  through  the  richest  pastures  and  meadows.  Its  hanks 
were  now  covered  with  flowers  of  every  hue,  and  its  windings  through  the 
green  plain  were  like  the  coils  of  a mighty  serpent.  I never  beheld  a more 
lovely  scene.  An  uncontrollable  emotion  of  joy  seized  all  our  party  when 
they  saw  the  end  of  their  journey  before  them.  The  horsemen  urged  their 
horses  to  full  speed ; the  Jebours,  dancing  in  a circle,  raised  their  colored  ker- 
chiefs on  their  spears,  and  shouted  their  war  cry,  Hormuzd  leading  the  cho- 
rus ; theTiyari  sang  their  mountain  songs  and  fired  their  muskets  into  the  air. 

Trees  in  full  leaf  lined  the  water’s  edge.  From  amongst  them  issued 
a body  of  mounted  Arabs.  As  they  drew  nigh  we  recognised  at  their  head 
Mohammed  Emin,  the  Jebour  Sheikh,  and  his  sons,  who  had  come  out  from 
their  tents  to  welcome  us.  We  dismounted  to  embrace,  and  to  exchange 
the  usual  salutations,  and  then  rode  onwards,  through  a mass  of  flowers, 
reaching  high  above  the  horses’  knees,  and  such  as  I had  never  before  seen, 
even  in  the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  Mesopotamian  wilderness. 


22S 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XI 

• 

The  tents  of  the  chief  were  pitched  under  the  ruins  of  Arban,  and  on  the 
right  or  northern  bank  of  the  river,  which  was  not  at  this  time  fordable.  As 
we  drew  near  to  them,  after  a ride  of  nearly  two  hours,  Mohammed  Emin 
pointed  in  triumph  to  the  sculptures,  which  were  the  principal  objects  of  my 
visit.  They  stood  a little  above  the  water’s  edge,  at  the  base  of  a mound 
of  considerable  size.  We  had  passed  several  tels  and  the  double  banks  of 
ancient  canals,  showing  that  we  were  still  amidst  the  remains  of  ancient 
civilisation.  Flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  camels  were  spread  over  the 
meadows  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  They  belonged  to  the  Jebours,  and  to 
a part  of  the  Boraij  tribe  under  Moghamis,  a distinguished  Arab  warrior, 
and  the  uncle  of  Suttum.  Buffaloes  and  cattle  tended  by  the  Sherabbeen 
and  Buggara,  small  clans  pasturing  under  the  protection  of  Mohammeu 
Emin,  stood  lazily  in  the  long  grass,  or  sought  refuge  in  the  stream  from 
the  flies  and  noonday  heat. 

At  length  we  stopped  opposite  to  the  encampment  of  the  Jebour  Sheikh, 
but  it  was  too  late  to  cross  the  river,  some  time  being  required  to  make  ready 
the  rafts.  We  raised  our  tents,  therefore,  for  the  night  on  the  southern  bank 
They  were  soon  filled  by  a motley  group  of  Boraij,  Hamroud,  Assaiyah,  and 
Jebour  Arabs.  Moghamis  himself  came  shortly  after  our  arrival,  bringing 
me  as  a present  a well-trained  hawk  and  some  bustards,  the  fruits  of  his 
morning’s  sport.  The  falcon  was  duly  placed  on  his  stand  in  the  centre 
of  the  spacious  tent,  and  remained  during  the  rest  of  my  sojourn  in  the  East 
a member  of  my  establishment.  His  name  was  Fawaz,  and  he  was  a na- 
tive of  the  hills  of  Makhhoul,  near  Tekrit,  celebrated  for  their  breed  of 
hawks.  He  was  of  the  species  called  “ chark,”  and  had  been  given  by  Sa- 
doun-el-Mustafa,  the  chief  of  the  great  tribe  of  Obeid,  to  Ferhan,  the  sheikh 
of  the  Shammar,  who  had  bestowed  him  in  token  of  friendship  on  Mog- 
hamis. 

A Sheikh  of  the  Hamoud  also  brought  us  a wild  ass-colt,  scarcely  two 
months  old,  which  had  been  caught  whilst  following  its  dam,  and  had  been 
since  fed  upon  camel’s  milk.*  Indeed,  nearly  all  those  who  came  to  my 

* I am  indebted  to  Mr.  Grey  for  the  following  remarks  on  the  skin  of  a young  wild 
ass  brought  by  me  to  this  country : — “ It  is,  I have  no  doubt,  the  wild  ass,  or  onager 
of  the  ancients.  It  is  evidently  the  same  as  the  ass  without  a stripe,  which  has  been 
described  by  several  authors  as  the  Equus  Hemionus,  found  in  Cutch,  and  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  Equus  Hemionus  described  by  Pallas  as  found  in  the  snowy  mountains 
of  Asia,  and  called  by  Mr.  Hodgson  Equus  Kiang  and  E.  polyodon.  The  wild  ass,  or 
onager,  was  one  of  the  desiderata  of  zoologists,  as  it  was  only  described  from  some 
specimens  seen  at  a distance,  and  not  from  the  examination  of  specimens,  and  is 
characterised  by  being  said  to  have  larger  and  more  acute  ears  than  the  Hcmione  of 
Pallas.  I do  not  find  this  to  be  the  case  in  the  young  specimen  you  have  sent  to  the 
Museum.  The  great  difference  between  the  wild  ass  of  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia 
and  the  Hemione  of  Tibet  is,  that  the  former  is  a yellowish  white,  and  the  latter  a 
bright  bay  in  summer,  both  being  greyish  white  in  winter.  There  is  also  some  dif- 
ference in  the  forms  of  the  skull,  and  in  the  disposal  of  the  hole  for  the  transmission 
of  the  bloodvessels  and  nerves  of  the  face.”  The  Arabs  of  Mesopotamia  frequently 
capture  this  beautiful  animal  when  young,  and  generally  kill  it  at  once  for  food.  Ir 


INTERCHANGE  OF  PRESENTS. 


229 


Chap.  XI.] 

tent  had  some  offering,  either  sheep,  milk,  curds,  or  butter  ; even  the  Arab 
boys  had  caught  for  us  the  elegant  jerboa,  which  burrows  in  vast  numbers 
on  the  banks  of  the  river.  Suitable  presents  were  made  in  return.  Din- 
ner was  cooked  for  all  our  guests,  and  we  celebrated  our  first  night  on  the 
Khabour  by  general  festivities. 

is  almost  impossible  to  take  it  when  full  grown.  The  colt  mentioned  in  the  text  died 
before  we  returned  to  Mosul.  A second,  after  living  eight  or  nine  months,  also  died  ; 
and  a third  met  with  the  same  fate.  I was  desirous  of  sending  a live  specimen  to 
England,  but  thus  failed  in  all  my  attempts  to  rear  one.  They  became  very  playful 
and  docile.  That  which  I had  at  Mosul  followed  like  a dog. 


Suttum,  with  his  Wife,  on  his  Dromedary. 


Sheikh  Mohammed  Emin. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ARBAN. OUR  ENCAMPMENT. SUTTUM  AND  MOHAMMED  EMIN. WINGED  BULLS  DISCOV- 
ERED.  EXCAVATIONS  COMMENCED. THEIR  RESULTS. DISCOVERY  OF  SMALL  OBJECTS 

OF  SECOND  PAIR  OF  WINGED  BULLS OF  LION OF  CHINESE  BOTTLE OF  VASE — OF 

EGYPTIAN  SCARABS OF  TOMBS. THE  SCENE  OF  THE  CAPTIVITY. 

On  the  morning  after  our  arrival  in  front  of  the  encampment  of  Sheikh 
Mohammed  Emin,  we  crossed  the  Khabour  on  a small  raft,  and  pitched 
our  tents  on  its  right,  or  northern,  bank.  I found  the  ruins  to  consist  of  a 
large  artificial  mound  of  irregular  shape,  washed,  and  indeed  partly  carried 
away  by  the  river  which  was  gradually  undermining  the  perpendicular 
cliff  left  by  the  falling  earth.  The  Jebours  were  encamped  to  the  west  of 
it.  I chose  for  our  tents  a recess,  like  an  amphitheatre,  facing  the  stream. 
We  were  thus  surrounded  and  protected  on  all  sides.  Behind  us  and  to 
the  east  rose  the  mound,  and  to  the  west  were  the  family  and  dependents 
of  Mohammed  Emin.  In  the  Desert,  beyond  the  ruins,  were  scattered  far 
and  wide  the  tents  of  the  Jebours,  and  of  several  Arab  tribes  who  had 
placed  themselves  under  their  protection  ; the  Sherabeen,  wandering  keep- 
ers of  herds  of  buffaloes  ; the  Buggara,  driven  by  the  incursions  of  the 


Encampment  on  the  Khabour 


BEAUTY  OF  THE  BANKS  OF  THE  KHABOTJR. 


233 


Chap.  XII.] 

Aneyza  from  their  pasture  grounds  at  Ras-al-Ain  (the  source  of  the  Kha- 
bour) ; and  some  families  of  the  Jays,  a large  clan  residing  in  the  district 
of  Orfa,  whose  sheikh  having  quarrelled  with  his  brother  chiefs  had  now 
joined  Mohammed  Emin.  From  the  top  of  the  mound  the  eye  ranged 
over  a level  country  bright  with  flowers,  and  spotted  with  black  tents,  and 
innumerable  flocks  of  sheep  and  camels.  During  our  stay  at  Arban  the 
color  of  these  great  plains  was  undergoing  a continual  change.  After  be- 
ing for  some  days  of  a golden  yellow,  a new  family  of  flowers  would  spring 
up,  and  it  would  turn  almost  in  a night  to  a bright  scarlet,  which  would 
again  as  suddenly  give  way  to  the  deepest  blue.  Then  the  meadows 
would  be  mottled  with  various  hues,  or  would  put  on  the  emerald  green 
of  the  most  luxuriant  of  pastures.  The  glowing  descriptions  I had  so  fre- 
quently received  from  the  Bedouins  of  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  banks 
of  the  Khabour  were  more  than  realised.  The  Arabs  boast  that  its  mead- 
ows bear  three  distinct  crops  of  grass  during  the  year,  and  the  wandering 
tribes  look  upon  its  wooded  banks  and  constant  greensward  as  a paradise 
during  the  summer  months,  where  man  can  enjoy  a cool  shade,  and  beast 
can  find  fresh  and  tender  herbs,  whilst  all  around  is  yellow,  parched,  and 
sapless. 

In  the  extreme  distance,  to  the  east  of  us,  rose  a solitary  conical  eleva- 
vation,  called  by  the  Arabs,  Koukab.  In  front,  to  the  south,  was  the  beau- 
tiful hill  of  the  Sinjar,  ever  varying  in  color  and  in  outline  as  the  declining 
sun  left  fresh  shadows  on  its  furrowed  sides.  Behind  us,  and  not  far  dis- 
tant, was  the  low,  wooded  range  of  Abd-ul-Azeez.  Artificial  mounds, 
smaller  in  size  than  Arban,  rose  here  and  there  above  the  thin  belt  of  trees 
and  shrubs  skirting  the  river  bank. 

I had  brought  with  me  a tent  large  enough  to  hold  full  two  hundred 
persons,  and  intended  as  a “ museef,”  or  place  of  reception,  always  open  to 
the  wayfarer  and  the  Arab  visitor  ; for  the  first  duty  of  a traveller  wishing 
to  mix  with  true  Bedouins,  and  to  gain  an  influence  over  them,  is  the  ex- 
ercise of  hospitality.  This  great  pavilion  was  pitched  in  the  centre  of  my 
encampment,  with  its  entrance  facing  the  river.  To  the  right  were  the 
tents  of  the  Cawass  and  servants  ; one  fitted  up  expressly  for  the  Doctor  to 
receive  patients,  of  whom  there  was  no  lack  at  all  times,  and  the  black 
Arab  tent  of  Rathaiyah,  who  would  not  mix  with  the  Jebours.  To  the 
left  were  those  of  my  fellow-travellers,  and  about  two  hundred  yards  be- 
yond, near  the  excavations,  my  own  private  tent,  to  which  I retired  during 
the  day,  when  wishing  to  be  undisturbed,  and  to  which  the  Arabs  were  not 
admitted.  In  it,  also,  we  usually  breakfasted  and  dined,  except  when  there 
were  any  Arab  guests  of  distinction  with  whom  it  was  necessary  to  eat 
bread.  In  front  of  our  encampment,  and  between  it  and  the  river,  was  a 
small  lawn,  on  which  were  picketed  our  horses.  Suttum  and  Mohammed 
Emin  usually  ate  with  us,  and  soon  became  perfectly  reconciled  to  knives 
and  forks,  and  the  other  restraints  of  civilised  life.  Suttum’s  tact  and  in- 
telligence were  indeed  remarkable.  Nothing  esca.ped  his  hawk-like  eye 


234 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XII. 


A few  hours  had  enabled  him  to  form  a correct  estimate  of  the  character  of 
each  one  of  the  party,  and  he  had  detected  peculiarities  which  might  have  es- 
caped the  notice  of  the  most  observant  European.  The  most  polished  Turk 
would  have  been  far  less  at  home  in  the  society  of  ladies,  and  during  the 
whole  of  our  journey  he  never  committed  a breach  of  manners,  only  ac- 
quired after  a few  hour’s  residence  with  us.  As  a companion  he  was  de- 
lightful,— full  of  anecdote,  of  unclouded  spirits,  acquainted  with  the  history 
of  every  Eedouin  tribe,  their  politics  and  their  wars,  and  intimate  with  ev- 
ery part  of  the  Desert,  its  productions  and  its  inhabitants.  Many  happy 
hours  I spent  with  him,  seated,  after  the  sun  went  down,  on  a mound  over- 
looking the  great  plain  and  the  winding  river,  listening  to  the  rich  flow  of 
his  graceful  Bedouin  dialect,  to  his  eloquent  stories  of  Arab  life,  and  to  his 
animated  descriptions  of  fojays,  wars,  and  single  combats. 

Mohammed  Emin,  the  Sheikh  of  the  Jebours,  was  a good-natured  portly 
Arab,  in  intelligence  greatly  inferior  to  Suttum,  and  wanting  many  of  the 
qualities  of  the  pure  Bedouin.  During  our  intercourse  I had  every  reason 
to  be  satisfied  with  his  hospitality  and  the  cordial  aid  he  afforded  me.  His 
chief  fault  was  a habit  of  begging  for  every  thing.  Always  willing  to  give, 
he  was  equally  ready  to  receive.  In  this  respect,  however,  all  Arabs  are 
alike,  and  when  the  habit  is  understood  it  is  no  longer  a source  of  incon- 
venience, as  on  a refusal  no  offence  is  taken.  The  Jebour  chief  was  a 
complete  patriarch  in  his  tribe,  having  no  less  than  sixteen  children,  of 
whom  six  sons  were  horsemen  and  the  owners  of  mares.  The  youngest,  a 
boy  of  four  years  old  named  Sultan,  was  his  favorite.  His  usual  costume 
consisted  simply  of  a red  Turkish  skull  cap,  or  fez,  on  his  head.  He  scarce- 
ly ever  left  his  father,  who  always  brought  the  child  with  him  when  he 
came  to  our  tent.  He  was  as  handsome  and  dirty  as  the  best  of  Arab 
children.  His  mother,  who  had  recently  died,  was  the  beautiful  sister  of 
Abd-rubbou.  I chanced  to  be  her  brother’s  guest  when  the  news  of  her 
death  was  brought  to  him.  An  Arab  of  the  tribe,  weary  and  wayworn, 
entered  the  tent  and  seated  himself  without  giving  the  usual  salutation ; 
all  present  knew  that  he  had  come  from  the  Khabour  and  from  distant 
friends.  His  silence  argued  evil  tidings.  By  an  indirect  remark,  imme- 
diately understood,  he  told  his  errand  to  one  who  sat  next  him,  and  who  in 
turn  whispered  it  to  Sheikh  Ibrahim,  the  chief’s  uncle.  The  old  man  said 
aloud,  with  a sigh,  “It  is  the  will  and  mercy  of  God  ; she  is  not  dead,  but 
released  !”  Abd-rubbou  at  once  understood  of  whom  he  spake.  He  arose 
and  went  forth,  and  the  wailing  of  the  mother  and  of  the  women  soon  is- 
sued from  the  inner  recesses  of  the  tent. 

AVe  were  for  a day  or  two  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  Arabs  who  assem- 
bled in  crowds  around  our  tents.  Having  never  before  seen  an  European, 
it  was  natural  that  they  should  hasten  to  examine  the  strangers.  They 
soon,  however,  became  used  to  us,  and  things  went  on  as  usual.  It  is  a 
circumstance  well  worthy  of  mention,  and  most  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
natural  integrity  of  the  Arab  when  his  guests  are  concerned,  that  during 


Chap.  XII.] 


SCULPTURES  AT  ARBAN. 


235 


the  whole  of  our  journey  and  our  residence  on  the  Khabour,  although  we 
lived  in  open  tents,  and  property  of  all  kinds  was  scattered  about,  we  had 
not  to  complain  of  a single  loss  from  theft. 

My  first  care,  after  crossing  to  Arban,  was  to  examine  the  sculptures 
described  by  the  Arabs.  The  ijiver,  having  gradually  worn  away  the 
mound,  had,  during  the  recent  floods,  left  uncovered  a pair  of  winged  human- 
headed bulls,  some  six  feet  above  the  water’s  edge,  and  full  fifty  beneath 
the  level  of  the  ruin.  Only  the  fore  part  of  these  figures  had  been  exposed 
to  view,  and  Mohammed  Emin  would  not  allow  any  of  the  soil  to  be  re- 
moved before  my  arrival.  The  earth  was  soon  cleared  away,  and  I found 
them  to  be  of  a coarse  limestone,  not  exceeding  5J-  feet  in  height  by  4 J in 
length.  Between  them  was  a pavement  slab  of  the  same  material.  They 
resembled  in  general  form  the  well-known  winged  bulls  of  Nineveh,  but 
in  the  style  of  art  they  differed  considerably  from  them.  The  outline  and 
treatment  was  bold  and  angular,  with  an  archaic  feeling  conveying  the 
impression  of  great  antiquity.  They  bore  the  same  relation  to  the  more 
delicately  finished  and  highly  ornamented  sculptures  of  Nimroud,  as  the 
earliest  remains  of  Greek  art  do  to  the  exquisite  monuments  of  Phidias 
.and  Praxiteles.  The  human  features  were  unfortunately  much  injured, 

but  such  parts  as  remained  were  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  the  countenance  had 
a peculiar  character,  differing  from  the 
Assyrian  type.  The  sockets  of  the  eyes 
were  deeply  sunk,  probably  to  receive 
the  white  and  the  ball  of  the  eye  in 
ivory  or  glass.  The  nose  was  flat  and 
large,  and  the  lips  thick  and  overhang- 
ing like  those  of  a negro.  Human  ears 
were  attached  to  the  head,  and  bull’s 
ears  to  the  horned  cap,  which  was  low 
and  square  at  the  top,  not  high  and  or- 
namented like  those  of  Khorsabad  and 
Kouyunjik,  nor  rounded  like  those  of 
Nimroud.  The  hair  was  elaborately 
curled,  as  in  the  pure  Assyrian  sculp- 
tures, though  more  rudely  carved.  The 
wings  were  small  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  body,  and  had  not  the  majes- 
tic spread  of  those  of  the  bulls  that 
adorned  the  palaces  of  Nineveh.  Above 
the  figure  were  the  following  charac- 

Front  View  of  Winged  Bull  at  Arban. 

* The  last  letter  is  in  one  instance  omitted.  For  a drawing  of  the  bull,  see  wood- 
cut  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 


'ters,^  which  are  purely  Assyrian. 


236 


NINEVEH  MiD  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XII 


It  would  appear  from  them  that  the  sculptures  belonged  to  the  palace 
of  a king  whose  name  has  been  found  on  no  other  monument.  No  titles 
are  attached  to  it,  not  even  that  of  “king;”  nor  is  the  country  over  which 
he  reigned  mentioned ; so  that  some  doubt  may  exist  as  to  whether  it  really 
be  a royal  name.  • 

The  great  accumulation  of  earth  above  these  sculptures  proves  that, 
since  the  destruction  of  the  edifice  in  which  they  stood,  other  habitations 
have  been  raised  upon  its  ruins.  Arban,  indeed,  is  mentioned  by  the  Arab 
geographers  as  a flourishing  city,  in  a singularly  fertile  district  of  the  Kha- 
bour.  Part  of  a minaret,  whose  walls  were  cased  with  colored  tiles,  and 
ornamented  with  cufic  inscriptions  in  relief,  like  that  of  the  Sinjar,  and  the 
foundations  of  buildings,  are  still  seen  on  the  mound  ; and  at  its  foot,  on  the 
western  side,  are  the  remains  of  a bridge  which  once  spanned  the  stream. 
But  the  river  has  changed  its  course.  The  piers,  adorned  with  elegantly 
shaped  arabesque  characters,  are  now  on  the  dry  land. 

I will  describe,  at  once,  the  results  of  the  excavations  carried  on  during 
the  three  weeks  our  tents  were  pitched  at  Arban.  To  pleasAthe  Jebour 
Sheikh,  and  to  keep  around  our  encampment,  for  greater  security,  a body 
of  armed  men,  when  the  tribe  changed  their  pastures,  I hired  about  fifty, 
of  Mohammed  Emin’s  Arabs,  and  placed  them  in  parties  with  the  work- 
men who  had  accompanied  me  from  Mosul.  Tunnels  were  opened  behind 
the  bulls  already  uncovered,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  ruins  on  the  same 
level.  Trenches  were  also  dug  into  the  surface  of  the  mound.  * 

Behind  the  bulls  were  found  various  Assyrian  relics ; amongst  them  a 
copper  bell,  like  those  from  Nimroud,  and  fragments  of  bricks  with  arrow- 
headed  characters  painted  yellow  with  white  outlines,  upon  a pale  green 
ground.  In  other  parts  of  the  mound  were  discovered  glass  and  pottery, 
some  Assyrian,  others  of  a more  doubtful  character.  Several  fragments  of 
earthenware,  ornamented  with  flowers  and  scrollwork,  and  highly  glazed, 
had  assumed  the  brilliant  and  varied  iridescence  of  ancient  glass.* 

It  was  natural  to  conclude,  from  the  usual  architectural  arrangement  of 
Assyrian  edifices,  that  the  two  bulls  described  stood  at  an  entrance  to  a 
hall  or  chamber.  We  searched  in  vain  for  the  remains  of  walls,  although 
digging  for  three  days  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  sculptures,  a work  of  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  consequence  of  the  immense  heap  of  superincumbent 
earth.  I then  directed  a tunnel  to  be  carried  towards  the  centre  of  the 
mound,  hoping  to  find  a corresponding  doorway  opposite.  I was  not  disap- 
pointed. On  the  fifth  day  a similar  pair  of  winged  bulls  were  discovered. 
They  were  of  the  same  size,  and  inscribed  with  the  same  characters.  A 
part  of  one  having  been  originally  broken  off,  either  in  carving  the  sculp- 
ture or  in  moving  it,  a fresh  piece  of  stone  had  been  carefully  fitted  into  its 
place.  I also  dug  to  the  right  and  left  of  these  sculptures  for  remains  of 
walls,  but  without  success,  and  then  resumed  the  tunnelling  towards  the 
centre  of  the  mound.  In  a few  days  a lion,  with  extended  jaws,  sculptured 
* These  relics  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


Chap.  XII.] 


SCULPTURES#*  T ARBAN. 


237 


Lion  discovered  at  Arban, 


in  the  same  coarse  limestone,  and  in  tire 
same  bold  archaic  style  as  the  bulls,  was 
discovered.  It  had  five  legs,  and  the  tail 
had  the  claw  at  the  end,  as  in  the  Nine 
veh  bas-reliefs.  In  height  it  was  nearly 
the  same  as  the  bulls.  I searched  in  vain 
for  the  one  which  must  have  formed  the 
opposite  side  of  the  doorway. 

With  the  exception  of  these  sculptures 
no  remains  of  building  were  found  in  this 
part  of  the  mound.  In  another  tunnel, 
opened  at  some  distance  from  the  bull  , 
half  of  a human  figure  in  relief  was  di  - 
covered.*  The  face  was  in  full.  One  hand 
grasped  a sword  or  dagger ; the  other  hell 
some  object  to  the  breast.  The  hair  and 
beard  were  long  and  flowing,  and  orna- 
mented with  a profusion  of  curls  as  in  the 
Assyrian  bas-reliefs.  The  head-dress  ap 


* The  height  of  this  fragment  was  5 feet  8 inches. 


238 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XU. 


peared  to  consist  of  a kind  of  circular  helmet,  ending  in  a sharp  point. 
The  treatment  and  style  marked  the  sculpture  to  be  of  the  same  period  as 
the  bull  and  lion. 

Such  were  the  sculptures  discovered  in  the  mound  of  Arban.  Amongst 
smaller  objects  of  different  periods  were  some  of  considerable  interest,  jars, 
vases,  funeral  urns,  highly-glazed  pottery,  and  fragments  of  glass.  In  a 
trench,  on  the  south  side  of  the  ruin,  was  found  a small  green  and  white 
bottle,  inscribed  with  Chinese  characters.  A similar  relic  was  brought  to 
me  subsequently  by  an  Arab  from  a barrow  in  the  neighbourhood.  Such 
bottles  have  been  discovered  in  Egyptian  tombs,  and  considerable  doubt 
exists  as  to  their  antiquity,  and  as  to  the  date  and  manner  of  their  import- 
ation into  Egypt.*  The  best  opinion  now  is  that  they  are  comparatively 
modern,  and  that  they  were  probably  brought  by  the  Arabs, 
in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  from  the  kingdoms  of  the  far 
East,  with  which  they  had  at  that  period  extensive  commer- 
cial intercourse.  Bottles  precisely  similar  are  still  offered 
for  sale  in  the  bazars  at  Cairo,  and  are  used  to  hold  the  kohl, 
or  powder  for  staining  the  eyes  of  ladies. 

A jar,  about  four  feet  high,  in  coarse  half-baked  clay,  was 
dug  out  of  the  centre  of  the  mound.  The  handles  were 
formed  by  rudely-designed  human  figures,  and  the  sides  cov- 
ered with  grotesque  representations  of  men  and  animals,  and 
covered  at  Arban.  arabesque  ornaments  in  relief. 

Vases  of  the  same  material,  ornamented  with  figures,  are  frequently  dis- 
covered in  digging  the  foundations  of  houses  in 
the  modern  town  of  Mosul.  They  appear  to  be- 
long to  a comparatively  recent  period,  later  prob- 
ably than  the  Christian  era,  but  previous  to  the 
Arab  occupation.  As  they  have  upon  them  hu- 
man figures,  dressed  in  a peculiar  costume,  con- 
sisting of  a high  cap  and  embroidered  robes,  I 
should  attribute  them  to  the  Persians.  A vase, 
similar  in  size  and  shape  to  that  of  Arban,  and 
also  covered  with  grotesque  representations  of 
monstrous  animals,  the  finest  specimen  I have 
seen  of  this  class  of  antiquities,  was  found  be- 
neath the  foundations  of  the  very  ancient  Chal- 
deean  church  of  Meskinta  at  Mosul,  when  that 
edifice  was  pulled  down  and  rebuilt  two  years  Figure  in  Pottery,  from  Mosul, 
ago.f  It  was  given  to  me  by  the  Catholic  Chaldaean  Patriarch,  to  whom 
* Wilkinson,  in  his  “ Ancient  Egyptians,”  vol.  iii.  p.  107.,  gives  a drawing  of  a 
bottle  precisely  similar  to  that  described  in  the  text,  and  mentions  one  which,  accord- 
ing to  Rosellini,  had  been  discovered  in  a previously  unopened  tomb,  believed  to  be  of 
the  18th  dynasty ; but  there  appears  to  be  considerable  doubt  on  the  subject. 

t In  laying  the  foundations  of  the  new  church,  the  tombs  of  two  of  the  early  Chal- 
daean  patriarchs  wrere  discovered  amongst  other  objects  of  interest.  The  bodies,  be- 


Chap.  XII.] 


SCARABS  DISCOVERED  AT  ARBAN. 


239 


it  belonged  as  chief  of  the  community,  but  was  unfortunately  destroyed, 
with  other  interesting  relics,  by  the  Arabs,  who  plundered  a raft  laden  with 
antiquities,  on  its  way  to  Baghdad,  after  my  return  to  Europe. 

Amongst  other  relics  discovered  at  Arban  were,  a large  copper  ring,  ap- 
parently Assyrian  ; an  ornament  in  earthenware,  resembling  the  pine-cone 
of  the  Assyrian  sculptures  ; a bull’s  head  in  terracotta  ; fragments  of  paint- 
ed bricks,  probably  of  the  same  period  ; and  several  Egyptian 
scarabaei.  It  is  singular  that  engraved  stones  and  scarabs 
bearing  Egyptian  devices,  and  in  some  instances  even  royal 
cartouches,  should  have  been  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Kha- 
bour.  Similar  objects  were  subsequently  dug  up  at  Nimroud, 
and  brought  to  me  by  the  Arabs  from  various  ruins  in  Assyria. 

I will  take  this  opportunity  of  adding  the  following  remarks 
by  Mr.  Birch  on  those  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

1.  A scarabaeus,  having  on  the  base  Ra-men-chepr, 
the  prenomen  of  Thothmes  III.  Beneath  is  a scarab 
between  two  feathers,  placed  on  the  basket  sub. 


2.  A scarabaeus  in  dark  steaschist,  with  the  figure  of 
the  sphinx  (the  sun),  and  an  emblem  between  the  fore- 
paws of  the  monster.  The  sphinx  constantly  appears 
on  the  scarabaei  of  Thothmes  III.,  and  it  is  probably 
to  this  monarch  that  the  one  here  described  belongs.* 
After  the  sphinx  on  this  scarab  are  the  titles  of  the 
king,  “ the  sun  placer  of  creation,”  of  Thothmes 
III. 

3.  Small  scarabaeus  of  white  steaschist,  with  a brown- 
ish hue  ; reads  Netcr  nefer  nebta  Ra-neb-ma , “ The  good 
God,  the  Lord  of  the  earth,  the  sun,  the  Lord  of  truth, 
rising  in  all  lands.”  This  is  of  Amenophis  III.,  one  of 
the  last  kings  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  who  flourish- 
ed about  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c.,  and  who  records 
amongst  his  conquests  As-su-ru  (Assyria),  Naharaina 
(Mesopotamia),  the  Saenkar  (Shinar  or  Sinjar),  and  Pat- 
tana  (Padan  Aram).  The  expression,  “who  rises  in 
all  lands,”  refers  to  the  solar  character  of  the  king,  and 
to  his  universal  dominion. 

ing  still  preserved,  were,  of  course,  canonised  at  once,  and  turned  into  a source  of 
profit  by  the  bishop,  the  faithful  paying  a small  sum  for  permission  to  touch  the  sa- 
cred relics.  One  had  been  head  of  the  Oriental  church  before  the  Arab  invasion. 
By  his  side  was  his  crozier  ending  in  a silver  crook,  on  which  was  an  inscription  in 
Chaldee  letters.  The  second  was  of  a rather  later  period.  His  crozier  w'as  of  eb- 
ony, surmounted  by  a ball  of  glass,  and  inscribed  with  the  earliest  cufic  characters 
I examined  these  interesting  relics  immediately  after  their  discovery. 

* On  many  scarabaei  in  the  British  Museum,  and  on  those  figured  by  Klaproth  from 
the  Palin  Collection,  in  Leeman’s  Monuments,  and  in  the  “ Description  de  1’Egypte,” 
Thothmes  is  represented  as  a sphinx  treading  foreign  prisoners  under  him. 


Egyptian  Scarab, 
from  Arban. 


240 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XII. 


4.  Scarabaeus  in  white  steaschist,  with  an  abridged 
form  of  the  prenomen  of  Thothmes  III.,  Ra  men  cheper 
at  en  Amen,  “ The  sun-placer  of  creation,  the  type  of 
Ammon.”  This  monarch  was  the  greatest  monarch 
of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  and  conquered  Naharaina 
and  the  Saenkar,  besides  receiving  tribute  from  Babel 
or  Babylon  and  Assyria. 

5.  Scarabaeus  in  pale  white  steaschist,  with  three 
emblems  that  cannot  well  be  explained.  They  are  the 
sun's  disk,  the  ostrich  feather,  the  uraeus,  and  the  gui- 
tar nabluim.  They  may  mean  “ Truth  the  good  god- 
dess,” or  “ lady,”  or  ma  nefer,  “ good  and  true.” 


6.  Scarabaeus  in  the  same  substance,  with  a motto 
of  doubtful  meaning. 


7.  Scarabae,  with  a hawk,  and  God  holding  the  em- 
blem of  life,  and  the  words  ma  nefer,  “good  and  true." 
The  meaning  very  doubtful. 

8.  A scarabaeus,  with  a hawk-headed  gryphon,  em- 
blem of  Menta-Ra , or  Mars.  Behind  the  monster  is 
the  goddess  Sati,  or  Nuben.  The  hawk-headed  lion  is 
one  of  the  shapes  into  which  the  sun  turns  himself  in 
the  hours  of  the  day.  It  is  a common  emblem  in  the 
Aramaean  religion. 

9.  Scarabaeus,  with  hawk-headed  gryphon,  having  be- 
fore it  the  uraeus  and  the  “ nabla ” or  guitar,  hieroglyph- 
ic of  good.  Above  it  are  the  hieroglyphs  “ Lord  of  the 
earth.” 

10.  Small  scarabaeus  in  dark  steaschist,  with  a man  in 
adoration  to  a king  or  deity,  wearing  the  crown  of  the 
upper  country,  and  holding  in  the  left  hand  a lotus 
flower.  Between  them  is  the  emblem  of  life. 


11.  Scarabaeus,  with  the  hawk-headed  scarabaeus. 
emblem  of  Ra-chepcr,  “ the  Creator  Sun,”  flying  with 
expanded  wings,  four  in  number,  which  do  not  appear 
in  Egyptian  mythology  till  after  the  time  of  the  Per- 
sians, when  the  gods  assume  a more  Pantheistic  form 
Such  a representation  of  the  sun,  for  instance,  is  found 
on  the  Torso  Borghese. 

It  will  be  observed  that  most  of  the  Egyptian  relics  discovered  in  the 
Assyrian  ruins  are  of  the  time  of  the  18th  Egyptian  dynasty,  or  of  the  15th 
century  before  Christ ; a period  when,  as  we  learn  from  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, there  was  a close  connection  between  Assyria  and  Egypt. 

Several  tombs  were  also  found  in  the  ruins,  consisting  principally  of 


ANTIQUITY  OF  SCULPTURES  AT  ARBAN. 


241 


Chap.  XII.] 

boxes,  or  sarcophagi,  of  earthenware,  like  those  existing  above  the  Assyrian 
palaces  near  Mosul.  Some,  however,  were  formed  by  two  large  earthen 
jars,  like  the  common  Eastern  vessel  for  holding  oil,  laid  horizontally,  and 
joined  mouth  to  mouth.  These  terracotta  coffins  appear  to  be  of  the  same 
period  as  those  found  in  all  the  great  ruins  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  are  not  Assyrian.*  They  contained  human  remains 
turned  to  dust,  with  the  exception  of  the  skull  and  a few  of  the  larger  bones, 
and  generally  three  or  four  urns  of  highly-glazed  blue  pottery. 

Fewer  remains  and  objects  of  antiquity  were  discovered  in  the  mounds 
on  the  Khabour  than  I had  anticipated.  They  were  sufficient,  however, 
to  prove  that  the  ruins  are,  on  the  whole,  of  the  same  character  as  those 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  That  the  Assyrian  empire  at  one  time  em- 
braced the  whole  of  Mesopotamia,  including  the  country  watered  by  the 
Khabour,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  as  indeed  is  shown  by  the  inscriptions  on 
the  monuments  of  Nineveh.  Whether  the  sculptures  at  Arban  belong  to 
the  period  of  Assyrian  domination,  or  to  a distinct  nation  afterwards  con- 
quered, or  whether  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  cotemporary  with,  or  more 
ancient  than,  the  bas-reliefs  of  Nimroud,  are  questions  not  so  easily  an- 
swered. The  archaic  character  of  the  treatment  and  design,  the  pecul- 
iar form  of  the  features,  the  rude  though  forcible  delineation  of  the  mus- 
cles, and  the  simplicity  of  the  details,  certainly  convey  the  impression 
of  greater  antiquity  than  any  monuments  hitherto  discovered  in  Assyria 
Proper. t 

A deep  interest,  at  the  same  time,  attaches  to  these  remains  from  the 
site  they  occupy.  To  the  Chebar  were  transported  by  the  Assyrian  king, 
after  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  the  captive  children  of  Israel,  and  on  its 
banks  “ the  heavens  were  opened”  to  Ezekiel,  and  “ he  saw  visions  of  God,” 
and  spake  his  prophecies  to  his  brother  exiles.!  Around  Arban  may  have 
been  pitched  the  tents  of  the  sorrowing  Jews,  as  those  of  the  Arabs  were 
during  my  visit.  To  the  same  pastures  they  led  their  sheep,  and  they 
drank  of  the  same  waters.  Then  the  banks  of  the  river  were  covered  with 
towns  and  villages,  and  a palace-temple  still  stood  on  the  mound,  reflected 
in  the  transparent  stream.  We  have,  however,  but  one  name  connected 
with  the  Khabour  recorded  in  Scripture,  that  of  Tel-Abib,  “the  mound  of 
Abib,  or,  of  the  heaps  of  ears  of  corn,”  but  whether  it  applies  to  a town, 
or  to  a simple  artificial  elevation,  such  as  still  abound,  and  are  still  called 
“ tels,”  is  a matter  of  doubt.  I sought  in  vain  for  some  trace  of  the  word 

* Most  of  the  small  objects  described  in  the  text  are  now  in  the  British  Museum 

f A lion  very  similar  to  that  discovered  at  Arban,  though  more  colossal  in  its  di 
mensions,  exists  near  Seroug.  (Chesney’s  Expedition,  vol.  i.  p.  114.) 

X 2 Kings,  xvii.  6.  Ezek.  i.  1.  In  the  Hebrew  text  the  name  of  this  river  is  spelt 
in  two  different  ways.  In  Kings  we  have  Khabour,  answering  exactly  to  the 
Chaboras  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  Khabour  of  the  Arabs.  In  Ezekiel  it 
»s  written  -os,  Kebar.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  to  doubt  that  the  same  river  is 
meant. 


a 


242  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XII. 

amongst  the  names  now  given  by  the  wandering  Arab  to  the  various  ruins 
on  the  Khabour  and  its  confluents.* 

We  know  that  Jews  still  lingered  in  the  cities  of  the  Khabour  until  long 
after  the  Arab  invasion  ; and  we  may  perhaps  recognise  in  the  Jewish  com- 
munities of  Ras-al-Ain,  at  the  sources  of  the  river,  and  of  Karkisia,  or  Car- 
chemish,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Euphrates,  visited  and  described  by 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  in  the  latter  end  of  the  twelfth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian aera,  the  descendants  of  the  captive  Israelites. 

But  the  hand  of  time  has  long  since  swept  even  this  remnant  away,  with 
the  busy  crowds  which  thronged  the  banks  of  the  river.  From  its  mouth 
to  its  source,  from  Carchemish  to  Ras-al-Ain,  there  is  now  no  single  per- 
manent human  habitation  on  the  Khabour.  Its  rich  meadows  and  its  de- 
serted ruins  are  alike  become  the  encamping  places  of  the  wandering  Arab. 


Winged  Bull  discovered  at  Arban. 


* The  name  occurs  in  Ezekiel,  iii.  15.  “Then  I came  to  them  of  the  captivity  at 
Tel-Abib,  that  dwelt  by  the  river  of  Chebar.”  In  the  Theodosian  tables  we  find  Thal- 
laba  on  the  Khabour,  with  which  it  may  possibly  be  identified.  (Illustrated  Comment- 
ary on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  published  by  Charles  Knight,  a very  useful  and 
well-digested  summary,  in  note  to  word.)  It  is  possible  that  Arbonad,  a name  appa- 
rently given  to  the  Khabour  in  Judith,  ii.  24.,  may  be  connected  with  Arban : how- 
ever, it  is  not  quite  clear  what  river  is  really  meant,  as  there  appears  to  be  some 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

RESIDENCE  AT  ARBAN. MOHAMMED  EMIN’s  TENT. THE  AGAYDAT. OUR  TENTS. BREAD- 
BAKING.  FOOD  OF  THE  BEDOUINS. THIN  BREAD. THE  PRODUCE  OF  THEIR  FLOCKS. 

DISEASES  AMONGST  THEM. THEIR  REMEDIES. THE  DELOUL  OR  DROMEDARY. BEDOUIN 

WARFARE. SUTTUM’S  FIRST  WIFE. A STORM. TURTLES. LIONS. A BEDOUIN  ROB- 
BER.  BEAVERS. — RIDE  TO  LEDJMIYAT. A PLUNDERING  EXPEDITION. LOSS  OF  A 

HAWK. — RUINS  OF  SHEMSHANI. A TRADITION.—  JEBOURS  STRIKE  THEIR  TENTS. RE- 
TURN TO  ARBAN. VISIT  TO  MOGHAMIS. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  I have  given  an  account  of  the  discoveries 
made  in  the  ruins  of  Arban,  I will  now  add  a few  notes  of  our  residence 
on  the  Khabour.  A sketch  of  Arab  life,  and  a description  of  a country  not 
previously  visited  by  European  travellers,  may  be  new  and  not  uninterest- 
ing to  my  readers. 

During  the  time  we  dwelt  at  Arban,  we  were  the  guests  and  under  the 
protection  of  Mohammed  Emin,  the  Sheikh  of  the  Jebours.  On  the  day 
we  crossed  the  river,  he  celebrated  our  arrival  by  a feast  after  the  Arab 
fashion,  to  which  the  notables  of  the  tribe  were  invited.  Sheep,  as  usual, 
were  boiled  and  served  up  piecemeal  in  large  wooden  bowls,  with  a mass 
of  butter  and  bread  soaked  in  the  gravy.  The  chief’s  tent  was  spacious, 
though  poorly  furnished.  It  was  the  general  resort  of  those  who  chanced 

confusion  in  the  geographical  details.  The  cities  on  the  Khabour,  mentioned  by  the 
Arab  geographers,  are  Karkisia  (Circesium,  at  the  junction  of  the  river  with  the  Eu- 
phrates), Makeseen  (of  which  I could  find  no  trace),  Arban,  and  Khabour.  I have 
not  been  able  to  discover  the  site  of  any  ruin  of  the  same  name  as  the  river.  Kar- 
kisia, when  visited  in  the  twelfth  century  by  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  contained  about 
500  Jewish  inhabitants,  under  two  Rabbis.  According  to  Ibn  Haukal,  it  was  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  and  cultivated  lands.  The  spot  is  now  inhabited  by  a tribe  of 
Arabs. 


244 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  Kill. 


to  wander,  either  on  business  or  for  pleasure,  to  the  Khabour,  and  was,  con- 
sequently, never  without  a goodly  array  of  guests ; from  a company  of 
Shammar  horsemen  out  on  a foray  to  the  solitary  Bedouin  who  was  seek- 
ing to  become  a warrior  in  his  tribe,  by  first  stealing  a mare  from  some 
hostile  encampment. 

Amongst  the  strangers  partaking,  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  of  the  Sheikh’s 
hospitality,  were  Serhan,  a chief  of  the  Agaydat,  and  Dervish  Agha,  the 
hereditary  Lord  of  Nisibin,  the  ancient  Nisibis.  The  tents  of  the  former 
were  at  the  junction  of  the  Khabour  and  Euphrates,  near  Karkisia  (the 
ancient  Carchemish),  or,  as  it  is  more  generally  called  by  the  Arabs,  Abou- 
Psera.*  The  fertile  meadows  near  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  Jebours,  who  occupied  the  banks  of  the  Khabour 
throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  its  course.  An  old  feud  kept  them  at  con- 
tinual war  with  the  great  tribe  of  the  Aneyza.  They  long  successfully 
struggled  with  their  enemies,  but  having  at  length  been  overpowered  by 
superior  numbers,  they  lost  their  horses,  their  flocks,  their  personal  proper- 
ty, and  even  their  tents.  Thus  left  naked  and  houseless,  they  sought  ref- 
uge in  the  neighborhood  of  Mosul,  and  learnt  to  cultivate  the  soil  and  to 
become  subjects  of  the  Turks.  The  Agaydat,  who  before  dwelt  principally 
on  the  western  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  crossed  the  river  and  seized  the  de- 
serted pastures.  The  Jebours  who  had  returned  to  the  Khabour,  claimed 
their  former  encamping  grounds,  and  threatened  to  reoccupy  them  by  force 
of  arms.  It  was  to  settle  these  differences  that  Serhan  had  visited  Mo- 
hammed Emin.  After  remaining  two  or  three  days,  he  went  back  to  his 
tents  without,  however,  having  succeeded  in  his  mission.  I learnt  from 
him  that  there  were  many  artificial  mounds  near  the  confluence  of  the 
rivers,  but  he  had  never  heard,  nor  had  Mohammed  Emin,  of  any  sculp- 
tures, or  other  monuments  of  antiquity,  having  been  found  in  them. 

Dervish  Agha,  of  Kurdish  descent,  was  the  representative  of  an  ancient 
family,  whose  members  were  formerly  the  semi-independent  chiefs  of  Nisi- 
bin  and  the  surrounding  districts.  He  was  still  the  recognised  Mutesellim, 
or  governor  of  that  place,  and  had  been  sent  to  Mohammed  Emin  by  the 
commander  of  the  Turkish  troops,  one  Suleiman  Agha,  who  was  at  this 
time  encamped  in  the  plain  beneath  Mardin.  His  business  was  to  prevail 
upon  the  Jebour  Sheikh  to  assist  Ferhan  in  recovering  the  plundered  treas- 
ure from  the  Hamoud,  and  to  visit  afterwards  the  encampment  of  the 
Agha,  with  both  which  requests  his  host  had  good  reasons  not  to  comply. 

My  own  large  tent  was  no  less  a place  of  resort  than  that  of  Mohammed 
Emin,  and  as  we  were  objects  of  curiosity,  Bedouins  from  all  parts  flocked 
to  see  us.  With  some  of  them  I was  already  acquainted,  having  either  re- 
ceived them  as  my  guests  at  Mosul,  or  met  them  during  excursions  in  the 
Desert.  They  generally  passed  one  night  with  us,  and  then  returned  to 
their  own  tents.  A sheep  was  always  slain  for  them,  and  boiled  with  rice, 

* Col.  Chesney  states  that  the  real  name  is  “ Abou  Serai,”  “ the  father  (or  chieO 
of  palaces such  may  be  the  case. 


ARAB  MODE  OF  GRINDING  CORN. 


245 


Chap.  XIII.] 

or  prepared  wheat,  in  the  Arab  way : if  there  were  not  strangers  enough 
to  consume  the  whole,  the  rest  was  given  to  the  workmen  or  to  the  needy, 
as  it  is  considered  derogatory  to  the  character  of  a truly  hospitable  and  gen- 
erous man  to  keep  meat  until  the  following  day,  or  to  serve  it  up  a second 
time  when  cold.  Even  the  poorest  Bedouin  who  kills  a sheep,  invites  all 
his  friends  and  neighbours  to  the  repast,  and  if  there  be  still  any  remnants, 
distributes  them  amongst  the  poor  and  the  hungry,  although  he  should 
himself  want  on  the  morrow. 

We  brought  provision  of  flour  with  us,  and  the  Jebours  had  a little  wheat 
raised  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  wandering  Arabs  have  no  other 
means  of  grinding  their  corn  than  by  handmills,  which  they  carry  with  them 
wherever  they  go.  They  are  always  worked  by  the  women,  for  it  is  con- 
sidered unworthy  of  a man  to  engage  in  any  domestic  occupation.  These 
handmills  are  simply  two  circular  flat  stones,  generally  about  eighteen  inches 
in  diameter,  the  upper  turning  loosely  upon  a wooden  pivot,  and  moved 
quickly  round  by  a wooden  handle.  The  grain  is  poured  through  the  hole 
of  the  pivot,  and  the  flour  is  collected  in  a cloth  spread  under  the  mill.  It 
is  then  mixed  with  water,  kneaded  in  a wooden  bowl,  and  pressed  by  the 
hand  into  round  balls  ready  for  baking.  During  these  processes,  the  women 
are  usually  seated  on  the  bare  ground  : hence,  in  Isaiah,*  is  the  daughter 
of  Babylon  told  to  sit  in  the  dust  and  on  the  ground,  and  “ to  take  the  mill- 
stones to  grind  meal.” 

The  tribes  who  are  always  moving  from  place  to  place  bake  their  bread 
on  a slightly  convex  iron  plate,  called  a sadj , moderately  heated  over  a low 
fire  of  brushwood  or  camels’  dung.  The  lumps  of  dough  are  rolled,  on  a 
wooden  platter,  into  thin  cakes,  a foot  or  more  in  diameter,  and  laid  by 
means  of  the  roller  upon  the  iron.  They  are  baked  in  a very  short  time, 
and  should  be  eaten  hot.f  The  Kurds,  whose  flour  is  far  whiter  and  more 
carefully  prepared  than  that  of  the  Arabs,  roll  the  dough  into  large  cakes, 
scarcely  thicker  than  a sheet  of  paper.  When  carefully  baked  by  the  same 
process,  it  becomes  crisp  and  exceedingly  agreeable  to  the  taste.  The  Arab 
tribes,  that  remain  for  many  days  in  one  place,  make  rude  ovens  by  dig- 
ging a hole  about  three  feet  deep,  shaping  it  like  a reversed  funnel,  and 
plastering  it  with  mud.  They  heat  it  by  burning  brushwood  within,  and 
then  stick  the  lumps  of  dough,  pressed  into  small  cakes  about  half  an  inch 
thick,  to  the  sides  with  the  hand.  The  bread  is  ready  in  two  or  three  min- 
utes. When  horsemen  go  on  an  expedition,  they  either  carry  with  them 
the  thin  bread  first  described,  or  a bag  of  flour,  which,  when  they  come  to 

* xlvii.  1,  2. 

t See  woodcut  at  the  head  of  this  chapter.  Such  was  probably  the  process  of 
making  bread  mentioned  in  2 Sam.  xiii.  8,  9.  “ So  Tamar  went  to  her  brother  Am- 

non’s  house ; and  he  was  laid  down.  And  she  took  flour  and  kneaded  it,  and  made 
cakes  in  his  sight,  and  did  bake  the  cakes.  And  she  took  a pan  and  poured  them  out 
before  him.”  It  will  be  observed  that  the  bread  was  made  at  once,  without  leaven  ; 
such  also  was  probably  the  bread  that  Abraham  commanded  Sarah  to  make  for  the 
three  angels.  (Gen.  xviii.  6.) 


246 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIII. 


water,  they  moisten  and  knead  on  their  cloaks,  and  then  bake  by  covering 
the  balls  of  dough  with  hot  ashes.  All  Arab  bread  is  unleavened. 

If  a Bedouin  tribe  be  moving  in  great  haste  before  an  enemy,  and  should 
be  unable  to  stop  for  many  hours,  or  be  making  a forced  march  to  avoid 
pursuit  over  a desert  where  the  wells  are  very  distant  from  each  other,  the 
women  sometimes  prepare  bread  whilst  riding  on  camels.  The  fire  is  then 
lighted  in  an  earthen  vessel.  One  woman  kneads  the  flour,  a second  rolls' 
out  the  dough,  and  a third  bakes,  boys  or  women  on  foot  passing  the  ma- 
terials, as  required,  from  one  to  the  other.  But  it  is  very  rare  that  the  Be- 
douins are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  this  process,  and  I have  only  once 
witnessed  it. 

The  fuel  used  by  the  Arabs  consists  chiefly  of  the  dwarf  shrubs,  grow- 
ing in  most  parts  of  the  Desert,  of  dry  grass  and  of  camels’  dung.  They 
frequently  carry  bags  of  the  latter  with  them  when  in  summer  they  march 
over  very  arid  tracts.  On  the  banks  of  the  great  rivers  of  Mesopotamia, 
the  tamarisk  and  other  trees  furnish  them  with  abundant  firewood.  They 
are  entirely  dependent  for  their  supplies  of  wheat  upon  the  villages  on  the 
borders  of  the  Desert,  or  on  the  sedentary  Arabs,  who,  whilst  living  in  tents, 
cultivate  the  soil.  Sometimes  a tribe  is  fortunate  enough  to  plunder  a car 
avan  laden  with  corn,  or  to  sack  the  granaries  of  a village  ; they  have  then 
enough  to  satisfy  their  wants  for  some  months.  But  the  Bedouins  usually 
draw  near  to  the  towns  and  cultivated  districts  soon  after  the  harvest,  to 
lay  in  their  stock  of  grain.  A party  of  men  and  women,  chosen  by  their 
companions,  then  take  with  them  money,  or  objects  for  sale  or  exchange, 
and  drive  the  camels  to  the  villages,  where  they  load  them  and  return  to 
their  tents.  Latterly  a new  and  very  extensive  trade  has  been  opened  with 
the  Bedouins  for  the  wool  of  their  sheep,  much  prized  for  its  superior  qual- 
ity in  European  markets.  As  the  time  for  shearing  is  soon  after  the  har- 
vest, the  Arabs  have  ready  means  of  obtaining  their  supplies,  as  well  as 
of  making  a little  money,  and  buying  finery  and  arms. 

Nearly  the  whole  revenue  of  an  Arab  Sheikh,  whatever  it  may  be,  is 
laid  out  in  com,  rice,  and  other  provisions.  The  quantity  of  food  consumed 
in  the  tents  of  some  of  the  great  chiefs  of  the  Bedouins  is  very  considerable 
Almost  every  traveller  who  passes  the  encampment  eats  bread  with  the 
Sheikh,  and  there  are  generally  many  guests  dwelling  under  his  canvas. 
In  times  of  difficulty  or  scarcity,  moreover,  the  whole  tribe  frequently  ex- 
pects to  be  fed  by  him,  and  he  considers  himself  bound,  even  under  such 
circumstances,  by  the  duties  of  hospitality,  to  give  all  that  he  has  to  the 
needy.  The  extraordinary  generosity  displayed  on  such  occasions  by  their 
chiefs  forms  some  of  the  most  favourite  stories  of  the  Arabs. 

The  common  Bedouin  can  rarely  get  meat.  His  food  consists  almost  ex- 
clusively of  wheaten  bread  with  truffles,  which  are  found  in  great  abund- 
ance during  the  spring,  a few  wild  herbs,  such  as  asparagus,  onions,  and 
garlic,  fresh  butter,  curds,  and  sour  milk.  But,  at  certain  seasons,  even 
these  luxuries  cannot  be  obtained  ; for  months  together  he  often  eats  bread 


FOOD  OF  THE  BEDOUINS. 


24? 


Chap.  XIII.] 

alone.  The  Sheikhs  usually  slay  a sheep  every  day,  of  which  their  guests,  a 
few  of  their  relatives,  and  their  immediate  adherents  partake.  The  wom- 
en prepare  the  food,  and  always  eat  after  the  men,  who  rarely  leave  them 
much  wherewith  to  satisfy  their  hunger. 

The  dish  usually  seen  in  a Bedouin  tent  is  a mess  of  boiled  meat,  some- 
times mixed  with  onions,  upon  which  a lump  of  fresh  butter  is  placed  and 
allowed  to  melt.  The  broad  tail  of  the  Mesopotamian  sheep  is  used  for 
grease  when  there  is  no  butter.  Sometimes  cakes  of  bread  are  laid  under 
the  meat,  and  the  entertainer  tearing  up  the  thin  loaves  into  small  pieces, 
soaks  them  in  the  gravy  with  his  hands.  The  Aneyza  make  very  savory 
dishes  of  chopped  meat  and  bread  mixed  with  sour  curds,  over  which,  when 
the  huge  platter  is  placed  before  the  guest,  is  poured  a flood  of  melted  but- 
ter. Roasted  meat  is  very  rarely  seen  in  a Bedouin  tent.  Rice  is  only 
eaten  by  the  Sheikhs,  except  amongst  the  tribes  who  encamp  in  the  marshes 
of  Southern  Mesopotamia,  where  rice  of  an  inferior  quality  is  very  largely 
cultivated.  There  it  is  boiled  with  meat  and  made  into  pilaws. 

The  Bedouins  do  not  make  cheese.  The  milk  of  their  sheep  and  goats 
is  shaken  into  butter  or  turned  into  curds : it  is  rarely  or  never  drank  fresh, 
new  milk  being  thought  very  unwholesome,  as  by  experience  I soon  found 
it  to  be,  in  the  Desert.  I have  frequently  had  occasion  to  describe  the  pro- 
cess of  making  butter  by  shaking  the  milk  in  skins.  This  is  also  an  em- 
ployment confined  to  the  women,  and  one  of  a very  laborious  nature.  The 
curds  are  formed  by  boiling  the  milk,  and  then  putting  some  of  the  curds 
made  on  the  previous  day  into  it  and  allowing  it  to  stand.  When  the  sheep 
no  longer  give  milk,  some  curds  are  dried,  to  be  used  as  leaven  on  a future 
occasion.  This  preparation,  called  leben,  is  thick  and  acid,  but  very  agree- 
able and  grateful  to  the  taste  in  a hot  climate.  The  sour  milk,  or  shenee- 
na,  an  universal  beverage  amongst  the  Arabs,  is  either  butter-milk  pure 
and  diluted,  or  curds  mixed  with  water.  Camels’  milk  is  drank  fresh.  It 
is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  rich,  and  exceedingly  nourishing.  It  is  given  in 
large  quantities  to  the  horses.  The  Shammar  and  Aneyza  Bedouins  have 
no  cows  or  oxen,  those  animals  being  looked  upon  as  the  peculiar  property 
of  tribes  who  have  forgotten  their  independence,  and  degraded  themselves 
by  the  cultivation  of  land.  The  sheep  are  milked  at  dawn,  or  even  before 
daybreak,  and  again  in  the  evening  on  their  return  from  the  pastures.  The 
milk  is  immediately  turned  into  leben,  or  boiled  to  be  shaken  into  butter 
Amongst  the  Bedouins  and  Jebours  it  is  considered  derogatory  to  the  char 
acter  of  a man  to  milk  a cow  or  a sheep,  but  not  to  milk  a camel. 

The  Sheikhs  occasionally  obtain  dates  from  the  cities.  They  are  either 
eaten  dry  witli  bread  and  leben,  or  fried  in  butter,  a very  favourite  dish  of 
the  Bedouin.* 

To  this  spare  and  simple  dish  the  Bedouins  owe  their  freedom  from  sick- 

* In  speaking  of  the  Bedouins  I mean  the  Aneyza,  Shammar,  A1  Dhefyr,  and  other 
great  tribes  inhabiting  Mesopotamia  and  the  Desert  to  the  north  of  the  Gebel  Sham- 
mar. With  the  Arabs  of  the  Hedjaz  and  Central  Arabia  I am  unacquainted 


248 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIII 


ness,  and  their  extraordinary  power  of  bearing  fatigue.  Diseases  are  rare 
amongst  them ; and  the  epidemics,  which  rage  in  the  cities,  seldom  reach 
their  tents.  The  cholera,  which  has  of  late  visited  Mosul  and  Baghdad 
with  fearful  severity,  has  not  yet  struck  the  Bedouins,  and  they  have  fre- 
quently escaped  the  plague,  when  the  settlements  on  the  borders  of  the  Des- 
ert have  been  nearly  depopulated  by  it.  The  small  pox,  however,  occasion- 
ally makes  great  havoc  amongst  them,  vaccination  being  still  unknown 
to  the  Shammar,  and  intermittent  fever  prevails  in  the  autumn,  particular- 
ly when  the  tribes  encamp  near  the  marshes  in  Southern  Mesopotamia. 
Rheumatism  is  not  uncommon,  and  is  treated,  like  most  local  complaints, 
with  the  actual  cautery,  a red  hot  iron  being  applied  very  freely  to  the  part 
affected.  Another  cure  for  rheumatism  consists  in  killing  a sheep  and  plac- 
ing the  patient  in  the  hot  reeking  skin. 

Ophthalmia  is  commpn  in  the  desert  as  well  as  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
East,  and  may  be  attributed  as  much  to  dirt  and  neglect  as  to  any  other 
cause. 

The  Bedouins  are  acquainted  with  few  medicines.  The  Desert  yields 
some  valuable  simples,  which  are,  however,  rarely  used.  Dr.  Sandwith 
hearing  from  Suttum  that  the  Arabs  had  no  opiates,  asked  what  they  did 
with  one  who  could  not  sleep.  “Do!”  answered  the  Sheikh,  “why,  we 
make  use  of  him,  and  set  him  to  watch  the  camels.”  If  a Bedouin  be  ill, 
or  have  received  a wound,  he  sometimes  comes  to  the  nearest  town  to  con- 
sult the  barbers,  who  are  frequently  not  unskilful  surgeons.  Hadjir,  one  of 
the  great  chiefs  of  the  Shammar,  having  been  struck  by  a musket  ball  which 
lodged  beneath  the  shoulder-blade,  visited  the  Pasha  of  Mosul  to  obtain  the 
aid  of  the  European  surgeons  attached  to  the  Turkish  troops.  They  de- 
clared an  operation  to  be  impossible,  and  refused  to  undertake  it.  The 
Sheikh  applied  to  a barber,  who  in  his  shop,  in  the  open  bazar,  quietly  cut 
down  to  the  ball,  and  taking  it  out  brought  it  to  the  Pasha  in  a plate,  to 
claim  a reward  for  his  skill.  It  is  true  that  the  European  surgeons  in  the 
service  of  the  Porte  are  not  very  eminent  in  their  profession.  The  Bedouins 
set  broken  limbs  by  means  of  rude  splints. 

The  women  suffer  little  in  labor,  which  often  takes  place  during  a march, 
or  when  they  are  far  from  the  encampment  watering  the  flocks  or  collect- 
ing fuel.  They  allow  their  children  to  remain  at  the  breast  until  they  are 
nearly  two  and  even  three  years  old,  and,  consequently,  have  rarely  many 
offspring. 

Soon  after  our  arrival  at  the  Khabour  I bought  a deloul,  or  dromedary, 
as  more  convenient  than  a horse  for  making  excursions  in  the  Desert.  Her 
name  was  Sahaima,  and  she  belonged  to  Moghamis,  the  uncle  of  Suttum, 
having  been  taken  by  him  from  the  Aneyza ; she  was  well  trained,  and 
swift  and  easy  in  her  paces.  The  best  delouls  come  from  Nedjd  and  the 
Gebel  Shammar.  They  are  small  and  lightly  made,  the  difference  be- 
tween them  and  a common  camel  being  as  great  as  that  between  a high- 
bred Arab  mare  and  an  English  cart-horse.  Their  powers  of  endurance 


HOSTILE  REPORT. 


249 


Chap.  XIII.] 

are  very  great.  Suttum  mentioned  the  following  as  well  authenticated 
instances.  With  a companion,  each  being  on  his  own  dromedary,  he  once 
rode  from  Ana  to  Rowah  in  one  day,  one  of  the  animals,  however,  dying 
soon  after  they  reached  their  journey’s  end.  An  Arab  of  the  Hamoud,  leav- 
ing an  encampment  about  five  miles  inland  from  Dair,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  reached  Koukab  within  twenty-four  hours.  Suttum  rode 
from  Mosul  to  Khatouniyah  in  two  days.^ 

The  deloul  is  much  prized,  and  the  race  is  carefully  preserved.  The 
Arabs  breed  from  them  once  in  two  years,  and  are  very  particular  in  the 
choice  of  the  male.  An  ordinary  animal  can  work  for  twenty  years.  Sut- 
tum assured  me  that  they  could  travel  in  the  spring  as  many  as  six  days 
without  water.  Their  color  is  generally  light  brown  and  white,  darker 
colors  and  black  are  more  uncommon.  Their  pace  is  a light  trot  kept  up 
for  many  hours  together  without  fatigue  ; they  can  increase  it  to  an  un- 
wieldly  gallop,  a speed  they  cannot  long  maintain.  A good  deloul  is  worth 
at  the  most  10Z.,  the  common  price  is  about  51. 

After  the  day’s  work  at  Arban  I generally  rode  with  Suttum  into  the 
Desert  on  our  delouls,  with  the  hawks  and  greyhounds.  During  these  rides 
over  the  flowered  greensward,  the  Arab  Sheikh  would  entertain  me  with 
stories  of  his  tribe,  of  their  wars  and  intrigues,  their  successful  plundering 
expeditions,  and  their  occasional  defeats.  In  the  evening  Mohammed  Emin 
would  join  our  party  in  the  tent,  remaining  until  the  night  was  far  spent 
Both  the  Arab  chiefs  were  much  troubled  by  the  report  of  an  expedition 
against  the  tribes,  to  which  the  approach  of  Suleiman  Agha,  with  a con- 
siderable body  of  troops,  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Khabour,  had  given  rise. 
However,  the  season  was  too  far  advanced  for  the  march  of  an  army  through 
the  waterless  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  A general  campaign  against  the  Be- 
douins must  be  undertaken  in  the  winter,  or  very  early  in  the  spring,  and 
even  then,  if  organised  by  the  Turks,  would  probably  fail.  The  Shammar 
would  at  once  leave  Mesopotamia,  and  take  refuge  in  the  deserts  of  Nedjd, 
where  no  troops  could  follow  them.  They  would,  of  course,  abandon  their 
flocks  and  the  greater  part  of  their  camels,  but  they  would  be  ready  to  re- 
turn as  soon  as  the  enemy  retreated  from  the  open  country,  and  to  revenge 
themselves  amply  for  their  losses  upon  the  unprotected  population  of  the 
cultivated  districts.  To  bring  the  Bedouins  under  subjection,  a regular  sys- 
tem, steadily  pursued,  and  well  selected  military  posts,  are  essentially  nec- 
essary. 

The  grass  around  Arban  having  been  eaten  by  the  flocks,  the  Jebours 
struck  their  tents  at  dawn  on  the  4th  of  April,  and  wandered  down  the  Kha- 

* Burckhardt  (Notes  on  the  Bedouins,  &c.  p.  262.)  mentions  as  the  best  authenti- 
cated instance  of  the  wonderful  speed  and  endurance  of  a deloul  which  had  come  to 
his  knowledge,  a journey  for  a wager,  of  115  miles  in  eleven  hours,  including  twenty 
minutes  in  crossing  the  Nile  twice  in  a ferry-boat.  As  that  traveller,  however,  justly 
remarks,  it  is  by  the  ease  with  which  they  can  carry  their  rider  during  an  uninter- 
rupted journey  of  several  days  and  nights  at  a kind  of  easy  amble  of  five,  or  five  and 
a half  miles,  an  hour,  that  they  are  unequalled  by  any  other  animal. 


250 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIII. 


bour  in  search  of  fresh  pastures.  The  Boraij,  too,  moved  further  inland  from 
the  river.  During  the  whole  morning  the  Desert  around  the  ruins  was  a 
busy  scene ; sheep,  cattle,  beasts  of  burden,  men,  women,  and  children  be- 
ing scattered  far  and  wide  over  the  plain.  By  midday  the  crowd  had  dis- 
appeared, and  the  meadows,  which  a few  hours  before  had  been  teeming  with 
living  things,  were  now  again  left  lonely  and  bare.  I know  no  feeling  more 
melancholy  than  that  caused  by  the  sudden  breaking  up  of  a large  tribe, 
and  by  the  sight  of  the  spent  fires  and  rubbish-heaps  of  a recent  encamp- 
ment; the  silence  and  solitude  which  have  suddenly  succeeded  to  the  busy 
scene  of  an  Arab  community.  Mohammed  Emin  alone,  with  a few  Shera- 
been  Arabs,  remained  to  protect  us. 

Soon  after  our  arrival  at  the  Khabour,  Adla,  Suttum’s  first  wife,  came  to 
us  with  her  child.  After  the  Sheikh’s  marriage  with  Rathaiyah,  she  had 
been  driven  from  her  husband’s  tent  by  the  imperious  temper  of  his  new 
bride,  and  had  returned  to  Moghamis  her  father.  Her  eldest  sister  was  the 
wife  of  Suttum’s  eldest  brother  Sahiman,  and  her  youngest,  Maizi,  was  be- 
trothed to  Suttum’s  youngest  brother  Midjwell.  The  three  were  remark- 
able for  their  beauty  ; their  dark  eyes  had  the  true  Bedouin  fire,  and  their 
long  black  hair  fell  in  clusters  on  their  shoulders.  Their  cousins,  the  three 
brothers,  had  claimed  them  as  their  brides  according  to  Bedouin  law.* 
Adla  now  sought  to  be  reconciled  through  me  to  her  husband.  Rathaiyah, 
the  new  wife,  whose  beauty  was  already  on  the  wane,  dreaded  her  young 
rival’s  share  in  the  affections  of  her  lord,  over  whom  she  had  established 
more  intjuence  than  a lady  might  be  supposed  to  exercise  over  her  spouse 
amongst  independent  Arabs.  The  Sheikh  was  afraid  to  meet  Adla,  until, 
after  much  negotiation,  Hormuzd  acting  as  ambassador,  the  proud  Rathai- 
yah consented  to  receive  her  in  her  tent.  Then  the  injured  lady  refused 
to  accept  these  terms,  and  the  matter  was  only  finished  by  Hormuzd  tak- 
ing her  by  the  arm  and  dragging  her  by  force  over  the  grass  to  her  rival. 
There  all  the  outward  forms  of  perfect  reconciliation  were  satisfactorily  gone 
through,  although  Suttum  evidently  saw  that  there  was  a different  recep- 
tion in  store  for  himself  when  there  were  no  European  eye-witnesses.  Such 
are  the  trials  of  married  life  in  the  Desert ! 

I may  here  mention  that  polygamy  is  very  common  amongst  the  Bedou- 
ins. It  is  considered  disgraceful  for  a man  to  accept  money  for  his  daugh- 
ter, according  to  the  custom  in  towns  and  amongst  the  cultivating  tribes ; 
and  a girl  cannot  be  forced  against  her  will  to  marry  a man  unless  he  be 
her  cousin,  and  legally  entitled  to  demand  her  hand. 

On  the  6th  of  April  we  witnessed  a remarkable  electrical  phenomenon. 
During  the  day  heavy  clouds  had  been  hanging  on  the  horizon,  foreboding 
one  of  those  furious  storms  which  at  this  time,  of  the  year  occasionally  visit 
the  Desert.  Late  in  the  afternoon  these  clouds  had  gathered  into  one  vast 
circle,  which  moved  slowly  round  like  an  enormous  wheel,  presenting  one 

* Amongst  the  Bedouins  a man  has  a right  to  demand  his  cousin  in  marriage,  and 
she  cannot  refuse  him. 


A BEDOUIN  YOUTH. 


251 


Chap.  XIII.] 

of  the  most  extraordinary  and  awful  appearances  I ever  saw.  From  its 
sides  leaped,  without  ceasing,  forked  flames  of  lightning.  Clouds  spring- 
ing up  from  all  sides  of  the  heavens,  were  dragged  hurriedly  into  the  vor- 
tex, which  advanced  gradually  towards  us,  and  threatened  soon  to  break 
over  our  encampment.  Fortunately,  however,  we  only  felt  the  very  edge 
of  the  storm,- — a deluge  of  rain  and  of  hail  of  the  size  of  pigeons’  eggs.  The 
great  rolling  cloud,  attracted  by  the  Sinjar  hill,  soon  passed  away,  leaving 
in  undiminished  splendor  the  setting  sun. 

Monday , 8 th  of  April.  The  Mogdessi,  one  of  my  servants,  caught  a 
turtle  in  the  river  measuring  three  feet  in  length.  The  Arabs  have  many 
stories  of  the  voracity  of  these  animals,  which  attain,  I am  assured,  to  even 
a larger  size,  and  Suttum  declared  that  a man  had  been  pulled  under  wa- 
ter and  devoured  by  one,  probably  an  Arab  exaggeration. 

A Bedouin,  who  had  been  attacked  by  a lion  whilst  resting,  about  five 
hours  lower  down  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  came  to  our  encampment.  He 
had  escaped  with  the  loss  of  his  mare.  The  lion  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
jungles  of  the  Khabour,  and  the  Bedouins  and  Jebours  frequently  find  their 
cubs  in  the  spring  season. 

In  the  afternoon,  Mohammed  Emin  learned  that  the  Sherabeen  buffalo 
keepers,  who  lived  under  his  protection  paying  a small  annual  tribute, 
were  about  to  leave  him  for  the  Tai  of  Nisibin,  with  whom  the  Jebours 
had  a blood  feud.  The  Sheikh  asked  the  help  of  my  workmen  to  bring 
back  the  refractory  tribe,  who  were  encamped  about  three  hours  up  the 
river,  and  the  party  marched  in  the  evening  singing  their  war  songs. 

April  9th.  Messengers  arrived  during  the  night  for  further  assistance, 
and  Suttum  mounting  his  mare  joined  the  combatants.  Early  in  the  morn- 
ing the  Jebours  returned  in  triumph,  driving  the  flocks  and  buffaloes  of  the 
Sherabeen  before  them.  They  were  soon  followed  by  the  tribe,  who  were 
compelled  to  pitch  their  tents  near  our  encampment. 

A Bedouin  youth,  thin  and  sickly,  though  of  a daring  and  resolute  coun- 
tenance, sat  in  my  guest  tent.  His  singular  appearance  at  once  drew  my 
attention.  His  only  clothing  was  a kerchief,  very  dirty  and  torn,  falling 
over  his  head,  and  a ragged  cloak,  which  he  drew  tightly  round  him,  al- 
lowing the  end  of  a knotted  club  to  appear  above  its  folds.  His  story, 
which  he  was  at  length  induced  to  tell,  was  characteristic  of  Bedouin  ed- 
ucation. He  was  of  the  Boraij  tribe,  and  related  to  Suttum.  His  father 
was  too  poor  to  equip  him  with  mare  and  spear,  and  he  was  ashamed  to 
be  seen  by  the  Arabs  on  foot  and  unarmed.  He  had  now  become  a man, 
for  he  was  about  fourteen  years  old,  and  he  resolved  to  trust  to  his  own 
skill  for  his  outfit  as  a warrior.  Leaving  in  his  father’s  tent  all  his  clothes, 
except  his  dirty  keffieh  and  his  tattered  aba,  and,  without  communicating 
his  plans  to  his  friends,  he  bent  his  way  to  the  Euphrates.  For  three 
months  his  family  hearing  nothing  of  him,  believed  him  to  be  dead.  Dur- 
ing that  time,  however,  he  had  lived  in  the  river  jungle,  feeding  on  roots 
and  herbs,  hiding  himself  during  the  day  in  the  thickets,  and  prowling  at 


252 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XIII. 


night  round  the  tents  of  the  Aneyza  in  search  of  a mare  that  might  have 
strayed,  or  might  be  less  carefully  guarded  than  usual.  At  length  the  ob- 
ject of  his  ambition  was  found,  and  such  a mare  had  never  been  seen  be- 
fore ; but,  alas  ! her  legs  were  bound  with  iron  shackles,  and  he  had  brought 
no  file  with  him.  He  succeeded  in  leading  her  to  some  distance  from  the 
encampment,  where,  as  morning  dawned,  to  avoid  detection,  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  his  prize  and  return  to  his  hiding-place.  He  was  now  on  his  way 
back  to  his  tents,  intending  to  set  forth  again,  after  recruiting  his  strength, 
on  new  adventures  in  search  of  a mare  and  spear,  promising  to  be  wiser 
in  future  and  to  carry  a file  under  his  cloak.  Suttum  seemed  very  proud 
of  his  relative,  and  introduced  him  to  me  as  a promising,  if  not  distinguish- 
ed, character.*  It  is  thought  no  disgrace  thus  to  steal  a mare  as  long  as 
the  thief  has  not  eaten  bread  in  the  tent  of  her  owner. 

April  11  th.  The  waters  of  this  river  had  been  rising  rapidly  since  the 
recent  storm,  and  now  spread  over  the  meadows.  We  moved  our  tents, 
and  the  Arabs  took  refuge  on  the  mound,  which  stood  like  an  island  in  the 
midst  of  the  flood.  The  Jebours  killed  four  beavers,  and  brought  three  of 
their  young  to  us  alive.  They  had  been  driven  from  their  holes  by  the 
swollen  stream.  Mohammed  Emin  eagerly  accepted  the  musk  bags,  which 
are  much  valued  as  majouns  by  the  Turks,  and,  consequently,  fetch  a large 
price  in  the  towns.  The  Arabs  eat  the  flesh,  and  it  was  cooked  for  us,  but 
proved  coarse  and  tough.  The  young  we  kept  for  some  days  on  milk,  but 
they  eventually  died.  Their  cry  resembled  that  of  a new-born  infant. 
The  Khabour  beavers  appeared  to  me  to  differ  in  several  respects  from 
the  American.  The  tail,  instead  of  being  large  and  broad,  was  short 
and  pointed.  They  do  not  build  huts,  but  burrow  in  the  banks,  taking 
care  to  make  the  entrance  to  their  holes  below  the  surface  of  the  stream 
to  avoid  detection,  and  the  chambers  above,  out  of  reach  of  the  ordinary 
floods. 

Beavers  were  formerly  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  Khabour,  but  in 
consequence  of  the  value  attached  to  the  musk  bag,  they  have  been  hunted 
almost  to  extermination  by  the  Arabs.  Mohammed  Emin  assured  me  that 
for  several  years  not  more  than  one  or  two  had  been  seen.  Sofuk,  the  great 
Shammar  Sheikh,  used  to  consider  the  musk  bag  of  a beaver  the  most  ac- 
ceptable present  he  could  send  to  a Turkish  Pasha,  whose  friendship  he 
wished  to  secure. 

Two  Sheikhs  of  the  Buggara  Arabs,  who  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates opposite  Dair,  visited  our  encampment.  They  described  some  large 
mounds  near  their  tents,  called  Sen,  to  which  they  offered  to  take  me ; but 
I was  unable  to  leave  my  party.  The  tribe  is  nominally  under  the  Pasha 

* The  title  of  haraymi  (thief),  so  far  from  being  one  of  disgrace,  is  considered  ev- 
idence of  great  prowess  and  capacity  in  a young  man.  Like  the  Spartans  of  old  he 
only  suffers  if  caught  in  the  act.  There  was  a man  of  the  Assaiyah  tribe  who  had 
established  an  immense  renown  by  stealing  no  less  than  ninety  horses,  amongst  which 
was  the  celebrated  mare  given  by  Sofuk  to  Beder  Khan  Bey. 


MOUND  OF  SHEDADI. 


253 


Chap.  XIII.] 

of  Aleppo,  but  only  pay  him  taxes  when  he  can  send  a sufficient  force  to 
collect  them. 

Our  encampment  was  further  increased  hy  several  families  of  Jays,  who 
had  fled  from  the  north  on  account  of  some  quarrel  with  the  rest  of  the 
tribe.  They  inhabit  the  country  round  the  ancient  Harran  and  Orfa,  the 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  still  called  Urrha  by  the  Bedouins. 

April  12 th.  We  rode  this  morning  with  Mohammed  Emin,  Suttum,  and 
the  Sheikhs  of  the  Buggara,  Jays,  and  Sherabeen,  to  the  tents  of  the  Je- 
bours,  which  had  now  been  moved  some  miles  down  the  river.  Rathaiyah 
remained  behind.  The  large  tents  and  the  workmen  were  left  under  the 
care  of  the  Bairakdar.  The  chiefs  were  mounted  on  well-bred  mares,  ex- 
cept one  of  the  Jays  Sheikhs,  who  rode  a handsome  and  high-mettled  horse. 
He  was  gaily  dressed  in  a scarlet  cloak  lined  with  fur,  a many-colored  kef- 
fieh,  and  new  yellow  boots.  His  steed,  too,  was  profusely  adorned  with 
silken  tassels,  and  small  bells,  chains,  and  other  ornaments  of  silver,  re- 
minding me  forcibly  of  the  horses  of  the  Assyrian  sculptures.  He  had  been 
in  the  service  of  the  Turks,  whose  language  he  had  learned,  and  from  whom 
he  had  acquired  his  taste  for  finery.  He  was  a graceful  rider,  and  man- 
aged his  horse  with  great  dexterity. 

About  three  miles  from  Arban  we  passed  a small  artificial  mound  called 
Tel  Hamer  (the  red) ; and  similar  ruins  abound  on  the  banks  of  the  river. 
Kear  it  we  met  four  Shammar  Bedouins,  who  had  turned  back  empty- 
handed  from  a thieving  expedition  to  the  Aneyza,  on  account  of  the  floods 
of  the  Euphrates,  which  they  described  as  spreading  over  the  surrounding 
country  like  a sea. 

Three  hours  from  Arban  we  reached  a remarkable  artificial  mound 
called  Shedadi,  washed  by  the  Khabour.  It  consists  of  a lofty  platform, 
nearly  square,  from  the  centre  of  which  springs  a cone.  On  the  top  are 
the  tombs  of  several  Jebour  chiefs,  marked  by  the  raised  earth,  and  by  small 
trees  now  dry,  fixed  upright  in  the  graves.  I found  fragments  of  pottery 
and  bricks,  but  no  trace  of  inscriptions. 

Between  Shedadi  and  Arban  we  saw  several  ruined  bridges,  probably  of 
the  time  of  the  Caliphs.  The  mounds  are  evidently  the  remains  of  a much 
earlier  civilisation,  when  the  Assyrian  empire  extended  far  beyond  the  Kha- 
bour, and  when,  as  we  learn  from  the  inscriptions,  the  whole  face  of  the 
country  was  covered  with  cities,  and  with  a thriving  and  wealthy  population. 

We  did  not  reach  the  encampment  of  Mohammed  Emin,  spreading  three 
or  four  miles  along  the  Khabour,  until  after  sunset.  The  chief’s  tents 
were  pitched  near  a mound  called  Ledjmiyat,  on  a bend  of  the  river,  and 
opposite  to  a very  thick  zor  or  jungle,  known  to  the  Arabs  as  El  Bostan, 
“ the  garden,”  a kind  of  stronghold  of  the  tribe,  which  the  Sheikh  declared 
could  resist  the  attack  of  any  number  of  nizam  (regular  troops),  if  only  de- 
fended by  Jebours.  Suttum  looked  upon  the  grove  rather  as  a delicious 
retreat  from  the  rays  of  the  summer’s  sun,  to  which  the  Boraij  occasionally 
resorted,  than  as  a place  for  war. 


254 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIII 

During  the  evening,  the  different  Sheikhs  assembled  in  my  tent  to  plan 
a ghazou,  or  plundering  expedition,  for  the  following  day,  against  the  Agay- 
dat,  encamped  at  Abou  Psera  (Carchemish).  Suttum  was  much  cast  down 
at  not  being  able  to  join  them,  and  mourned  over  his  life  of  inactivity.  I 
urged  him  to  go,  hut  he  vowed  that,  as  long  as  we  were  under  his  protec- 
tion, he  would  not  leave  us.  I should  have  taken  this  opportunity  to  visit 
the  Khahour  to  its  mouth,  hut  did  not  wish  to  appear  to  mix  myself  up 
with  the  broils  of  the  tribes.* 

On  the  following  morning,  Mohammed  Emin,  with  two  of  his  sons,  the 
horsemen  of  the  tribe,  and  the  Sheikhs  who  were  his  guests,  started  on 
their  ghazou.  They  were  all  mounted  on  mares,  except  the  Jays  chief 
and  one  of  Mohammed  Emin’s  sons,  who  rode  a beautiful  white  horse  of 
the  Khalawi  race.  I accompanied  them  as  far  as  a large  ruin  called 
Shemshani.  Suttum  came  with  us  carrying  his  hawk,  Hattab,  on  his  wrist. 

The  plain,  like  all  the  country  watered  by  the  Khabour,  was  one  vast 
meadow  teeming  with  flowers.  Game  abounded,  and  the  falcon  soon  flew 
towards  a bustard,  which  his  piercing  eye  had  seen  lurking  in  the  long 
grass.  The  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens,  already  soaring  in  the  sky  was 
the  enemy  of  the  trained  hawk,  the  “ agab,”  a kind  of  kite  or  eagle,  whose 
name,  signifying  “ butcher,”  denotes  his  bloody  propensities.!  Although 
far  beyond  our  ken,  he  soon  saw  Hattab,  and  darted  upon  him  in  one 
swoop.  The  affrighted  falcon  immediately  turned  from  his  quarry,  and 
with  shrill  cries  of  distress  flew  towards  us.  After  circling  round,  unable 
from  fear  to  alight,  he  turned  towards  the  Desert,  still  followed  by  his  re- 
lentless enemy.  In  vain  his  master,  following  as  long  as  his  mare  could 
carry  him,  waved  the  lure,  and  called  the  hawk  by  his  name  ; he  saw  him 
no  more.  Whether  the  noble  bird  escaped,  or  fell  a victim  to  the  “butch- 
er,” we  never  knew. 

Suttum  was  inconsolable  at  his  loss.  He  wept  when  he  returned  with- 
out his  falcon  on  his  wrist,  and  for  days  he  would  suddenly  exclaim,  “ 0 
Bej  ! Billah  ! Hattab  was  not  a bird,  he  was  my  brother.”  He  was  one 
of  the  best  trained  hawks  I ever  saw  amongst  the  Bedouins,  and  was  of 
some  substantial  value  to  his  owner,  as  he  would  daily  catch  six  or  seven 
bustards,  except  during  the  hottest  part  of  summer,  when  the  falcon  is  un- 
able to  hunt. 

About  a mile  and  a half  below  Ledjmiyat,  but  on  the  opposite  hank  of 
the  river,  was  another  large  mound  called  Fedgharni.  We  reached  Shem- 
shani in  an  hour  and  three  quarters.  It  is  a considerable  ruin  on  the  Kha- 
bour, and  consists  of  one  lofty  mound,  surrounded  on  the  Desert  side  by 
smaller  mounds  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  It  abounds  in  fragments  of  glazed 

* The  confluence  of  the  Euphrates  and  Khabour  is,  according  to  Arab  reckoning, 
one  day’s  journey  from  Ledjmiyat,  and  two  short  from  Arban.  Arban  is  two  long 
days  from  Nisibin,  three  from  Orfa,  and  four  from  Severek. 

t Easterns  never  hawk,  if  they  can  avoid  it,  when  the  sun  is  high,  as  the  bird  of 
prey  described  in  the  text  then  appears  in  search  of  food. 


DEPARTURE  OF  THE  JEBOURS. 


255 


Chap.  XIII.] 

and  plain  pottery,  bricks,  and  black  basaltic  stone,  but  I could  find  no 
traces  of  sculpture  or  inscription.  The  remains  of  walls  protrude  in  many 
places  from  the  soil.  Above  the  ancient  ruins  once  stood  a castle,  the 
foundations  of  which  may  still  be  seen. 

The  Arabs  have  many  traditions  attaching  to  these  ruins.  Amongst 
others,  that  they  are  the  remains  of  the  capital  of  an  infidel  king,  whose 
daughter,  at  the  time  of  the  first  Mussulman  invasion,  eloped  with  a true 
believer.  The  lovers  were  pursued  by  the  father,  overtaken,  and  killed  (the 
lady  having,  of  course,  first  embraced  Islamism),  in  a narrow  valley  of  the 
neighbouring  hills.  A flickering  flame,  still  distinctly  seen  to  rise  from 
the  earth  on  Friday  nights,  marks  the  spot  of  their  martyrdom.  The  city 
soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mussulmans,  who  took  a signal  revenge  upon 
its  idolatrous  inhabitants. 

The  Jebours  some  years  ago  cultivated  the  lands  around  Shemshani,  and 
there  are  still  many  traces  of  watercourses,  and  of  the  square  plots  set  apart 
for  rice.* 

Leaving  Mohammed  Emin  to  continue  his  journey  we  returned  to  our 
tents.  On  our  road  we  met  Moghamis,  and  a large  party  of  Bedouins  on 
their  way  to  join  the  Jebour  horsemen,  for  they  also  had  been  invited  to  take 
part  in  the  attack  on  the  Agaydat,  and  to  share  in  the  spoil.  They  rode 
their  swift  dromedaries,  two  men  on  each,  the  rediff  leading  the  mare  of 
his  companion  ; that  of  the  Sheikh  was  of  the  Obeyan  race,  and  far  famed 
in  the  Desert.  She  was  without  saddle  or  clothes,  and  we  could  admire 
the  exquisite  symmetry  and  beauty  of  her  form. 

We  dismounted,  embraced,  and  exchanged  a few  words.  The  Bedouins 
then  continued  their  rapid  course  over  the  Desert.  We  passed  other  riders 
on  delouls  and  mares,  hastening  to  join  the  main  body,  or  to  meet  their 
friends  at  the  rendezvous  for  the  night  near  Abou  Psera.  The  attack  on 
the  tents  was  to  be  made  at  dawn  on  the  following  morning,  the  true  Be- 
douin never  taking  an  unfair  advantage  of  his  enemy  in  the  dark. 

April  14 th.  We  were  awoke  long  before  dawn  by  the  Jebours  striking 
their  tents.  By  sunrise  the  whole  encampment  had  disappeared,  and  we 
were  left  almost  alone.  They  were  returning  towards  Arban,  fearing  lest 
the  Agaydat,  assisted  by  the  Aneyza,  might  seek  a speedy  revenge  after  the 
attack  upon  them.  We  breakfasted,  and  then  soon  overtook  the  line  of 
march.  For  two  hours  we  amused  ourselves  by  riding  through  the  dense 
and  busy  throng.  I have  already  described  the  singular  spectacle  of  a great 
Arab  tribe  changing  its  pastures, — its  mingled  crowd  of  women  and  girls, 
some  with  burdens,  others  without,  of  warriors  on  high-bred  mares  and  on 
fleet  camels,  of  shepherds  with  their  knotted  clubs,  of  sheep,  goats,  camels, 
beasts  of  burden,  children,  lambs,  and  all  the  various  appendages  of  Arab 
life.  A more  stirring  and  joyous  scene  can  scarcely  be  imagined. 

* Between  Shemshani  and  the  mouth  of  the  Khabour,  according  to  Mohammed 
Emin,  are  the  following  mounds : El  Murgadeh  (about  five  miles  distant),  El  Hussain, 
Sheikh  Ahmed,  Suor,  and  El  Efdaya. 


256 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIII. 


The  family  of  the  chief,  as  is  usual,  moved  in  front  of  the  tribe.  We 
left  them  pitching  their  tents  near  the  mound  of  Shedadi,  and  rode  to  our 
own  encampment  at  Arban. 

On  the  16th  of  April,  Mohammed  Emin  and  his  sons  returned  from  their 
expedition,  driving  before  them  their  spoil  of  cows,  oxen,  and  mares.  The 
Agaydat  were  taken  by  surprise,  and  made  but  a feeble  defence  ; there  was, 
consequently,  little  bloodshed,  as  is  usually  the  case  when  Arabs  go  on  these 
forays.  The  fine  horse  of  the  Jays  chief  had  received  a bad  gunshot  wound, 
and  this  was  the  only  casualty  amongst  my  friends.  Mohammed  Emin 
brought  me  one  or  two  of  the  captured  mares  as  an  offering.  They  were, 
of  course,  returned,  but  they  involved  the  present  of  silk  dresses  to  the* 
Sheikh  and  his  sons. 

April  18 th.  To-day  we  visited  the  tents  of  Moghamis  and  his  tribe  : 
they  were  pitched  about  five  miles  from  the  river.  The  face  of  the  Desert 
was  as  burnished  gold.  Its  last  change  was  to  flowers  of  the  brightest  yel- 
low hue,*  and  the  whole  plain  was  dressed  with  them.  Suttum  rioted  in 
the  luxuriant  herbage  and  scented  air.  I never  saw  him  so  exhilarated. 

What  Kef  (delight),”  he  continually  exclaimed,  as  his  mare  waded  through 
the  flowers,  “ has  God  given  us  equal  to  this  ? It  is  the  only  thing  worth 
living  for.  Ya  Bej  ! what  do  the  dwellers  in  cities  know  of  true  happiness, 
they  have  never  seen  grass  or  flowers  ? May  God  have  pity  on  them  !” 

The  tents  were  scattered  far  and  wide  over  the  plain.  The  mares  re- 
cently returned  from  the  foray  wandered  loose  in  the  midst  of  them,  crop- 
ping the  rich  grass.  We  were  most  hospitably  received  by  Moghamis. 
Such  luxuries,  in  the  way  of  a ragged  carpet  and  an  old  coverlet,  as  his  tent 
could  afford,  had  been  spread  for  Mrs.  K.,  whose  reputation  had  extended 
far  and  wide  amongst  the  Arabs,  and  who  was  looked  upon  as  a wonder,  but 
always  treated  with  the  greatest  consideration  and  respect.  The  wild  Be- 
douin would  bring  a present  of  camel’s  milk  or  truffles,  and  the  boys  caught 
jerboas  and  other  small  animals  for  the  Frank  lady.  During  the  whole  of 
our  journey  she  was  never  exposed  to  annoyance,  although  wearing,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Tarboush,  or  an  Arab  cloak,  the  European  dress. 

Moghamis  clad  himself  in  a coat  of  chain  mail,  of  ordinary  materials  and 
rude  workmanship,  but  still  strong  enough  to  resist  the  coarse  iron  spear- 
heads of  the  Arab  lance,  though  certainly  no  protection  against  a well-tem- 
pered blade.  The  Arabs  wear  their  armour  beneath  the  shirt,  because  an 
enemy  would  otherwise  strike  at  the  mare  and  not  at  her  rider.t 

After  we  had  enjoyed  all  the  luxuries  of  an  Arab  feast,  visited  the  wom- 
en’s compartments,  where  most  of  the  ladies  of  the  tribe  had  assembled  to 

* I have  already  mentioned  the  changes  in  the  colors  of  the  Desert.  Almost  in  as 
many  days  white  had  succeeded  to  pale  straw  color,  red  to  white,  blue  to  red,  lilac  to 
blue,  and  now  the  face  of  the  country  was  as  described  in  the  text. 

■*>  One  of  the  principal  objects  of  Bedouins  in  battle  being  to  carry  off  their  adver- 
saries’ mares,  they  never  wound  them  if  they  can  avoid  it,  but  endeavour  to  kill  or 
unhorse  the  riders. 


Chap.  XIII.]  return  to  arban.  257 

greet  us,  examined  the  “ chetab,”  or  camel  saddle,  used  by  the  wives  of  the 
chiefs,*  and  inquired  into  various  details  of  the  harem,  we  returned  as  we 
came,  through  the  flowers  and  long  grass  to  our  tents  at  Arban. 

* See  woodcut,  p.  63.,  of  the  abridged  edition  of  my  “ Nineveh  and  its  Remains,” 
for  a sketch  of  this  extraordinary  contrivance. 


Saddling  a Deloul,  or  Dromedary. 

R 


Kurdish  Women. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

LEAVE  ARBAN. THE  BANKS  OF  THE  KHABOUR. ARTIFICIAL  MOUNDS. MIJWELL. THE 

CADI  OF  THE  BEDOUINS. THE  THAR  OR  BLOOD-REVENGE. CAUTION  OF  ARABS. A NAT- 
URAL CAVERN. AN  EXTINCT  VOLCANO. THE  CONFLUENTS  OF  THE  KHABOUR. — BE- 
DOUIN MARKS. SULEIMAN  AGHA. ENCAMPMENT  AT  UM-JERJEH. THE  TURKISH  IRREG- 
ULAR CAVALRY. MOUND  OF  MIJDEL. RUINS  ON  THE  KHABOUR. MOHAMMED  EMIN 

LEAVES  US. VISIT  TO  KURDISH  TENTS  AND  HAREM. THE  MILLI  KURDS. THE  FAMILY 

OF  RISHWAN. ARAB  LOVE-MAKING. THE  DAKHEEL. BEDOUIN  POETS  AND  POETRY. 

TURKISH  CAVALRY  HORSES. 

The  hot  weather  was  rapidly  drawing  near.  Enough  had  not  been  dis- 
covered in  the  mound  of  Arban,  nor  were  there  ruins  of  sufficient  import- 
ance near  the  river,  to  induce  me  to  remain  much  longer  on  the  Khabour. 
I wished,  however,  to  explore  the  stream,  as  far  as  I was  able,  towards  its 
principal  source,  and  to  visit  Suleiman  Agha,  the  Turkish  commander,  who 
was  now  encamped  on  .its  banks.  In  answer  to  a letter,  he  urged  me  to 
come  to  his  tents,  and  to  bring  the  Sheikh  of  the  Jebours  with  me,  pledg- 
ing himself  to  place  no  restraint  whatever  on  the  perfect  liberty  of  the 
Arab  chief.  With  such  a guarantee,  I ventured  to  invite  Mohammed  Emin 
to  accompany  me.  After  much  hesitation,  arising  from  a very  natural  fear 
of  treachery,  he  consented  to  do  so. 

On  the  19th  of  April  we  crossed  the  Khabour,  and  encamped  for  the  night 
on  its  southern  bank.  On  the  following  morning  we  turned  from  the  ruins 
of  Arban,  and  commenced  our  journey  to  the  eastward.  The  Jebours  were 
now  dwelling  higher  up  the  stream,  and  Mohammed  Emin,  with  his  two 
sons,  and  Abdullah  his  nephew,  met  us  on  our  way.  He  was  still  in  doubt 
as  to  whether  he  should  go  with  me  or  not ; but  at  last,  after  more  than 


SUTTUM’S  return  to  his  tents. 


259 


Chap  XIV.] 

once  turning  back,  he  took  a desperate  resolution,  and  pushed  his  mare 
boldly  forward.  His  children  commended  him,  with  tears,  to  my  protec- 
tion, and  then  left  our  caravan  for  their  tents. 

We  rode  from  bend  to  bend  of  the  river,  without  following  its  tortuous 
course.  Its  banks  are  belted  with  poplars,  tamarisks,  and  brushwood,  the 
retreat  of  wild  boars,  francolins,  and  other  game,  and  studded  with  artifi- 
cial mounds,  the  remains  of  ancient  settlements.  This  deserted  though  rich 
and  fertile  district  must,  at  one  time,  have  been  the  seat  of  a dense  popu- 
lation. It  is  only  under  such  a government  as  that  of  Turkey  that  it  could 
remain  a wilderness.  The  first  large  ruin  above  Arban,  and  some  miles 
from  it  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  is  called  Mishnak.  According  to  a tra- 
dition preserved  by  the  Jebours,  the  Persians  were  defeated  near  it,  with 
great  slaughter,  in  the  early  days  of  Islam,  by  the  celebrated  Arab  tribe  of 
the  Zobeide.  About  one  mile  and  a half  beyond  is  another  ruin  called 
Abou  Shalah,  and  three  miles  further  up  the  stream  a third,  called  Taaban, 
upon  which  are  the  remains  of  a modern  fort.  Near  Taaban,  Mohammed 
Emin  had  recently  built  a small  enclosure  of  rude  stone  walls,  a place  of 
refuge  in  case  of  an  attack  from  the  Aneyza  Bedouins.  Around  it  the  Je- 
bours sow  corn  and  barley,  re-opening  the  ancient  water-courses  to  bring 
water  to  their  fields.  The  wheat  was  almost  ready  for  the  sickle  even  at 
this  early  season  of  the  year. 

After  a short  day’s  journey  of  four  hours  and  a half  we  raised  our  tents 
for  the  night  amongst  luxuriant  herbage,  which  afforded  abundant  pasture 
for  our  horses  and  camels.  The  spot  was  called  Nahab.  The  river,  divided 
into  two  branches  by  a string  of  small  wooded  islands,  is  fordable  except 
during  the  freshes.  Near  our  encampment  was  a large  mound  named 
Mehlaibiyah,  and  in  the  stream  I observed  fragments  of  stone  masonry, 
probably  the  remains  of  ancient  dams  for  irrigation. 

Next  morning  Suttum  returned  to  his  tents  with  Rathaiyah,  leaving  us 
under  the  care  of  his  younger  brother  Mijwell.  After  I had  visited  the 
Turkish  commander,  whom  he  did  not  appear  over  anxious  to  meet,  he  was 
to  join  us  in  the  Desert,  and  accompany  me  to  Mosul.  Mijwell  was  even 
of  a more  amiable  disposition  than  his  brother ; was  less  given  to  diplomacy, 
and  troubled  himself  little  with  the  politics  of  the  tribes.  A pleasant  smile 
lighted  up  his  features,  and  a fund  of  quaint  and  original  humor  made  him 
at  all  times  an  agreeable  companion.  Although  he  could  neither  read  nor 
write,  he  was  one  of  the  cadis  or  judges  of  the  Shammar,  an  office  hered- 
itary in  the  family  of  the  Saadi,  at  the  head  of  which  is  Rishwan.  The 
old  man  had  delegated  the  dignity  to  his  younger  son,  who,  by  the  consent 
of  his  brothers,  will  enjoy  it  after  their  father’s  death.  Disputes  of  all  kinds 
are  referred  to  these  recognised  judges.  Their  decrees  are  obeyed  with  read- 
iness, and  the  other  members  of  the  tribe  are  rarely  called  upon  to  enforce 
them.  They  administer  rude  justice;  and,  although  pretending  to  follow 
the  words  of  the  Prophet,  are  rather  guided  by  ancient  custom  than  by  the 
law  of  the  Koran,  which  binds  the  rest  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  The 


260 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chai>.  XIV 


most  common  source  of  litigatien  is,  of  course,  stolen  property.  They  re- 
ceive for  their  decrees,  payment  in  money  or  in  kind  ; and  he  who  gains  the 
suit  has  to  pay  the  fee.  Amongst  the  Shammar,  if  the  dispute  relates  to 
a deloul,  the  cadi  gets  two  gazees,  about  eight  shillings ; if  to  a mare,  a 
deloul;  if  to  a man,  a mare.*  Various  ordeals,  such  as  licking  a red-hot 
iron,  are  in  use,  to  prove  a man’s  innocence.  If  the  accused’s  tongue  is 
burnt,  no  doubt  exists  as  to  his  guilt. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  laws  in  force  amongst  the  wandering  Arabs, 
and  one  probably  of  the  highest  antiquity,  is  the  law  of  blood,  called  the 
Thar,  prescribing  the  degrees  of  consanguinity  within  which  it  is  lawful  to 
revenge  a homicide.  Although  a law,  rendering  a man  responsible  for 
blood  shed  by  any  one  related  to  him  within  the  fifth  degree,  may  appear 
to  members  of  a civilised  community  one  of  extraordinary  rigour,  and  in- 
volving almost  manifest  injustice,  it  must  nevertheless  be  admitted,  that 
no  power  vested  in  any  one  individual,  and  no  punishment,  however  severe, 
could  tend  more  to  the  maintenance  of  order  and  the  prevention  of  blood- 
shed amongst  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Desert.  As  Burckhardt  has  justly  re- 
marked, “ this  salutary  institution  has  contributed  in  a greater  degree  than 
any  other  circumstance,  to  prevent  the  warlike  tribes  of  Arabia  from  ex- 
terminating one  another.” 

If  a man  commit  a homicide,  the  cadi  endeavours  to  prevail  upon  the 
family  of  the  victim  to  accept  a compensation  for  the  blood  in  money  or  in 
kind,  the  amount  being  regulated  according  to  custom  in  different  tribes. 
Should  the  offer  of  “ blood-money”  he  refused,  the  “ Thar”  comes  into  oper- 
ation, and  any  person  within  the  “ khomse,”  or  the  fifth  degree  of  blood  of 
the  homicide,  may  be  legally  killed  by  any  one  within  the  same  degree  of 
consanguinity  to  the  victim.! 

This  law  is  enforced  between  tribes  remote  from  one  another,  as  well  as 
between  families,  and  to  the  blood-revenge  may  be  attributed  many  of  the 
bitter  feuds  which  exist  amongst  the  Arab  clans.  It  affects,  in  many  re- 
spects, their  social  condition,  and  has  a marked  influence  upon  their  habits, 
and  even  upon  their  manners.  Thus  an  Arab  will  never  tell  his  name,  es- 
pecially if  it  be  an  uncommon  one,  to  a stranger,  nor  mention  that  of  his 

* Burckhardt  gives  a somewhat  different  table  of  fees  as  existing  amongst  the  Be- 
douin tribes  with  which  he  was  acquainted.  His  whole  account  of  Arab  law  is  sin- 
gularly interesting  and  correct ; there  is,  indeed,  very  little  to  be  added  to  it.  (See 
his  Notes  on  the  Bedouins,  p.  66.) 

t Burckhardt  has  thus  defined  the  terms  of  this  law : “ The  Thar  rests  with  the 
khomse,  or  fifth  generation,  those  only  having  a right  to  revenge  a slain  parent, 
whose  fourth  lineal  ascendant  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  fourth  lineal  ascendant  of  the 
person  slain ; and,  on  the  other  side,  only  those  male  kindred  of  the  homicide  are 
liable  to  pay  with  their  own  for  the  blood  shed,  whose  fourth  lineal  ascendant  is  at 
the  same  time  the  fourth  lineal  ascendant  of  the  homicide.  The  present  generation 
is  thus  comprised  within  the  number  of  the  khomse.  The  lineal  descendants  of  all 
those  who  are  entitled  to  revenge  at  the  moment  of  the  manslaughter  inherit  the 
right  from  their  parents.  The  right  to  blood-revenge  is  never  lost ; it  descends  on 
both  sides  to  the  latest  generation.”  (Notes  on  Arabs,  p.  85.) 


A NATURAL  CAVERN. 


261 


Chap.  XIV.] 

father  or  of  his  tribe,  if  his  own  name  be  ascertained,  lest  there  should  he 
Thar  between  them.  Even  children  are  taught  to  observe  this  custom, 
that  they  may  not  fall  victims  to  the  blood  revenge.  Hence  the  extreme 
suspicion  with  which  a Bedouin  regards  a stranger  in  the  open  country,  or 
in  a tent,  and  his  caution  in  disclosing  anything  relating  to  the  movements, 
or  dwelling-place,  of  his  friends.  In  most  encampments  are  found  refugees, 
sometimes  whole  families,  who  have  left  their  tribe  on  account  of  a hom- 
icide for  which  they  are  amenable.  In  case,  after  a murder,  persons  with- 
in the  “ Thar”  take  to  flight,  three  days  and  four  hours  are  by  immemorial 
custom  allowed  to  the  fugitives  before  they  can  be  pursued.  Frequently 
they  never  return  to  their  friends,  but  remain  with  those  who  give  them 
protection,  and  become  incorporated  into  the  tribe  by  which  they  are  adopt- 
ed. Thus  there  are  families  of  the  Harb,  Aneyza,  Dhofyr,  and  other  great 
clans,  who  for  this  cause  have  joined  the  Shammar,  and  are  now  considered 
part  of  them.  Frequently  the  homicide  himself  will  wander  from  tent  to  tent 
over  the  Desert,  or  even  rove  through  the  towns  and  villages  on  its  borders, 
with  a chain  round  his  neck  and  in  rags,  begging  contributions  from  the 
charitable  to  enable  him  to  pay  the  apportioned  blood-money.  I have  fre 
quently  met  such  unfortunate  persons  who  have  spent  years  in  collecting 
a small  sum.  I will  not  weary  the  reader  with  an  account  of  the  various 
rules  observed  in  carrying  out  this  law,  where  persons  are  killed  in  private 
dissensions,  or  slain  in  the  act  of  stealing,  in  war,  or  in  the  ghazou.  In 
each  case  the  cadi  determines,  according  to  the  ancient  custom  of  the  tribe, 
the  proper  compensation. 

Mijwell  now  took  Suttum’s  place  in  the  caravan,  and  directed  the  order 
of  our  march.  Four  miles  from  Nahab  we  passed  a large  mound  called 
Thenenir,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  a spring  much  venerated  by  the  Arabs 
Around  it  the  Jebours  had  sown  a little  wheat.  Near  this  ruin  an  an- 
cient stone  dam  divides  the  Khabour  into  several  branches  : it  is  called 
the  “ Saba  Sekour ,”  or  the  seven  rocks. 

Leaving  the  caravan  to  pursue  the  direct  road,  I struck  across  the  coun- 
try to  the  hill  of  Koukab,  accompanied  by  Mohammed  Emin  and  Mijwell. 
This  remarkable  cone,  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  plain,  had  been  visible 
from  our  furthest  point  on  the  Khabour.  Some  of  the  Arabs  declared  it 
to  be  an  artificial  mound  ; others  said,  that  it  was  a mountain  of  stones. 
Mohammed  Emin  would  tell  me  of  a subterranean  lake  beneath  it,  in  a 
cavern  large  enough  to  afford  refuge  to  amy  number  of  men.  As  we  drew 
nearer,  the  plain  was  covered  with  angular  fragments  of  black  basalt,  and 
crossed  by  veins,  or  dykes,  of  the  same  volcanic  rock.  Mohammed  Emin 
led  us  first  to  the  mouth  of  a cave  in  a rocky  ravine  not  far  from  the  foot 
of  the  hill.  It  was  so  choked  with  stones  that  we  could  scarcely  squeeze 
ourselves  through  the  opening,  but  it  became  wider,  and  led  to  a descend- 
ing  passage,  the  bottom  of  which  was  lost  in  the  gloom.  We  advanced 
cautiously,  but  not  without  setting  in  motion  an  avalanche  of  loose  stones, 
which,  increasing  as  it  rolled  onwards,  by  its  loud  noise  disturbed  swarms 


262 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIV. 


of  bats  that  hung  to  the  sides  and  ceiling  of  the  cavern.  Flying  towards 
the  light,  these  noisome  beasts  almost  compelled  us  to  retreat.  They 
clung  to  our  clothes,  and  our  hands  could  scarcely  prevent  them  settling 
on  our  faces.  The  rustling  of  their  wings  was  like  the  noise  of  a great 
wind,  and  an  abominable  stench  arose  from  the  recesses  of  the  cave.  At 
length  they  settled  again  to  their  daily  sleep,  and  we  were  able  to  go  for- 
ward. 

After  descending  some  fifty  feet,  we  found  ourselves  on  the  margin  of  a 
lake  of  fresh  water.  The  pitchy  darkness  prevented  our  ascertaining  its 
size,  which  could  not  have  been  very  great,  although  the  Arabs  declared 
that  no  one  could  reach  the  opposite  side.  The  cave  is  frequently  a place 
of  refuge  for  the  wandering  Arabs,  and  the  Bedouins  encamp  near  it  in 
summer  to  drink  the  cool  water  of  this  natural  reservoir.  Mohammed 
Emin  told  me  that  last  year  he  had  found  a lion  in  it,  who,  on  being  dis- 
turbed, merely  rushed  out  and  fled  across  the  plain. 

Leaving  the  cavern  and  issuing  from  the  ravine,  we  came  to  the  edge 
of  a wide  crater,  in  the  centre  of  which  rose  the  remarkable  cone  of  Kou- 
kab.  To  the  left  of  us  was  a second  crater,  whose  lips  were  formed  by  the 
jaggy  edges  of  basaltic  rocks,  and  in  the  plain  around  were  several  others 
smaller  in  size.  They  were  all  evidently  the  remains  of  an  extinct  volca- 
no, which  had  been  active  within  a comparatively  recent  geological  period, 
even  perhaps  within  the  time  of  history,  or  tradition,  as  the  name  of  the 
mound  amongst  the  Arabs  denotes  a jet  of  fire  or  flame,  as  well  as  a con- 
stellation. 

I ascended  the  cone,  which  is  about  300  feet  high,  and  composed  en- 
tirely of  loose  lava,  scoria,  and  ashes,  thus  resembling  precisely  the  cone 
rising  in  the  craters  of  Vesuvius  and  .Etna.  It  is  steep  and  difficult  of 
ascent,  except  on  one  side,  where  the  summit  is  easily  reached  even  by 
horses.  Within,  for  it  is  hollow,  it  resembles  an  enormous  funnel,  broken 
away  at  one  edge,  as  if  a molten  stream  had  burst  through  it.  Anemonies 
and  poppies,  of  the  brightest  scarlet  hue,  covered  its  side  ; although  the  dry 
lava  and  loose  ashes  scarcely  seemed  to  have  collected  sufficient  soil  to 
nourish  their  roots.  It  would  be  difficult  to  describe  the  richness  and  brill- 
iancy of  this  mass  of  flowers,  the  cone  from  a distance  having  the  appear- 
ance of  a huge  inverted  cup  of  burnished  copper,  over  which  poured 
streams  of  blood. 

From  the  summit  of  Koukab  I gazed  upon  a scene  as  varied  as  exten- 
sive. Beneath  me  the  two  principal  branches  of  the  Khabour  united  their 
waters.  I could  track  them  for  many  miles  by  the  dark  line  of  then* 
wooded  banks,  as  they  wound  through  the  golden  plains.  To  the  left,  or 
the  west,  was  the  true  Khabour,  the  Chaboras  of  the  ancients  ; a name  it 
bears  from  its  source  at  Ras-al-ain  ( i . e.  the  head  of  the  spring).*  The 

* One  of  the  sources  of  this  branch  of  the  Khabour  is,  I am  told,  in  the  Kharej 
Dagh,  to  the  west  of  Mardin.  This  small  stream,  called  Ajjurgub,  falls  into  the  river 
near  Ras-al-Ain. 


BEDOUIN  MARKS. 


263 


Chap.  XIV.] 

second  stream,  that  to  the  east,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Jerujer  (a  name, 
as  uttered  by  the  Bedouins,  equally  difficult  to  pronounce  and  to  write), 
and  is  the  ancient  Mygdonius,  flowing  through  Nisibin.*  Khatouniyah 
and  its  lake  were  just  visible,  backed  by  the  solitary  hill  of  the  Sinjar. 
The  Kurdish  mountains  bounded  the  view  to  the  east.  In  the  plain,  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  rose  many  artificial  mounds  ; whilst,  in  the  ex- 
treme distance  to  the  north  could  be  distinguished  the  flocks  and  black 
tents  of  a large  wandering  tribe.  They  were  those  of  the  Chichi  and 
Milli  Kurds,  encamped  with  the  Turkish  commander  Suleiman  Agha. 

On  some  fragments  of  basaltic  rock  projecting  from  the  summit  of  the 
cone,  were  numerous  rudely-cut  signs,  which  might  have  been  taken  for 
ancient  and  unknown  characters.  They  were  the  devices  of  the  Sham- 
mar,  carved  there  on  the  visit  of  different  Sheikhs.  Each  tribe,  and,  in- 
deed, each  subdivision  and  family,  has  its  peculiar  mark  to  be  placed  upon 
their  property  and  burnt  upon  their  camels.  Mijwell  identified  the  signs ; 
that  of  his  own  family,  the  Saadi,  being  amongst  them.  In  little  recesses, 
carefully  sheltered  by  heaped-up  stones,  were  hung  miniature  cradles,  like 
those  commonly  suspended  to  the  poles  of  a Bedouin  tent.  They  had  been 
placed  there  as  exvotos  by  Shammar  women  who  wished  to  be  mothers. 

After  I had  examined  the  second  large  crater, — a deep  hollow,  surround- 
ed by  basaltic  rocks,  but  without  a projecting  cone  of  lava, — we  rode  to- 
wards the  Jerujer,  on  whose  banks  the  caravan  was  to  await  us.  The 
plain  was  still  covered  with  innumerable  fragments  of  basalt  embedded  in 
scarlet  poppies.  We  found  our  companions  near  the  junction  of  the  riv- 
ers, where  a raft  had  been  constructed  to  enable  us  to  cross  the  smaller 
stream.  I had  sent  the  Bairakdar  two  days  before  to  '\pprise  Suleiman 
Agha  of  my  intended  visit,  and  to  learn  how  far  I coulqfiwith  safety  take 
Mohammed  Emin  with  me  to  the  Turkish  camp.  He  ^ad  returned,  and 
was  waiting  for  me.  The  Agha  had  given  a satisfactory  guarantee  for  the 
Sheikh’s  safety,  and  had  sent  an  officer,  with  a party  of  irregular  troops,  to 
receive  me. 

We  had  scarcely  crossed  the  river  before  a large  body  of  horsemen  were 
seen  approaching  us.  As  they  drew  nigh  I recognised  in  the  Turkish  com- 
mander an  old  friend,  “ the  Topal,”  or  lame,  Suleiman  Agha,  as  he  was 
generally  called  in  the  country.  He  had  been  Kiayah  or  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, to  the  celebrated  Injeh  Bairakdar  Mohammed  Pasha,  and,  like  his 
former  master,  possessed  considerable  intelligence,  energy,  and  activity. 
From  his  long  connection  with  the  tribes  of  the  Desert,  his  knowledge  of 
their  manners,  and  his  skill  in  detecting  and  devising  treacheries  and  strat- 

* The  name  of  Hawaii,  by  which  this  branch  of  the  Khabour  appears  to  have  been 
called  by  the  Arab  geographers,  and  which  is  retained  in  our  maps,  appears  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  “ Hoi,”  which  will  be  described  hereafter.  The  course  of  the  stream 
is  also  erroneously  laid  down  in  all  the  maps ; and,  what  is  more  curious,  is  as 
wrongly  described  by  the  Arab  writers,  some  of  whom  place  a branch  of  it  to  the 
Bouth-east  of  the  Sinjar,  confounding  it  apparently  with  the  Thathar. 


264 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIV 


agems,  lie  was  generally  chosen  to  lead  expeditions  against  the  Arabs. 
He  was  now,  as  I have  stated,  endeavoring  to  recover  the  government 
treasure  plundered  by  the  Hamoud  Bedouins. 

He  was  surrounded  by  Hyta-Bashis,  or  commanders  of  irregular  cavalry, 
glittering  with  gold  and  silver-mounted  arms,  and  rich  in  embroidered  jack- 
ets, and  silken  robes,  by  Aghas  of  the  Chichi  and  Milli  Kurds,  and  by  sev- 
eral Arab  chiefs.  About  five  hundred  horsemen,  preceded  by  their  small 
kettle-drums,  crowded  behind  him.  His  tents  were  about  six  miles  distant ; 
and,  after  exchanging  the  usual  salutations,  we  turned  towards  them. 
Many  fair  speeches  could  scarcely  calm  the  fears  of  the  timid  Jebour 
Sheikh.  Mijwell,  on  the  other  hand,  rode  boldly  along,  casting  contempt- 
uous glances  at  the  irregular  cavalry,  as  they  galloped  to  and  fro  in  mimic 
combat. 

The  delta,  formed  by  the  two  streams,  was  covered  with  tents.  We 
wended  our  way  through  crowds  of  sheep,  horses,  cattle,  and  camels.  The 
Chichi  and  Milli  Kurds,  who  encamp  during  the  spring  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  of  Mardin,  had  now  sought,  under  the  protection  of  the  Turkish 
soldier^’,  the  rich  pastures  of  the  Khabour,  and  many  families  of  the  Sher- 
abbeen,  Buggara,  and  Harb  Arabs  had  joined  the  encampment.* 

Suleiman  Agha  lived  under  the  spacious  canvas  of  the  Chichi  chief. 
The  tents  of  the  Kurdish  tribes,  who  wander  in  the  low  country  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  in  winter  and  spring,  and  seek  the  hill  pastures  in  the 
summer,  and  especially  those  of  the  principal  men,  are  remarkable  for  their 
size,  and  the  richness  of  their  carpets  and  furniture.  They  are  often  divi- 
ded into  as  many  as  four  or  five  distinct  compartments,  by  screens  of  light 
cane  or  reeds,  bq^id  together  with  many-colored  woollen  threads,  disposed 
in  elegant  patteij^  and  devices.  Carpets  hung  above  these  screens  com- 
plete divisions,  l^a  that  set  aside  for  the  women  a smaller  partition  incloses 
a kind  of  private  room  for  the  head  of  the  family  and  his  wives.  The  rest 
of  the  harem  is  filled  with  piles  of  carpets,  cushions,  domestic  furniture, 
cooking  utensils,  skins  for  making  butter,  and  all  the  necessaries  of  a wan- 
dering life.  Here  the  handmaidens  prepare  the  dinner  for  their  master  and 
his  guests.  In  the  tents  of  the  great  chiefs  there  is  a separate  compart- 
ment for  the  servants,  and  one  for  the  mares  and  colts. 

I sat  a short  time  with  Suleiman  Agha,  drank  coffee,  smoked,  and  list- 
ened patiently  to  a long  discourse  on  the  benefits  of  tanzimat , which  had 
p it  an  end  to  bribes,  treachery,  and  irregular  taxation,  especially  intended 
for  Mohammed  Emin,  who  was,  however,  by  no  means  reassured  by  it.  I 
then  adjourned  to  my  own  tents,  which  had  been  pitched  upon  the  banks 
of  the  river  opposite  a well- wooded  island,  and  near  a ledge  of  rocks  form- 
ing one  of  those  beautiful  falls  of  water  so  frequent  in  this  part  of  the  Kha- 
bour. Around  us  were  the  pavilions  of  the  Hytas,  those  of  the  chiefs 

* The  Harb  is  a branch  of  the  great  tribe  of  the  same  name  inhabiting  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Hedjaz,  which,  in  consequence  of  some  blood-feud,  migrated  many 
years  ago  to  Mesopotamia. 


ENCAMPMENT  AT  UM-JERJEH. 


265 


Chap.  XIV.] 

marked  by  their  scarlet  standards.  At  a short  distance  from  the  stream 
the  tents  of  the  Kurds  were  pitched  in  parallel  lines  forming  regular 
streets,  and  not  scattered,  like  those  of  the  Bedouins,  without  order  over  the 
plain.  Between  us  and  them  were  picketed  the  horses  of  the  cavalry,  and 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach  beyond,  grazed  the  innumerable  flocks  and 
herds  of  the  assembled  tribes. 

We  were  encamped  near  the  foot  of  a large  artificial  Tel  called  Um-Jer- 
jeh  ; and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Khabour  were  other  mounds  of  the 
same  name.  My  Jebour  workmen  began  to  excavate  in  these  ruins  the 
day  after  our  arrival.  I remained  in  my  tent  to  receive  the  visits  of  the 
Kurdish  chiefs  and  of  the  commanders  of  the  irregular  cavalry.  From 
these  freebooters  I have  derived  much  curious  and  interesting  information 
relating  to  the  various  provinces  of  the  Turkish  empire  and  their  inhabit- 
ants, mingled  with  pleasant  anecdotes  and  vivid  descriptions  of  men  and 
manners.  They  are  generally  very  intelligent,  frank,  and  hospitable.  Al- 
though too  often  unscrupulous  and  cruel,  they  unite  many  of  the  good  qual- 
ities of  the  old  Turkish  soldier  with  most  of  his  vices.  They  love  hard- 
drinking  and  gambling,  staking  their  horses,  arms,  and  even  clothes,  on  the 
most  childish  game  of  chance.  Their  pay,  at  the  same  time,  is  miserably 
small,  rarely  exceeding  a few  shillings  a month,  and  they  are  obliged  to 
plunder  the  peaceable  inhabitants  to  supply  their  actual  wants.  The  race 
is  now  fast  disappearing  before  the  Nizam,  or  regular  troops. 

On  the  second  day,  accompanied  by  Mijwell,  I visited  a large  mound 
called  Mijdel,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  about  five  miles  above  Um- 
Jerjeh.  We  rode  through  the  golden  meadows,  crossing  the  remains  of 
ancient  canals  and  watercourses,  and  passing  the  ruins  of  former  habita- 
tions. A Sheikh  of  the  Buggara  was  with  us,  an  intelligent  Arab,  whose 
tribe  in  times  of  quiet  encamp  at  Ras-al-Ain  near  the  sources  of  the  Kha- 
bour. The  Aneyza  were  out  on  this  side  of  the  Euphrates,  and  were 
prowling  over  the  Desert  in  search  of  plunder.  As  Suleiman  Agha  de- 
clared that,  without  an  escort  of  at  least  one  hundred  horsemen,  I could  not 
go  to  Ras-al-Ain,  I was  unable  to  visit  the  extensive  ruins  which  are  said 
to  exist  there. 

Ras-al-Ain  was  once  a place  of  considerable  importance.  It  was  known 
to  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Rasina.  Benjamin  of  Tudela  found  two 
hundred  Jews  dwelling  there  in  the  12th  century.^  The  Arabs  assured 
me  that  columns  and  sculptures  still  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 
Their  accounts  are,  however,  probably  exaggerated. 

Mijdel  is  a lofty  platform,  surrounded  by  groups  of  smaller  mounds, 
amongst  which  may  still  be  traced  the  lines  of  streets  and  canals.  It  is 
about  four  or  five  miles  from  the  ridge  of  Abd-ul-Azeez.  These  low  hills, 

* The  name  is  by  some  error  omitted  in  the  Hebrew  text,  but  it  is  evident,  from 
the  distance  to  Harran,  that  Ras-al-Ain  is  meant.  Asher  (Benjamin  of  Tudela*^ 
Itinerary,  note  to  passage,  vol.  ii.  p.  128.)  points  out  that  it  should  be  the  sources  of 
the  Khabour,  not  the  mouth , as  usually  translated. 


266 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIY 


scantily  wooded  with  dwarf  oak,  are  broken  into  innumerable  valleys  and 
ravines,  which  abound,  it  is  said,  with  wild  goats,  boars,  leopards,  and  oth- 
er animals.  According  to  my  Bedouin  informants,  the  ruins  of  ancient 
towns  and  villages  still  exist,  but  they  could  only  give  me  the  name  of  one, 
Zakkarah.  The  hills  are  crossed  in  the  centre  by  a road  called  Maghli- 
yah,  from  an  abundant  spring.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Khabour,  and 
running  parallel  with  the  Abd-ul-Azeez  range,  is  another  line  of  small  hills, 
called  Hamma,  in  which  their  are  many  wells.* 

The  Shammar  Bedouins  encamp  on  the  banks  of  this  part  of  the  Kha- 
bour during  the  hot  jnonths.  The  mound  of  Mijdel  is  a favorite  resort  of 
the  Boraij  in  the  “ eye  of  the  summer the  waters  of  the  river  are  al- 
ways cool,  and  there  is  sufficient  pasture  for  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the 
whole  tribe. 

An  Arab  whom  I met  in  the  tent  of  one  of  the  Hyta-Bashis,  pretended 
that  he  was  well  acquainted  with  the  ruins  called  Verhan-Shehr, f of 
which  I had  so  frequently  heard  from  the  natives  of  Mardin  and  the  Sham- 
mar.  He  described  them  as  being  on  a hill  three  days  distant  from  our 
encampment,  and  to  consist  of  columns,  buildings,  and  sculptured  stones 
like  those  of  Palmyra.  The  Turkish  Government  at  one  time  wished  to 
turn  the  ancient  edifices  into  barracks,  and  to  place  a garrison  in  the  place 
to  keep  the  Arabs  in  check. 

In  the  evening  Mohammed  Emin  left  us.  Suleiman  Agha  had  already 
invested  him  with  a robe  of  honor,  and  had  prevailed  upon  him  to  join 
with  Ferhan  in  taking  measures  for  the  recovery  of  the  plundered  treasure. 
The  scarlet  cloak  and  civil  treatment  had  conciliated  the  Jebour  chief,  and 
when  he  parted  with  the  Turkish  commander  in  my  tent  there  was  an  un- 
usual display  of  mutual  compliments  and  pledges  of  eternal  friendship. 
Mijwell  looked  on  with  indignant  contempt,  swearing  between  his  teeth 
that  all  Jebours  were  but  degenerate,  ploughing  Arabs,  and  cursing  the 
whole  order  of  temminahs.% 

We  were  detained  at  Umjerjeh  several  days  by  the  severe  illness  of  Mr. 
Hormuzd  Rassam.  I took  the  opportunity  to  visit  the  tents  of  the  Milli, 
whose  chief,  Mousa  Agha,  had  invited  us  to  a feast.  On  our  way  thither 
we  passed  several  encampments  of  Chichi,  Sherrabeen,  and  Harb,  the  men 

* The  Buggara  chief  gave  me  the  following  names  for  mounds,  in  the  order  in 
which  they  occur,  between  Mijdel  and  Ras-al-Ain.  The  Gla  (Kalah)  or  Tel  Romana, 
a large  mound  visible  from  Mijdel ; El  Mogas,  near  a ford  and  a place  called  El  Auja ; 
El  Tumr,  about  four  hours  from  Umjerjeh,  at  the  junction  of  the  Zergan,  a small 
stream  coming  from  Ghours,  in  the  mountains  to  the  west  of  Mardin ; El  Tawileh, 
a large  mound  fourteen  or  fifteen  miles  from  Mijdel,  and  just  visible ; Om  Kaifah. 
Tal  Jahash,  and  Gutinah.  On  the  river  bank  opposite  to  Mijdel  are  several  groups 
of  mounds  called  Dibbs.  Near  Ras-al-Ain  is  a mound,  whether  natural  or  artificial  I 
could  not  ascertain,  called  El  Chibeseh. 

1 1.  e.  The  ancient  ruined  city,  a name  very  generally  given  by  the  Turks  to  ruins. 

t The  form  of  salutation  used  by  the  Turks,  consisting  of  raising  the  hand  from  the 
breast,  or  sometimes  from  the  ground,  to  the  forehead. 


VISIT  THE  MILLI. 


267 


Chap  XIV.] 

and  women  running  out  and  pressing  us  to  stop  and  eat  bread.  The  spa- 
cious tent  of  the  chief  was  divided  by  partitions  of  reeds  tastefully  inter- 
woven with  colored  wool.  The  coolest  part  of  the  salamlik  had  been  pre- 
pared for  our  reception,  and  was  spread  with  fine  carpets  and  silken  cush- 
ions. The  men  of  the  tribe,  amongst  whom  were  many  tall  and  handsome 
youths,  were  dressed  in  clean  and  becoming  garments.  They  assembled  in 
great  numbers,  but  left  the  top  of  the  tent  entirely  to  us,  seating  themselves, 
or  standing  at  the  sides  and  bottom,  which  was  wide  enough  to  admit 
twenty-four  men  crouched  together  in  a row.  The  chief  and  his  brothers, 
followed  by  their  servants  bearing  trays  loaded  with  cups,  presented  the 
coffee  to  their  guests. 

After  some  conversation  we  went  to  the  harem,  and  were  received  by  his 
mother,  a venerable  lady,  with  long  silvery  locks  and  a dignified  counte- 
nance and  demeanor.  Her  dress  was  of  the  purest  white  and  scrupulous- 
ly clean.  Altogether  she  was  almost  the  only  comely  old  woman  I had 
seen  amongst  Eastern  tribes.  The  wives  and  daughters  of  the  chiefs,  with 
a crowd  of  women,  were  collected  in  the  tent.  Amongst  them  were  many 
distinguished  by  their  handsome  features.  They  had  not  the  rich  olive 
complexion  or  graceful  carriage  of  the  Bedouin  girls,  nor  their  piercing 
eyes  or  long  black  eyelashes.  Their  beauty  was  more  European,  some 
having  even  light  hair  and  blue  eyes.  It  was  evident,  at  a glance,  that 
they  were  of  a different  race  from  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  Desert. 

The  principal  ladies  led  us  into  the  private  compartment,  divided  by 
colored  screens  from  the  rest  of  the  tent.  It  was  furnished  with  more  than 
usual  luxury.  The  cushions  were  of  the  choicest  silk,  and  the  carpets  (in 
the  manufacture  of  which  the  Milli  excel)  of  the  best  fabric.  Sweetmeats 
and  coffee  had  been  prepared  for  us,  and  the  women  did  not  object  to  par- 
take of  them  at  the  same  time.  Mousa  Agha’s  mother  described  the  va- 
rious marriage  ceremonies  of  the  tribe.  Our  account  of  similar  matters  in 
Europe  excited  great  amusement  amongst  the  ladies.  The  Milli  girls  are 
highly  prized  by  the  Kurds.  Twenty  purses,  nearly  £100,  we  were  boast  - 
ingly  told,  had  been  given  for  one  of  unusual  attractions.  The  chief  point- 
ed out  one  of  his  own  wives  who  had  cost  him  that  sum.  Other  members 
of  the  same  establishment  had  deserved  a less  extravagant  investiture  of 
money.  The  prettiest  girls  were  called  before  us,  and  the  old  lady  ap- 
praised each,  amidst  the  loud  laughter  of  their  companions,  who  no  doubt 
rejoiced  to  see  their  friends  valued  at  their  true  worth.  They  were  all  ta- 
tooed  on  the  arms,  and  on  other  parts  of  the  body,  but  less  so  than  the 
Bedouin  ladies.  The  operation  is  performed  by  Arab  women,  who  wander 
from  tent  to  tent  for  the  purpose.  Several  were  present,  and  wished  to 
give  us  an  immediate  proof  of  their  skill  upon  ourselves.  We  declined, 
however.  It  is  usually  done  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven  : the  punctures  are 
made  by  a needle,  and  the  blue  color  is  produced  by  a mixture  of  gun- 
powder and  indigo  rubbed  into  the  wounds.  The  process  is  tedious  and 
painful,  as  the  designs  are  frequently  most  elaborate,  covering  the  whole 


268 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIV. 


body.  The  Kurdish  ladies  do  not,  like  the  Mussulman  women  of  the  town, 
conceal  their  features  with  a veil ; nor  do  they  object  to  mingle,  or  even 
eat  with  the  men.  During  my  stay  at  Umjeijeh  I invited  the  harem  of 
the  Chichi  chief,  and  their  friends,  to  a feast  in  my  tent — an  invitation  they 
accepted  with  every  sign  of  satisfaction. 

The  Milli  were  formerly  one  of  the  wealthiest  Kurdish  tribes.  Early 
in  this  century,  when  the  hereditary  chiefs  in  different  parts  of  the  empire 
were  still  almost  independent  of  the  Porte,  this  clan  held  the  whole  plain 
country  between  the  hills  of  Mardin  and  the  Khabour,  exacting  a regular 
baj,  or  black-mail,  from  caravans  and  travellers  passing  through  their  ter- 
ritories. This  was  a fruitful  source  of  revenue  when  an  extensive  com 
merce  was  carried  on  between  Aleppo  and  Baghdad,  and  the  Aghas  were 
frequently,  on  account  of  their  wealth  and  power,  raised  to  the  rank  of 
pashas  by  the  Sultan.  The  last  was  Daoud  Pasha,  a chief  well  known  in 
Mesopotamia.  Like  other  Kurdish  tribes,  the  Milli  had  been  brought  un- 
der the  immediate  control  of  the  local  governors,  and  were  now  included 
within  the  pashalic  of  Diarbekir.  They  still  possessed  all  the  riches  that 
nomades  can  well  possess,  when  they  were  wantonly  plundered,  and  almost 
reduced  to  want,  by  the  Turkish  troops  three  years  ago.  Although  the 
Porte  openly  condemned  the  outrage,  and  had  promised  compensation,  no 
step  whatever  had  been  taken  to  restore  the  stolen  property,  the  greater 
part  of  which  had  passed  into  the  government  treasury. 

We  had  an  excellent  dinner  in  the  salamik,  varied  by  many  savoury 
dishes  and  delicacies  sent  from  the  harem  : such  as  truffles,  dressed  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  several  preparations  of  milk  and  cream  ; honey,  curds,  &c. 
After  we  had  retired,  the  other  guests  were  called  to  the  feast  by  relays. 
The  chief,  however,  always  remained  seated  before  the  dishes,  eating  a lit- 
tle with  all,  and  leaving  his  brother  to  summon  those  who  were  invited  ; 
such  being  the  custom  amongst  these  Kurds. 

Mijwell,  during  our  visit,  had  been  seated  in  a corner,  his  eyes  wander- 
ing from  the  tent  and  its  furniture  to  the  horses  and  mares  picketed  with- 
out, and  to  the  flocks  pasturing  around.  He  cast,  every  now  and  then,  sig- 
nificant glances  towards  me,  which  said  plainly  enough,  “ All  this  ought  to 
belong  to  the  Bedouins.  These  people  and  their  property  were  made  for 
ghazous As  we  rode  away  I accused  him  of  evil  intentions.  “Billah. 
ya  Bej  !”  said  he,  “ there  is,  indeed,  enough  to  make  a man’s  heart  grow 
white  with  envy  ; but  I have  now  eaten  his  bread  under  your  shadow,  and 
should  even  his  stick,  wherewith  he  drives  his  camel,  fall  into  my  hand,  1 
would  send  it  to  him.”  He  entertained  me,  as  we  returned  home,  with 
the  domestic  affairs  of  his  family.  Rathaiyah  had  offered  herself  in  mar- 
riage to  Suttum,  and  not  he  to  her ; a common  proceeding,  it  would  ap- 
pear, among  the  Bedouins.  Suttum  had  consented,  because  he  thought  it 
politic  to  be  thus  allied  with  the  Abde,  one  of  the  most  powerful  branches 
of  the  Shammar,  generally  at  war  with  the  rest  of  the  tribe.  But  his  new 
wife,  besides  having  sent  away  her  rival,  had  already  offended  his  famih 


MATRIMONIAL  NEGOTIATION. 


269 


Chap.  XIV.] 

by  her  pride  and  haughtiness.  Mijwell  rather  looked  upon  his  brother 
with  pity,  as  a henpecked  husband.  He  himself,  although  already  mar- 
ried to  one  wife,  and  betrothed  to  Maizi,  whom  he  would  soon  be  able  to 
claim,  was  projecting  a third  marriage.  His  heart  had  been  stolen  by  an 
unseen  damsel,  whose  beauties  and  virtues  had  been  the  theme  of  some 
wandering  Arab  rhymers,  and  she  was  of  the  Fedhan  Aneyza,  the  mortal 
enemies  of  the  Shammar.  Her  father  was  the  Sheikh  of  the  tribe,  and  his 
tents  were  on  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates.  The  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers of  the  courtship  served  only  to  excite  still  more  the  ardent  mind  of 
the  Bedouin.  His  romantic  imagination  had  pictured  a perfection  of  love- 
liness ; his  whole  thoughts  were  now  occupied  in  devising  the  means  of 
possessing  this  treasure.*  He  had  already  apprised  the  girl  of  his  love  by 
a trusty  messenger,  one  of  her  own  tribe,  living  with  the  Shammar.  His 
confidant  had  extolled  the  graces,  prowess,  and  wealth  of  the  young  Sheikh  ., 
with  all  the  eloquence  of  a Bedouin  poet,  and  had  elicited  a favorable  re- 
ply. More  than  one  interchange  of  sentiments  had,  by  such  means,  since 
passed  between  them.  The  damsel  had,  at  last,  promised  him  her  hand, 
if  he  could  claim  her  in  her  own  tent.  Mijwell  had  now  planned  a scheme 
which  he  was  eager  to  put  into  execution.  Waiting  until  the  Fedhan 
were  so  encamped  that  he  could  approach  them  without  being  previously 
seen,  he  would  mount  his  deloul,  and  leading  his  best  mare,  ride  to  the  tent 
of  the  girl’s  father.  Meat  would,  of  course,  be  laid  before  him,  and  hav- 
ing eaten,  he  would  be  the  guest,  and  under  the  protection  of  the  Sheikh. 
On  the  following  morning  he  would  present  his  mare,  describing  her  race 
and  qualities,  to  his  host,  and  ask  his  daughter ; offering,  at  the  same  time, 
to  add  any  other  gift  that  might  be  thought  worthy  of  her.  The  father,  who 
would  probably  not  be  ignorant  of  what  had  passed  between  the  lovers, 
would  at  once  consent  to  the  union,  and  give  back  the  mare  to  his  future 
son-in-law.  The  marriage  would  shortly  afterwards  be  solemnised,  and  an 
alliance  would  thus  be  formed  between  the  two  tribes.  Such  was  Mij  well’s 
plan,  and  it  was  one  not  unfrequently  adopted  by  Bedouins  under  similar 
circumstances. 

A Bedouin  will  never  ask  money  or  value  in  kind  for  his  daughter,  as 
fathers  do  amongst  the  sedentary  tribes  and  in  towns,  where  girls  are  lit- 
erally sold  to  their  husbands,  but  he  will  consult  her  wishes,  and  she  may, 
as  she  thinks  fit,  accept  or  reject  a suitor,  so  long  as  he  be  not  her  cousin 
Presents  are  frequently  made  by  the  lover  to  the  damsel  herself  before  mar- 
riage, but  rarely  to  the  parents.  Although  the  Bedouin  chiefs  have  some- 
times taken  wives  from  the  towns  on  the  borders  of  the  Desert,  such  as  Mo- 
sul, Baghdad,  or  Aleppo,  it  is  very  rare  to  find  townspeople,  or  Arabs  of  the 
cultivating  tribes,  married  to  Bedouin  women.  I have,  however,  known 
instances. 

The  laws  of  Dakheel,  another  very  remarkable  branch  of  Bedouin  legis- 

* Burckhardt  remarks  that  “ Bedouins  are,  perhaps,  the  only  people  of  the  East 
that  can  be  entitled  true  lovers.”  (Notes  on  Bedouins,  p.  155.) 


270 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIV. 


lation,  in  force  amongst  the  Shammar,  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Aneyza  and  Hedjaz  Arabs,  of  which  Burckhardt  has  given  so  full  and  in- 
teresting an  account.  I have  little,  therefore,  to  add  upon  the  subject,  but 
its  importance  demands  a few  words.  No  customs  are  more  religiously 
respected  by  the  true  Arab  than  those  regulating  the  mutual  relations  of 
the  protected  and  protector.  A violation  of  Dakheel  (as  this  law  is  called) 
would  be  considered  a disgrace  not  only  upon  the  individual,  but  upon  his 
family,  and  even  upon  his  tribe,  which  never  could  be  wiped  out.  No 
greater  insult  can  he  offered  to  a man,  or  to  his  clan,  than  to  say  that  he 
has  broken  the  Dakheel.  A disregard  of  this  sacred  obligation  is  the  first 
symptom  of  degeneracy  in  an  Arab  tribe  ; and  when  once  it  exists,  the 
treachery  and  vices  of  the  Turk  rapidly  succeed  to  the  honesty  and  fidelity 
of  the  true  Arab  character.  The  relations  between  the  Dakheel  and  the 
Dakhal  (or  the  protector  and  protected)  arise  from  a variety  of  circum- 
stances, the  principal  of  Which  are,  eating  a man’s  salt  and  bread,  and 
claiming  his  protection  by  doing  certain  acts,  or  repeating  a certain  formu- 
la of  words.  Amongst  the  Shammar,  if  a man  can  seize  the  end  of  a 
string  or  thread,  the  other  end  of  which  is  held  by  his  enemy,  he  imme- 
diately becomes  his  Dakheel.*  If  he  touch  the  canvas  of  a tent,  or  can  even 
throw  his  mace  towards  it,  he  is  the  Dakheel  of  its  owner.  If  he  can  spit 
upon  a man,  or  touch  any  article  belonging  to  him  with  his  teeth,  he  is 
Dakhal,  unless  of  course,  in  case  of  theft,  it  be  the  person  who  caught  him. 
A woman  can  protect  any  number  of  persons,  or  even  of  tents. f If  a horse- 
man ride  into  a tent,  he  and  his  horse  are  Dakhal.  A stranger  who  has 
eaten  with  a Shammar,  can  give  Dakheel  to  his  enemy  ; for  instance,  I 
could  protect  an  Aneyza,  though  there  is  blood  between  his  tribe  and  the 
Shammar.  According  to  Mijwell,  any  person,  by  previously  calling  out 
“ Nuffa”  (I  renounce),  may  reject  an  application  for  Dakheel. 

The  Shammar  never  plunder  a caravan  within  sight  of  their  encampment, 
for  as  long  as  a stranger  can  see  their  tents  they  consider  him  their  Dak- 
heel. If  a man  who  has  eaten  bread  and  slept  in  a tent,  steal  his  host’s 

* For  the  very  singular  customs  as  to  the  confinement  and  liberation  of  a haramy, 
or  robber,  and  of  the  relation  between  a rabat  and  his  rabiet,  or  the  captor  and  the 
captive,  see  Burckhardt’s  Notes  on  the  Bedouins,  p.  89.  I can  bear  witness  to  the 
truth  and  accuracy  of  his  account,  having  during  my  early  wanderings  amongst  the 
Bedouins  witnessed  nearly  everything  he  describes.  The  English  reader  can  have 
no  correct  idea  of  the  habits  and  manners  of  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  Desert,  hab- 
its and  manners  probably  dating  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  and  consequently  of  the 
highest  interest,  without  reading  the  truthful  descriptions  of  this  admirable  traveller. 

t In  the  winter  of  the  year  of  my  residence  in  Babylonia,  after  an  engagement  near 
Baghdad  between  the  Boraij  and  the  regular  Turkish  troops,  in  which  the  latter  were 
defeated,  a flying  soldier  was  caught  within  sight  of  an  encampment.  His  captors 
were  going  to  put  him  to  death,  when  he  stretched  his  hands  towards  the  nearest 
tent,  claiming  the  Dakheel  of  its  owner,  who  chanced  to  be  Sahiman,  Mij  well’s  eld- 
est brother.  The  Sheikh  was  absent  from  home,  but  his  beautiful  wife  Noura  an- 
swered to  the  appeal,  and  seizing  a tent-pole,  heat  off  his  pursuers  and  saved  his  life. 
This  conduct  was  much  applauded  by  the  Bedouins. 


A BEDOUIN  POET. 


271 


Chap.  XIV.] 

horse,  he  is  dishonored,  and  his  tribe  also,  unless  they  send  back  the  stolen 
animal.  Should  the  horse  die,  the  thief  himself  should  be  delivered  up,  to 
be  treated  as  the  owner  of  the  stolen  property  thinks  fit.  If  two  enemies 
meet  and  exchange  the  “ Salam  aleikum ” even  by  mistake,  there  is  peace 
between  them,  and  they  will  not  fight.  It  is  disgraceful  to  rob  a woman 
of  her  clothes ; and  if  a female  be  found  amongst  a party  of  plundered 
Arabs,  even  the  enemy  of  her  tribe  will  give  her  a horse  to  ride  back  to 
her  tents.  If  a man  be  pursued  by  an  enemy,  or  even  be  on  the  ground,  he 
can  save  his  life  by  calling  out  “ Dakheel,”  unless  there  be  blood  between 
them.  It  would  be  considered  cowardly  and  unworthy  of  a Shammar  to 
deprive  an  enemy  of  his  camel  or  horse  where  he  could  neither  reach  wa- 
ter or  an  encampment.  When  Bedouins  meet  persons  in  the  midst  of  the 
Desert,  they  will  frequently  take  them  within  a certain  distance  of  tents, 
and,  first  pointing  out  their  site,  then  deprive  them  of  their  property. 

An  Arab  who  has  given  his  protection  to  another,  whether  formally,  oi 
by  an  act  which  confers  the  privilege  of  Dakheel,  is  bound  to  protect  his 
Dakhal  under  all  circumstances,  even  to  the  risk  of  his  own  property  and 
life.  I could  relate  many  instances  of  the  greatest  sacrifices  having  been 
made  by  individuals,  and  even  of  whole  tribes  having  been  involved  in  war 
with  powerful  enemies  by  whom  they  have  been  almost  utterly  destroyed, 
in  defence  of  this  most  sacred  obligation.  Even  the  Turkish  rulers  respect 
a law  to  which  they  may  one  day  owe  their  safety,  and  more  than  one 
haughty  Pasha  of  Baghdad  has  found  refuge  and  protection  in  the  tent  of 
a poor  Arab  Sheikh,  whom,  during  the  days  of  his  prosperity,  he  had  sub- 
jected to  every  injury  and  wrong,  and  yet  who  would  then  defy  the  gov- 
ernment itself,  and  risk  his  very  life,  rather  than  surrender  his  guest.  The 
essence  of  Arab  virtue  is  a respect  for  the  laws  of  hospitality,  of  which  the 
Dakheel  in  all  its  various  forms  is  but  a part. 

Amongst  the  Bedouins  who  watched  our  camels  was  one  Saoud,  a poet 
of  renown  amongst  the  tribes.  With  the  exception  of  a few  ballads  that 
he  had  formerly  composed  in  honor  of  Sofuk,  and  other  celebrated  Shammar 
Sheikhs,  he  chiefly  recited  extemporary  stanzas  on  passing  events,  or  on 
persons  who  were  present.  He  would  sit  in  my  tent  of  an  evening,  and 
sing  his  verses  in  a wild,  though  plaintive,  strain,  to  the  great  delight  of 
the  assembled  guests,  and  particularly  of  Mijwell,  who,  like  a true  Be- 
douin, was  easily  affected  by  poetry,  especially  with  such  as  might  touch 
his  own  passion  for  the  unknown  lady.  He  would  sway  his  body  to  and 
fro,  keeping  time  with  the  measure,  sobbing  aloud  as  the  poet  sang  the 
death  of  his  companions  in  war,  breaking  out  into  loud  laughter  when  the 
burden  of  the  ditty  was  a satire  upon  his  friends,  making  extraordinary 
noises  and  grimaces  to  show  his  feelings,  more  like  a drunken  man  than  a 
sober  Bedouin.  But  when  the  bard  improvised  an  amatory  ditty,  the  young 
chief’s  excitement  was  almost  beyond  control.  The  other  Bedouins  were 
scarcely  less  moved  by  these  rude  measures,  which  have  the  same  kind  of 
effect  on  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Persian  mountains.  Such  verses  chanted 


272 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIV. 


by  their  self-taught  poets,  or  hy  the  girls  of  their  encampment,  will  drive 
warriors  to  the  combat,  fearless  of  death,  or  prove  an  ample  reward  on  their 
return  from  the  dangers  of  the  gliazou  or  the  fight.  The  excitement  they 
produce  exceeds  that  of  the  grape.  He  who  would  understand  the  influence 
of  the  Homeric  ballads  in  the  heroic  ages,  should  witness  the  effect  which 
similar  compositions  have  upon  the  wild  nomad es  of  the  East.  Amongst 
the  Kurds  and  Lours  I have  not  met  with  bards  who  chanted  extemporary7 
verses.  Episodes  from  the  great  historical  epics  of  Persia,  and  odes  from 
their  favorite  poets,  are  recited  during  war  or  in  the  tents  of  their  chiefs 
But  the  art  of  improvising  seems  innate  in  the  Bedouin.  Although  his  me 
tre  and  mode  of  recitation  are  rude  to  European  ears,  his  rich  and  sonorous 
language  lends  itself  to  this  species  of  poetry,  whilst  his  exuberant  imagina- 
tion furnishes  him  with  endless  beautiful  and  appropriate  allegories.  The 
wars  between  the  tribes,  the  gliazou , and  their  struggles  with  the  Turks  are 
inexhaustible  themes  for  verse,  and  in  an  Arab  tent  there  is  little  else  to  af- 
ford excitement  or  amusement.  The  Bedouins  have  no  books  ; even  a Ko- 
ran is  seldom  seen  amongst  them  : it  is  equally  rare  to  find  a wandering 
Arab  who  can  read.  They  have  no  written  literature,  and  their  traditional 
history  consists  of  little  more  than  the  tales  of  a few  storytellers  who  wan- 
der from  encampment  to  encampment,  and  earn  their  bread  by  chanting 
verses  to  the  monotonous  tones  of  a one-stringed  fiddle  made  of  a gourd  cov- 
ered with  sheep-skin. 

The  extemporary  odes  which  Saoud  sung  before  us  were  chiefly  in  praise 
of  those  present,  or  a good-natured  satire  upon  some  of  our  party. 

The  day  of  our  departure  now  drew  nigh,  and  Suleiman  Agha,  to  do  us 
honor,  invited  us  to  a general  review  of  the  irregular  troops  under  his  com- 
mand. The  horsemen  of  the  Milli  and  Chichi  Kurds,  and  of  the  Arab  tribes 
who  encamped  with,  them,  joined  the  Turkish  cavalry,  and  added  to  the 
interest  and  beauty  of  the  display.  The  Hyta-Bashis  were,  as  usual,  re- 
splendent in  silk  and  gold.  There  were  some  high-bred  horses  in  the  field ; 
but  the  men,  on  the  whole,  were  badly  mounted,  and  the  irregular  cavalry 
is  daily  degenerating  throughout  the  empire.  The  Turkish  Government 
have  unwisely  neglected  a branch  of  their  national  armies  to  which  they 
owed  most  of  their  great  victories,  and  at  one  time  their  superiority  over 
all  their  neighbours.  The  abolition  of  the  Spahiliks,  and  other  military 
tenures,  has,  of  course,  contributed  much  to  this  result,  and  has  led  to  the 
deterioration  of  that  excellent  breed  of  horses  which  once  distinguished  the 
Ottoman  light  cavalry.  No  effort  is  now  made  by  the  government  to 
keep  up  the  race,  and  the  scanty  pay  of  the  irregular  troops  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  enable  them  to  obtain  even  second-rate  animals.  Everything  has 
been  sacrificed  to  the  regular  army,  undoubtedly  an  essential  element  of 
national  defence  ; but  in  a future  war  the  Turks  will  probably  find  reason 
to  regret  that  they  have  altogether  sacrificed  to  it  the  ancient  irregular 
horse. 

The  Kurds,  although  encumbered  by  their  long  flowing  garments  and 


Chap.  XIV.] 


THE  IRREGULAR  CAVALRY. 


273 


huge  turbans,  are  not  bad  horsemen.  Mijwell,  however,  as  he  scanned  the 
motley  crowd  with  his  eagle  eye,  included  them  all  in  one  expression  of 
ineffable  contempt. 


Volcanic  Cone  of  Koukab. 


CHAPTER  XY. 

DEPARTURE  FROM  THE  KHABOUR. ARAB  SAGACITY. THE  HOL. THE  LAKE  OF  KHATUONI- 

YAH. RETURN  OF  SUTTUM. ENCAMPMENT  OF  THE  SHAMMAR. ARAB  HORSES — THEIR 

BREEDS — THEIR  VALUE THEIR  SPEED. SHEIKH  FERHAN. YEZIDI  VILLAGES. FAL- 
CONS.  AN  ALARM. ABOU  MARIA. ESKI  MOSUL. ARRIVAL  AT  MOSUL. — RETURN  OF 

SUTTUM  TO  THE  DESERT. 

Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam  having  sufficiently  recovered  from  his  dangerous 
illness  to  be  able  to  ride  a deloul,  and  no  remains,  except  pottery  and  bricks, 
having  been  discovered  in  the  mounds  of  Um-Jerjeh,  we  left  the  encamp- 
ment of  Suleiman  Agha  on  the  29th  of  April,  on  our  return  to  Mosul.  We 
crossed  the  Jerujer  near  its  junction  with  the  Khabour,  where  two  mounds, 
named  A1  Hasieha  and  Abou-Bekr,  rise  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 

We  again  visited  the  remarkable  volcanic  cone  of  Koukab.  As  we  drew 
near  to  it,  Mijwell  detected,  in  the  loose  soil,  the  foot-prints  of  two  men, 
which  he  immediately  recognised  to  be  those  of  Shammar  thieves  return- 
ing from  the  Kurdish  encampments.  The  sagacity  of  the  Bedouin  in  de- 
termining from  such  marks,  whether  of  man  or  beast,  and,  from  similar  in- 
dications, the  tribe,  time  of  passing,  and  business,  of  those  who  may  have 
left  them,  with  many  other  particulars,  is  well  known.  In  this  respect 
he  resembles  the  American  Indian,  though  the  circumstances  differ  under 
which  the  two  are  called  upon  to  exercise  this  peculiar  faculty.  The  o r 
seeks  or  avoids  his  enemy  in  vast  plains,  which,  for  three-fourths  of  the 
year,  are  without  any  vegetation  ; the  other  tracks  his  prey  through  thick 
woods  and  high  grass.  This  quickness  of  perception  is  the  result  of  con- 


ARAB  SAGACITY. 


275 


Chap.  XV.] 

tinual  observation  and  of  caution  encouraged  from  earliest  youth.  When 
the  warriors  of  a tribe  are  engaged  in  distant  forays  or  in  war,  their  tents 
and  flocks  are  frequently  left  to  the  care  of  a mere  child.  He  must  receive 
strangers,  amongst  whom  may  be  those  having  claims  of  blood  upon  his 
family,  and  must  guard  against  marauders,  who  may  be  lurking  about  the 
encampment.  Every  unknown  sign  and  mark  must  be  examined  and  ac- 
counted for.  If  he  should  see  the  track  of  a horseman,  he  must  ask  himself 
why  one  so  near  the  dwellings  did  not  stop  to  eat  bread  or  drink  water  ? 
was  he  a spy  ; one  of  a party  meditating  an  attack  ? or  a traveller,  who  did 
not  know  the  site  of  the  tents  ? When  did  he  pass  ? From  whence  did  he 
come  ? Whilst  the  child  in  a civilised  country  is  still  under  the  care  of  its 
nurse,  the  Bedouin  boy  is  compelled  to  exercise  his  highest  faculties,  and  on 
his  prudence  and  sagacity  may  sometimes  depend  the  safety  of  his  tribe. 

The  expert  Bedouin  can  draw  conclusions  from  the  footprints  and  dung 
of  animals  that  would  excite  the  astonishment  of  an  European.  He  will 
tell  whether  the  camel  was  loaded  or  unloaded,  whether  recently  fed  or  suf- 
fering from  hunger,  whether  fatigued  or  fresh,  the  time  when  it  passed  by, 
whether  the  owner  was  a man  of  the  desert  or  of  the  town,  whether  a 
friend  or  foe,  and  sometimes  even  the  name  of  his  tribe.  I have  fre- 
quently been  cautioned  by  my  Bedouin  companions  not  to  dismount  from 
my  dromedary,  that  my  footsteps  might  not  be  recognised  as  those  of  a 
stranger  ; and  my  deloul  has  even  been  led  by  my  guide  to  prevent  those 
who  might  cross  our  path  from  detecting  that  it  was  ridden  by  one  not 
thoroughly  accustomed  to  the  management  of  the  animal.  It  would  be 
easy  to  explain  the  means,  simple  enough  indeed,  by  which  the  Arab  of 
the  Desert  arrives  at  these  results.  In  each  case  there  is  a train  of  logical 
deduction,  merely  requiring  common  acuteness  and  great  experience. 

We  encamped  for  the  night  near  the  mound  of  Thenenir,  and  resumed 
our  journey  on  the  following  morning.  Bidding  farewell  to  the  pleasant 
banks  of  the  Khabour,  we  struck  into  the  Desert  in  the  direction  of  the  Sin- 
jar.  Extensive  beds  of  gypsum,  or  alabaster,  such  as  was  used  in  the  As- 
syrian edifices,  formed  for  some  miles  the  surface  of  the  plain.  Its  salt  and 
nitrous  exudations  destroy  vegetation,  unless  there  be  sufficient  soil  about 
it  to  nourish  the  roots  of  herbs  ; generally,  only  the  cracks  and  fissures  in 
the  strata  are  marked  by  lines  of  grass  and  flowers  crossing  the  plain  like 
the  meshes  of  a many-colored  net. 

We  soon  approached  a dense  mass  of  reeds  and  rank  herbage,  covering 
a swamp  called  the  Hoi,  which  extends  from  the  Lake  of  Khatouniyah  to 
within  a short  distance  of  the  Khabour.  This  jungle  is  the  hiding-place 
of  many  kinds  of  wild  beasts  : lions  lurk  in  it,  and  in  the  thick  cover  the 
Bedouins  find  their  cubs.  As  we  drew  near  to  the  first  spring  that  feeds 
the  marsh,  about  eight  miles  from  Thenenir,  we  saw  a leopard  stealing 
from  the  high  grass.  When  pursued,  the  animal  turned  and  entered  the 
thickets  before  the  horseman  could  approach  it. 

When  we  reached  the  head  spring  of  the  Hoi,  the  Jebours  fired  the  jun- 


I 


/ 


Lake  and  Island  of  Khatouniyah. 


LAKE  OF  KHATOUNIYAH. 


277 


Chap.  XV.] 

gle,  and  the  flames  soon  spread  far  and  wide.  Long  after  we  had  left  the 
marsh  we  could  hear  the  crackling  of  the  burning  reeds,  and  until  night- 
fall the  sky  was  darkened  by  thick  volumes  of  smoke. 

During  our  journey  an  Arab  joined  us,  riding  on  a deloul,  with  his  wife. 
His  two  children  were  crammed  into  a pair  of  saddle  bags,  a black  head 
peeping  out  of  either  side.  He  had  quarrelled  with  his  kinsmen,  and  was 
moving  with  his  family  and  little  property  to  another  tribe. 

After  a six  hours’  ride  we  found  ourselves  upon  the  margin  of  a small 
lake,  whose  quiet  surface  reflected  the  deep  blue  of  the  cloudless  sky.  To 
the  south  of  it  rose  a line  of  low  undulating  hills,  and  to  the  east  the  fur- 
rowed mountain  of  the  Sinjar.  On  all  other  sides  was  the  Desert,  in 
which  this  solitary  sheet  of  water  lay  like  a mirage.  In  the  midst  of  the 
lake  was  a peninsula,  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a narrow  causeway,  and 
beyond  it  a small  island.  On  the  former  were  the  ruins  of  a town,  whose 
falling  walls  and  towers  were  doubled  in  the  clear  waters.  It  would  he 
difficult  to  imagine  a scene  more  calm,  more  fair,  or  more  unlooked  for  in 
the  midst  of  a wilderness.  It  was  like  fairy-land. 

The  small  town  of  Khatouniyah  was,  until  recently,  inhabited  by  a tribe 
of  Arabs.  A feud,  arising  out  of  the  rival  pretensions  of  two  chiefs,  sprang 
up  amongst  them.  The  factions  fought,  many  persons  were  killed,  and 
the  place  was  consequently  deserted,  one  party  joining  the  Tai  Arabs  near 
Nisibin,  the  other  the  Yezidis  of  Keraniyah.  We  traced  the  remains  of 
cultivation,  and  the  dry  water-courses,  which  once  irrigated  plots  of  rice 
and  melon  beds.  The  lake  may  be  about  six  miles  in  circumference. 
From  its  abundant  supply  of  water,  and  its  central  position  between  the 
Sinjar  and  the  Khabour,  Khatouniyah  must  at  one  time  have  been  a place 
of  some  importance. 

The  few  remains  that  exist  do  not  belong  to  an  earlier  period  than  the 
Arab.  The  small  town  occupies  the  whole  of  the  peninsula,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  a wall,  rising  from  the  water’s  edge,  with  a gate  opening  on 
the  narrow  causeway.  The  houses  were  of  stone,  and  the  rooms  vaulted. 
In  the  deserted  streets  were  still  standing  the  ruins  of  a small  bazar,  a 
mosque,  and  a bath. 

The  water  of  the  lake,  although  brackish,  like  nearly  all  the  springs  in 
this  part  of  the  Desert,  is  not  only  drinkable,  but,  according  to  the  Bedou- 
ins, exceedingly  wholesome  for  man. and  beast.  It  abounds  in  fish,  some 
of  which  are  said  to  be  of  very  considerable  size.  As  we  approached,  the 
Bairakdar,  seeing  something  struggling  in  a shallow,  rode  to  it,  and  cap- 
tured a kind  of  barbel,  weighing  above  twenty  pounds.  Water-fowl  and 
waders,  of  various  kinds,  congregate  on  the  shores.  The  stately  crane  and 
the  graceful  egret,  with  its  snow-white  plumage  and  feathery  crest,  stand 
lazily  on  its  margin  ; and  thousands  of  ducks  and  teal  eddy  on  its  surface 
round  the  unwieldy  pelican. 

Our  tents  were  pitched  on  the  very  water’s  edge.  At  sunset  a few 
clouds  which  lingered  in  the  western  sky  were  touched  with  the  golden 


275 


surarrEH  axd  bistlok. 


[Chap.  XV. 


tat?  .of  the  getting  sun.  The  glowing  tints  of  the  fee  a Tens,  and  the  clear 
blue  shadows  of  the  Sin-jar  MBs.  mirrored  in  the  motionless  lake,  imparted 
a calm  to  the  scene  -which  well  matched  with  the  aolit—lf  around. 

We  had  scarcely  resumed  our  march  in  the  morning  when  we  spied 
Snttrnm  and  Khoratf  coming  towards  ns.,  and  urging  their  fleet  mares  to  the 
top  .of  their  speed.  A Jebonr,  leaving  our  encampment  at  Um-Jetjeh  when 
Hormnzd  was  dangeiously  iHL  had  spread  a report*  in  the  Desert  that  he 
was  actually  dead.  To  give  additional  authenticity  to  his  tale,  he  had  mi- 
nutely desrribrd  the  process  by  which  my  companion's  body  had  been  flist 
salted,  and  then  sent  to  FranVistan  in  a boa,  on  a cameL  Snttnm,  as  we 
met.  showed  the  most  lively  signs  of  grief : but  when  he  saw  the  dead  man 
himself  restored  to  life,  his  joy  and  his  embraces  knew  do  bounds. 

We  rode  over  a low  undulating  country  at  the  foot  of  the  Sinjar  hills, 
every  .dell  and  ravine  being  a bed  of  flowers.  About  flve  miles  from  Kha- 
tn—ij  ill  we  passed  a small  reedy  stream,  called  Sufleyra,  on  winch  the 
Borai;  (Suttum's  tribe)  had  been  encamped  on  the  previous  day.  They 
had  new  moved  further  into  the  plain,  and  we  stopped  at  their  watering- 
place.  a brackish  rivulet  called  SayheL  their  tents  being  about  three  miles 
distant  from  us  in  the  I>eserr.  We  pitched  on  a rising  ground  immediate- 
ly above  the  stream.  Beneath  us  was  the  golden  plain,  swarming  with 
moving  objects.  The  Khorusseh.  and  all  the  tribes  under  Ferhan.  had  now 
congregated  to  the  north  of  the  Sin  jar  previous  to  thear  summer  migration 
to  the  postures  of  the  Khabour.  Their  mares,  camels,  and  sheep  came  to 
SayheS  for  water,  and  during  the  whole  'day  there  was  one  endless  line  of 
animals  passing  to  and  fro  before  our  encampment.  I sat  watching  them 
from  my  tent.  As  each  mare  and  horse  stopped  to  drink  at  the  troubled 
stream.  Suttum  named  its  owner  and  its  breed,  and  described  its  exploits. 
The  mares  were  ireneially  followed  by  two  or  three  colts,  who  are  sn tiered, 
even  in  thear  third  vear.  to  run  loose  after  their  dams,  and  to  gambol  unre- 
strained over  the  plain-  It  is  to  their  perfect  freedom  whilst  young  that 
the  horses  of  the  Desert  owe  their  speed  and  the  suppleness  of  their  limbs. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  add  a few  remarks  on  the  subject  of  Arab 
horses  The  Bedouins,  as  it  is  well  known,  divide  their  thorough-bends 
into  five  races,  descended,  as  some  declare,  from  the  five  favourite  mares  of 

♦ The  marner  in  which  reports  are  siwrof  and  exaggerated  in  the  Desert  is  fre- 
ijaenidy  highly  amusing.  In  alD  encampments  there  are  idle  varahoods  who  live  by 
carrying  news  from  tribe  to  tribe,  thereby  earning  a •dinner  and  spending  their  leis- 
ure hours.  As  soon  as  a stranger  arrives,  and  relates  anything  of  interest  to  the 
Arabs,  some  such  feOow  win  mourn  his  ready-saddled  'delonl  and  make  the  best  of 
his  way  to  retail  the  news  in  a neighbouring  tent  from  whence  it  is  carried,  rit  the 
same  way.  to  others.  It  is  extraordinary  bow  rapidly  a report  spreads  in  man- 
ner over  a very  great  distance..  Sofui  sent  to  inform  the  British  resident  at  Bagh- 
dad of  the  siege  and  fa!  of  Acre  many  days  before  the  special  messenger  dispatched 
to  announce  that  event  reached  the  city ; and  I have  frequently  rejected  intelligence 
received  fro—  Bedouins,  on  account  of  the  apparent  impcissMbty  of  its  earning  to  me 
through  such  a source,  which  has  afterwards  proved  to  be  true. 


ARAB  HORSES. 


279 


Chap.  XV.] 

the  Prophet.  The  names,  however,  of  these  breeds  vary  amongst  different 
tribes.  According  to  Suttum,  who  was  better  acquainted  with  the  history 
and  traditions  of  the  Bedouins  than  almost  any  Arab  I ever  met,  they  are 
all  derived  from  one  original  stock,  the  Koheyleh,  which,  in  course  of  time, 
was  divided,  after  the  names  of  celebrated  mares,  into  the  following  five 
branches  : — Obeyan  Sherakh,  Hedba  Zayhi,  Manekia  Hedrehji,  Shouay- 
mah  Sablah,  and  Margoub.*  These  form  the  Kamse,  or  the  five  breeds, 
from  which  alone  entire  horses  are  chosen  to  propagate  the  race.  From 
the  Kamse  have  sprung  a number  of  families  no  less  noble,  perhaps,  than 
the  original  five  ; but  the  Shammar  receive  their  stallions  with  suspicion, 
or  reject  them  altogether.  Among  the  best  known  are  the  Wathna  Kher- 
san,  so  called  from  the  mares  being  said  to  be  worth  their  weight  in  gold 
(noble  horses  of  this  breed  are  found  amongst  the  Arab  tribes  inhabiting 
the  districts  to  the  east  of  the  Euphrates,  the  Beni  Lam,  A1  Kamees,  and 
A1  Kithere)  ; Khalawi,  thus  named  from  a wonderful  feat  of  speed  per- 
formed by  a celebrated  mare  in  Southern  Mesopotamia  ; Jaiaythani,f  and 
Julfa.  The  only  esteemed  race  in  the  Desert  which,  according  to  Suttum, 
cannot  be  traced  to  the  Kamse , is  the  Saklawi,  although  considered  by  the 
Shammar  and  by  the  Bedouins  of  the  Gebel  Shammar  as  one  of  the  no- 
blest, if  not  the  noblest,  of  all.  It  is  divided  into  three  branches,  the  most 
valued  being  the  Saklawi  Jedran,  which  is  said  to  be  now  almost  extinct. 
The  agents  of  Abbas  Pasha,  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  sent  into  all  parts  of  the 
Desert  to  purchase  the  best  horses,  have  especially  sought  for  mares  of  this 
breed.  The  prices  given  for  them  would  appear  enormous  even  to  the 
English  reader.  A Sheikh  of  the  great  tribe  of  the  A1  Dhofyr  was  offered 
and  refused  for  a mare  no  less  than  £1200,  the  negociation  being  carried 
on  through  Faras,  Sheikh  of  the  Montefik,  who  received  handsome  presents 
for  the  trouble  he  had  taken  in  the  matter.  As  much  as  a thousand  pounds 
is  said  to  have  been  given  to  Sheikhs  of  the  Aneyza  for  well-known  mares. 
So  that,  had  the  Pasha’s  challenge  been  accepted,  the  best  blood  in  Arabia 
would  have  been  matched  against  the  English  racer.  During  my  resi- 
dence in  the  Desert  I saw  several  horses  which  were  purchased  for  the 
Viceroy. 

To  understand  how  a man,  who  has  perhaps  not  even  bread  enough  to 
feed  himself  and  his  children,  can  withstand  the  temptation  of  such  large 
sums,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  besides  the  affection  proverbially  felt 
by  the  Bedouin  for  his  mare,  which  might,  perhaps,  not  be  proof  against 
such  a test,  he  is  entirely  dependent  upon  her  for  his  happiness,  his  glory, 

* According  to  Burckhardt,  the  five  are,  Taueyse,  Manekia,  Koheyleh,  Saklawi, 
and  Julfa.  He  probably  received  these  names  from  the  Arabs  of  the  Hedjaz,  who 
are  less  acquainted  with  the  breeds  of  horses  than  the  Shammar  or  Aneyza  Bedou- 
ins. (Notes  on  Arabs,  p.  116.,  but  at  p.  253.  he  observes,  that  the  Nedjd  Arabs  do 
not  reckon  the  Manekia  and  Julfa  in  the  Kamse.) 

f A well-known  horse,  named  Merjian,  long  in  my  possession,  and  originally  pur- 
chased from  the  Arabs  by  my  friend  Mr.  Ross,  was  of  this  breed. 


280 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XV. 


and,  indeed,  his  very  existence.  An  Arab  possessing  a horse  unrivalled  in 
speed  and  endurance,  and  it  would  only  be  for  such  that  prices  like  those 
I have  mentioned  would  be  offered,  is  entirely  his  own  master,  and  can 
defy  the  world.  Once  on  its  back,  no  one  can  catch  him.  He  may  rob. 
plunder,  fight,  and  go  to  and  fro  as  he  lists.  He  believes  in  the  word  of 
his  Prophet,  “that  noble  and  fierce  breeds  of  horses  are  true  riches.,; 
Without  his  mare,  money  would  be  of  no  value  to  him.  It  would  either 
become  the  prey  of  some  one  more  powerful  and  better  mounted  than  him- 
self, would  be  spent  in  festivities,  or  be  distributed  amongst  his  kinsmen. 
He  could  only  keep  his  gold  by  burying  it  in  some  secret  place,  and  of  what 
use  would  it  then  be  to  one  who  is  never  two  days  in  the  same  spot,  and 
who  wanders  over  a space  of  three  or  four  hundred  miles  in  the  course  of  a 
few  months  ? No  man  has  a keener  sense  of  the  joys  of  liberty,  and  a 
heartier  hatred  of  restraint,  than  the  true  Bedouin.  Give  him  the  Desert, 
his  mare,  and  his  spear,  and  he  will  not  envy  the  wealth  and  power  of  the 
greatest  of  the  earth.  He  plunders  and  robs  for  the  mere  pleasure  and  ex- 
citement which  danger  and  glory  afford.  All  he  takes  he  divides  amongst 
his  friends,  and  he  gladly  risks  his  life  to  get  that  which  is  spent  in  an 
hour.  An  Arab  will  beg  for  a whole  day  for  a shirt  or  a kerchief,  and  five 
minutes  after  he  has  obtained  it,  he  will  give  it  to  the  first  person  who 
may  happen  to  admire  it. 

A mare  is  generally  the  property  of  two  or  more  persons,  who  have  a 
share  in  her  progeny,  regulated  by  custom,  and  differing  according  to  the 
tribe.  All  the  offspring  of  five  celebrated  mares  belong  by  usage  to  the 
head  of  the  sub-tribe  of  the  Ahl-Mohammed,  and  whenever  horses  descend- 
ed from  them  are  captured  by  the  Shammar  from  the  Aneyza  or  other 
tribes,  they  may  be  claimed  by  him.  They  are  merely  brought  to  Ferhan, 
the  present  chief,  as  a matter  of  form,  and  he  returns  them  to  their  cap- 
tors.  Sofuk  (his  father),  however,  would  frequently  insist  upon  his  right, 
and  bestow  valuable  mares  thus  obtained  upon  his  immediate  retainers. 
The  five  breeds  are  Saklawi  Jedran,  Emlayah,  Margoub,  Hedba  Enzaii, 
and  Hamdaniyah. 

The  largest  number  of  horses,  as  well  as  those  of  the  most  esteemed 
breeds,  are  still  to  be  found,  as  in  the  time  of  Burckhardt,  amongst  the 
tribes  who  inhabit  Mesopotamia  and  the  great  plains  watered  by  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris.  These  rich  pastures,  nourished  by  the  rains  of  winter 
and  spring,  the  climate,  and — according  to  the  Arabs — the  brackish  water 
of  the  springs  rising  in  the  gypsum,  seem  especially  favorable  to  the  rearing 
of  horses.  The  best  probably  belong  to  the  Shammar  and  Aneyza  tribes,  a 
rivalry  existing  between  the  two,  and  fame  giving  the  superiority  some- 
times to  one,  sometimes  to  the  other.  The  mares  of  the  Aneyza  have  the 
reputation  of  being  the  largest  and  most  powerful,  but  as  the  two  tribes 
are  always  at  war,  plundering  and  robbing  one  another  almost  daily,  their 
horses  are  continually  changing  owners. 

The  present  Sheikh  of  the  Gebel  Shammar,  Ibn  Reshid,  has,  I am  in- 


ARAB  HORSES. 


281 


Chap.  XV.] 

formed,  a very  choice  stud  of  mares  of  the  finest  breeds,  and  their  reputa- 
tion has  spread  far  and  wide  over  the  Desert.  The  Nawab  of  Oude,  the 
Ekbal-ed-Doulah,  a good  judge  of  horses,  who  had  visited  many  of  the 
tribes,  and  had  made  the  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  cities  by  the  little  fre- 
quented route  through  the  interior  of  Nedjd,  assured  me  that  the  finest 
horses  he  had  ever  seen  were  in  the  possession  of  the  Shereef  of  Mecca 
The  Indian  market  is  chiefly  supplied  by  the  Montefik  tribes  inhabiting  the 
banks  of  the  lower  Euphrates  ; but  the  purity  of  their  stock  has  been  neg- 
lected in  consequence  of  the  great  demand,  and  a Montefik  horse  is  not  val- 
ued by  the  true  Bedouin.  Horse-dealers,  generally  of  the  mixed  Arab  tribe 
of  Agayl,  pay  periodical  visits  to  the  Shammar  and  Aneyza  to  purchase  colts 
for  exportation  to  India.  They  buy  horses  of  high  caste,  which  frequently 
sell  for  large  sums  at  Bombay.  The  dealers  pay,  in  the  Desert,  from  30/. 
to  150Z.  for  colts  of  two,  three,  and  four  years.  The  Agayles  attach  less 
importance  to  blood  than  the  Bedouins,  and  provided  the  horse  has  points 
which  seem  suited  to  the  Indian  market,  they  rarely  ask  his  pedigree. 
The  Arabs  henoe  believe  that  Europeans  know  nothing  of  blood,  which 
with  them  is  the  first  consideration. 

The  horses  thus  purchased  are  sent  to  Bombay  by  native  vessels  at  a 
very  considerable  risk,  whole  cargoes  being  lost  or  thrown  overboard  dur- 
ing storms  every  year.  The  trade  is  consequently  very  precarious,  and  less 
flourishing  now  than  it  used  to  be.  With  the  exception  of  one  or  two 
great  dealers  at  Baghdad  and  Busrah,  most  of  those  who  have  been  en- 
gaged in  it  have  been  ruined. 

The  Arab  horse  is  more  remarkable  for  its  exquisite  symmetry  and  beau- 
tiful proportions,  united  with  wonderful  powers  of  endurance,  than  for  ex- 
traordinary speed.  I doubt  whether  any  Arab  of  the  best  blood  has  ever 
been  brought  to  England.  The  difficulty  of  obtaining  them  is  so  great, 
hat  they  are  scarcely  ever  seen  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Desert. 

Their  color  is  generally  white,  light  or  dark  grey,  light  chesnut,  and  bay 
with  white  or  black  feet.  Black  is  exceedingly  rare,  and  I never  remem- 
ber to  have  seen  dun,  sorrel,  or  dapple.  I refer,  of  course,  to  the  true-bred 
Arab,  and  not  to  the  Turcoman  or  to  Kurdish  and  Turkish  races,  which 
are  a cross  between  the  Arab  and  Persian. 

Their  average  height  is  from  14  hands  to  14f,  rarely  reaching  15  ; I 
have  only  seen  one  mare  that  exceeded  it.  Notwithstanding  the  smallness 
of  their  stature  they  often  possess  great  strength  and  courage.  I was  cred- 
ibly informed  that  a celebrated  mare  of  the  Manekia  breed,  now  dead,  car- 
ried two  men  in  chain  armour  beyond  the  reach  of  their  Aneyza  pursuers. 
But  their  most  remarkable  and  valuable  quality  is  the  power  of  perform- 
ing long  and  arduous  marches  upon  the  smallest  possible  allowance  of  food 
and  water.  It  is  only  the  mare  of  the  wealthy  Bedouin  that  gets  even  a 
regular  feed  of  about  twelve  handfuls  of  barley,  or  of  rice  in  the  husk,  once 
in  twenty-four  hours.  During  the  spring  alone,  when  the  pastures  are 
green,  the  horses  of  the  Arabs  are  sleek  and  beautiful  in  appearance.  At 


282 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XY. 

other  times  they  eat  nothing  but  the  withered  herbs  and  scanty  hay  gath- 
ered from  the  parched  soil,  and  are  lean  and  unsightly.  They  are  never 
placed  under  cover  during  the  intense  heat  of  an  Arabian  summer,  nor 
protected  from  the  biting  cold  of  the  Desert  winds  during  winter.  The 
saddle  is  rarely  taken  from  their  backs,  nor  are  they  ever  cleaned  or 
groomed.  Thus  apparently  neglected,  they  are  but  skin  and  bone,  and  the 
townsman  marvels  at  seeing  an  animal,  which  he  would  scarcely  take  the 
trouble  to  ride  home,  valued  almost  beyond  price.  Although  docile  as  a 
lamb,  and  requiring  no  other  guide  than  the  halter,  when  the  Arab  mare 
hears  the  war-cry  of  the  tribe,  and  sees  the  quivering  spear  of  her  rider, 
her  eyes  glitter  with  fire,  her  blood-red  nostrils  open  wide,  her  neck  is  no- 
bly arched,  and  her  tail  and  mane  are  raised  and  spread  out  to  the  wind. 
The  Bedouin  proverb  says,  that  a high-bred  mare  when  at  full  speed 
should  hide  her  rider  between  her  neck  and  her  tail. 

The  Shammar  Bedouins  give  their  horses,  particularly  when  young,  large 
quantities  of  camels’  milk.  I have  heard  of  mares  eating  raw  flesh,  and 
dates  are  frequently  mixed  with  their  food  by  the  tribes  living  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Euphrates.  The  Shammar  and  Aneyza  shoe  their  horses  if 
possible,  and  wandering  farriers  regularly  visit  their  tents.  If  an  Arab 
cannot  afford  to  shoe  his  mare  entirely,  he  will  shoe  her  fore-feet.  The 
Chaab  (or  Kiab)  do  not  usually  shoe  their  horses.  The  shoes,  like  those 
used  in  all  parts  of  the  East,  consist  of  a thin  iron  plate  covering  the  whole 
foot,  except  a small  hole  in  the  centre.  They  are  held  by  six  nails,  are 
clumsily  made,  and  usually  more  clumsily  put  on.  The  Arab  horse  has 
but  two  ordinary  paces,  a quick  and  easy  walk,  sometimes  averaging  be- 
tween four  and  five  miles  an  hour,  and  a half  running  canter.  The  Be- 
douin rarely  puts  his  mare  to  full  speed  unless  pursued  or  pursuing.  In 
racing,  the  Arabs,  and  indeed  Easterns  in  general,  have  no  idea  that  the 
weight  carried  by  the  rider  makes  any  difference. 

I have  frequently  pointed  out  to  the  Turkish  authorities  the  fitness  of 
the  rich  plains  watered  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  for  a government 
stud.  It  would  be  difficult,  in  the  present  state  of  things,  to  induce  the 
Bedouins  to  place  themselves  under  the  restraint  necessary  to  such  an  un- 
dertaking ; but  there  are  many  half-sedentary  tribes,  who  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  management  of  horses,  and  know  the  best  pastures  of 
the  Desert.  If  properly  protected  and  supported  they  could  defy  the  Be- 
douins, and  maintain  permanent  stations  in  any  part  of  Mesopotamia.  A 
noble  race  of  horses,  now  rapidly  becoming  extinct,  for  the  breed  of  true 
Arabs  is,  I believe,  daily  deteriorating,*  and  their  number  decreasing,  might 
prove  a source  of  strength  and  wealth  to  the  empire. 

* Burckhardt  states  that  the  number  of  horses  in  Arabia  did  not  in  his  time  ex- 
ceed 50.000.  It  has  probably  considerably  decreased  since.  The  defeat  of  the  Wa- 
habys,  the  conquest  of  Arabia,  and  the  occupation  of  Syria  by  the  Egyptians,  have 
contributed  greatly  both  to  the  diminution  and  deterioration  of  the  race.  I have  had 
no  means  of  ascertaining,  even  proximately,  the  number  of  horses  belonging  to  such 
tribes  as  the  Shammar  and  Aneyza. 


BUYING  HAWKS. 


283 


Chap.  XV.] 

In  the  evening,  as  I was  seated  before  my  tent,  I observed  a large  party 
of  horsemen  and  riders  on  delouls  approaching  our  encampment.  They 
stopped  at  the  entrance  of  the  large  pavilion  reserved  for  guests,  and  pick- 
eting their  mares,  and  turning  loose  their  dromedaries  adorned  with  gay 
trappings,  seated  themselves  on  the  carpets.  The  chiefs  were  our  old 
friends,  Mohammed  Emin  and  Ferhan,  the  great  Shammar  Sheikh.  We 
cordially  embraced  after  the  Bedouin  fashion.  I had  not  seen  Ferhan  since 
the  treacherous  murder  of  his  father  by  Nejib  Pasha  of  Baghdad,*  to  which 
he  alluded  with  touching  expressions  of  grief,  bewailing  his  own  incompe- 
tency to  fill  Sofuk’s  place,  and  to  govern  the  divided  tribe.  He  was  now 
on  his  way  with  the  Jebour  Sheikh  to  recover,  if  possible,  the  government 
treasure,  plundered  by  the  Hamoud,  for  which,  as  head  of  the  Shammar, 
he  was  held  responsible  by  the  Porte. 

After  they  had  eaten  of  the  feast  we  were  able  to  prepare  for  them,  they 
departed  about  sunset  for  the  tents  of  the  Jebours.  I embraced  Moham- 
med Emin  for  the  last  time,  and  saw  him  no  more  during  my  residence  in 
Assyria. 

The  scene  at  the  watering-place  at  Sayhel  was  so  changing  and  varied, 
that  I had  little  cause  to  regret  a delay  of  two  days  on  the  spot.  Long 
before  dawn  the  sheep  and  camels  gathered  round  the  spring,  and  it  was 
night  before  the  last  shepherd  had  driven  away  his  flocks.  My  tents, 
moreover,  were  filled  with  Bedouins  from  various  tribes,  who  supplied  me 
with  information,  and  entertained  me  with  traditions  and  tales  of  the 
Desert. 

On  the  4th  of  May  we  made  a short  day’s  journey  of  five  hours  to  a 
beautiful  stream  issuing  from  the  Sinjar  hill,  beneath  the  village  of  Khersa 
or  Chersa.  A Bedouin  of  the  Boraij  tribe  accompanied  us  riding  on  a 
swift  white  dromedary  of  a true  Nedjd  breed.  This  animal  was  scarcely 
taller  than  a large  English  horse.  It  had  been  captured  by  its  present 
owner  with  another  of  the  same  race,  and  several  ordinary  camels,  during 
a three  months’  ghazoy or  plundering  expedition,  which  he  had  under- 
taken with  the  warriors  of  his  tribe  into  the  interior  of  Arabia. 

Leaving  the  plain,  which  was  speckled  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach 
with  the  flocks  and  tents  of  the  Bedouins,  we  skirted  the  very  foot  of  the 
Sinjar.  Khersa  had  been  deserted  by  its  inhabitants,  who  had  rebuilt 
their  village  higher  up  on  the  side  of  the  hill. 

Since  the  loss  of  Hattab,  Suttum  had  never  ceased  pining  for  a falcon 
worthy  to  take  his  place.  He  had  been  counting  the  hours  to  his  visit  to 
this  part  of  the  Sinjar,  known  only  to  yield  to  the  borders  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  in  producing  the  finest  and  bravest  hawks  for  the  chase.  The  Yez- 
idis  carefully  preserve  their  nests  as  hereditary  property,  in  which  certain 
families  have  a vested  interest.  The  young  birds,  with  the  exception  of 
one  left  to  prevent  the  parents  deserting  the  place,  are  taken  when  half- 
fledged.  They  are  then  sold,  generally  to  the  Bedouins,  for  comparatively 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  113. 


264 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XV. 


large  prices,  from  five  to  twenty  gazees  (lZ.  to  4Z.)  being  given  according 
to  the  reputation  of  the  nest,  whose  peculiar  qualities  are  a matter  of  no- 
toriety amongst  true  sportsmen.  Three  birds  only,  in  each  brood,  are 
thought  worthy  of  being  trained.  The  first  hatched  is  the  most  esteemed, 
and  is  called  “ Nadir the  second  ranks  next,  and  is  known  as  the 
Azeez.”  A hunting-hawk  of  the  Sinjar  species  brought  up  by  hand  is 
called  “ Charkh.”  It  strikes  its  quarry  on  the  ground,  and  not  in  the  air. 
and  is  principally  flown  at  gazelles,  bustards,  and  hares.  The  young  are 
sold  by  weight.  Suttum  sat,  scales  in  hand,  examining  the  unfledged  birds 
with  the  eye  of  a connoisseur,  and  weighing  them  with  scrupulous  care. 
All  that  were  brought  to  him  were,  however,  rejected,  the  Sheikh  protest- 
ing that  the  Infidels  were  cheating  him,  and  had  sold  all  the  nadirs  and 
azeezes  to  more  fortunate  Bedouins. 

Next  day  we  made  but  little  progress,  encamping  near  a spring  under 
the  village  of  Aldina,  whose  chief,  Murad,  had  now  returned  from  his  cap- 
tivity’. Grateful  for  my  intercession  in  his  behalf,  he  brought  us  sheep  and 
other  provisions,  and  met  us  with  his  people  as  we  entered  the  valley.  The 
Mutesellim  was  in  his  village  collecting  the  revenues,  but  the  inhabitants 
of  Nogray  had  refused  to  contribute  the  share  assigned  to  them,  or  to  re- 
ceive the  governor.  He  begged  me  to  visit  the  rebellious  Yezidis,  and  the 
whole  day  was  spent  in  devising  schemes  for  a general  peace.  At  length 
the  chiefs  consented  to  accompany  me  to  Aldina,  and,  after  some  reduction 
in  the  Salian,  to  pay  the  taxes. 

During  the  negociations,  Suttum,  surrounded  by  clamorous  Yezidis,  was 
sitting  in  the  shade,  examining  and  weighing  unfledged  hawks.  At  length 
three  were  deemed  worthy  of  his  notice  : one  being  pretty  well  advanced 
in  days  was  sent  to  his  tent  for  education,  under  the  charge  of  the  rider  of 
the  Nedjd  deloul.  The  others,  being  yet  in  a weak  state,  were  restored  to 
the  nest,  to  be  claimed  on  his  return  from  Mosul.  The  largest  bird,  being 
a very  promising  specimen,  cost  five  gazees,  or  lZ. ; the  others,  three  gazees 
and  a half,  as  the  times  were  hard,  and  the  tax-gatherers  urgent  for  ready 
money. 

We  rode  on  the  following  day  for  about  an  hour  along  the  foot  of  the 
Sinjar  hill,  which  suddenly  subsides  into  a low  undulating  country.  The 
narrow  valleys  and  ravines  were  blood-red  with  gigantic  poppies.  The 
Bedouins  adorned  the  camels  and  horses  with  the  scarlet  flowers,  and 
twisted  them  into  their  own  head-dresses  and  long  garments.  Even  the 
Tiyari  dressed  themselves  up  in  the  gaudy  trappings  of  nature,  and  as  we 
journeyed  chanting  an  Arab  war-song,  we  resembled  the  return  of  a festive 
procession  from  some  sacrifice  of  old.  During  our  weary  marches  under  a 
burning  sun,  it  required  some  such  episodes  to  keep  up  the  drooping  spirits 
of  the  men,  who  toiled  on  foot  by  our  sides.  Poetry  and  flowers  are  the 
wine  and  spirits  of  the  Arab  ; a couplet  is  equal  to  a bottle,  and  a rose  to 
a dram,  without  the  evil  effects  of  either.  Would  that  in  more  civilised 
climes  the  sources  of  excitement  were  equally  harmless ! 


TAKING  NOTES. 


285 


Chap.  XV.] 

The  large  artificial  mound  of  Tel  Shour  rose  in  the  plain  to  the  right  of 
us.  About  nine  miles  from  our  last  encamping  place  we  crossed  a stream 
of  sweet  water  named  Aththenir,  and  stopped  soon  after  for  the  day  in  the 
bosom  of  the  hills,  near  some  reedy  ponds,  called  Fukka,  formed  by  several 
springs.  As  this  was  a well-known  place  of  rendezvous  for  the  Bedouins 
when  out  on  the  ghazou,  Suttum  displayed  more  than  usual  caution  in 
choosing  the  place  for  our  tents,  ascending  with  Khoraith  a neighbouring 
peak  to  survey  the  country  and  scan  the  plain  below. 

In  the  afternoon  the  camels  had  wandered  from  the  encampment  in 
search  of  grass,  and  we  were  reposing  in  the  shade  of  our  tents,  when  we 
were  roused  by  the  cry  that  a large  body  of  men  were  to  be  seen  in  the 
distance.  The  Bedouins  immediately  sought  to  drive  back  their  beasts. 
Suttum  unplatting  his  long  hair,  and  shaking  it  in  hideous  disorder  over 
his  head  and  face,  and  baring  his  arms  to  the  shoulder,  leapt  with  his  quiv- 
ering spear  into  the  saddle.  Having  first  placed  the  camp  in  the  best  pos- 
ture of  defence  I was  able,  I rode  out  with  him  to  reconnoitre.  But  our 
alarm  was  soon  quieted.  The  supposed  enemy  proved  to  be  a party  of  poor 
Yezidis,  who,  taking  advantage  of  our  caravan,  were  going  to  Mosul  to  seek 
employment  during  the  summer. 

In  the  evening  Suttum  inveighed  bitterly  against  a habit  of  some  trav- 
ellers of  continually  taking  notes  before  strangers.  I endeavoured  to  ex- 
plain the  object  and  to  remove  his  fears.  “ It  is  all  very  well,”  said  the 
Sheikh,  “ and  I can  understand,  and  am  willing  to  believe,  all  you  tell  me. 
But  supposing  the  Turks,  or  any  body  else,  should  hereafter  come  against 
us,  there  are  many  foolish  and  suspicious  men  in  the  tribe,  and  I have  en- 
emies, who  would  say  that  I had  brought  them,  for  I have  shown  you  ev- 
erything. You  know  what  would  be  the  consequences  to  me  of  such  a 
report.  As  for  you,  you  are  in  this  place  to-day,  and  100  days’ journey  off 
to-morrow,  but  I am  always  here.  There  is  not  a plot  of  grass  or  a spring 
that  that  man  (alluding  to  one  of  our  party)  does  not  write  down.”  Sut- 
tum’s  complaints  were  not  unreasonable,  and  travellers  cannot  be  too  cau- 
tious in  this  respect,  when  amongst  independent  tribes,  for  even  if  they  do 
not  bring  difficulties  upon  themselves,  they  may  do  so  upon  others. 

We  had  a seven  hours’  ride  on  the  delouls,  leaving  the  caravan  to  fol- 
low, to  the  large  ruin  of  Abou  Maria,*  passing  through  Tel  Afer.  The  Je- 
hesh  were  encamped  about  two  miles  from  the  place.  My  workmen  had 
excavated  for  some  time  in  these  remarkable  mounds,  and  had  discovered 
chambers  and  several  enormous  slabs  of  Mosul  marble,  but  no  remains 
whatever  of  sculpture.  They  had,  however,  dug  out  several  entire  bricks 
bearing  the  name  of  the  founder  of  the  north-west  palace  at  Nimroud,  but 
unaccompanied  by  that  of  any  town  or  temple.  The  ruins  are  of  consid- 
erable extent,  and  might,  if  fully  explored,  yield  some  valuable  relics. 

A short  ride  of  three  hours  brought  us  to  Eski  (old)  Mosul,  on  the  banks 

* I have  elsewhere  described  the  ruins  and  springs  of  Abou  Maria.  (Nineveh  and 
its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  312.) 


286 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XV. 


of  the  Tigris.  According  to  tradition  this  is  the  original  site  of  the  city. 
There  are  mounds,  and  the  remains  of  walls,  which  are  probably  Assyrian. 
Upon  them  are  traces  of  buildings  of  a far  more  recent  period.  My  work- 
men had  opened  several  trenches  and  tunnels  in  the  principal  ruin,  and  at 
a subsequent  period  Awad,  with  a party  of  Jehesh,  renewed  the  excava- 
tions in  it,  but  no  relics  throwing  any  light  upon  its  history  were  discovered. 

Mosul  was  still  nine  caravan  hours  distant,  and  we  encamped  the  next 
night  at  Hamaydat,  where  many  of  our  friends  came  out  to  meet  us.  On 
the  10th  of  May  we  were  again  within  the  walls  of  the  town,  our  desert 
trip  having  been  accomplished  without  any  mishap  or  accident  whatever: 

Suttum  left  us  two  days  after  for  his  tents,  fearing  lest  he  should  be  too 
late  to  join  the  warriors  of  the  Khorusseh,  who  had  planned  a grand  gha- 
zou  into  Nedjd.  They  were  to  be  away  for  thirty  days,  and  expected  to 
bring  back  a great  spoil  of  mares,  dromedaries,  and  camels.  As  for  three 
days  they  would  meet  with  no  wells,  they  could  only  ride  their  delouls, 
each  animal  carrying  a spearman  and  a musketeer,  with  their  skins  of 
water  and  a scanty  stock  of  provisions.  They  generally  contrive  to  return 
from  these  expeditions  with  considerable  booty.  Suttum  urged  me  to  ac- 
company them ; but  I had  long  renounced  such  evil  habits,  and  other  oc- 
cupations kept  me  in  Mosul.  Finding  that  I was  not  to  be  persuaded,  and 
that  the  time  was  at  length  come  for  us  to  part,  he  embraced  me,  crammed 
the  presents  we  had  made  to  himself  and  his  wives  into  his  saddle-bags,  and, 
mounting  his  deloul,  rode  off  with  Mijwell  towards  the  Desert. 


Arab  Camels. 


/ 


An  Entrance  to  the  Great  Hall  of  the  North-west  Palace  (Nimroud). 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

DISCOVERIES  At  KOUYUNJIK. PROCESSION  OF  FIGURES  BEARING  FRUIT  AND  GAME. LO- 
CUSTS.  LED  HORSES. AN  ASSYRIAN  CAMPAIGN. — DAGON,  OR  THE  FISH-GOD. THE 

CHAMBERS  OF  RECORDS. INSCRIBED  CLAY  TABLETS. RETURN  TO  NIMROUD. EFFECTS 

OF  THE  FLOOD. DISCOVERIES. SMALL  TEMPLE  UNDER  HIGH  MOUND. THE  EVIL  SPIRIT 

FISH-GOD. FINE  BAS-RELIEF  OF  THE  KING. EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  INSCRIPTION. 

GREAT  INSCRIBED  MONOLITH. EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  INSCRIPTION. CEDAR  BEAMS. 

SMALL  OBJECTS. SECOND  TEMPLE. MARBLE  FIGURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS. 

During  my  absence  in  the  Desert,  the  excavations  at  Kouyunjik  had 
been  actively  carried  on  under  the  superintendence  of  Toma  Shishman. 
On  my  arrival  he  described  many  interesting  discoveries,  and  I hastened  to 
the  ruins,  crossing  in  a rude  ferry-boat  the  river,  now  swollen,  by  the  spring 
rains,  to  more  than  double  its  usual  size.* 

The  earth  had  been  completely  removed  from  the  sides  of  the  long  gal- 
lery, on  the  walls  of  which  had  been  portrayed  the  transport  of  the  large 
stone  and  of  the  winged  bulls,  f An  outlet  was  discovered  near  its  west- 
ern end,  opening  into  a narrow  descending  passage ; an  entrance,  it  would 
appear,  into  the  palace  from  the  river  side. I Its  length  was  ninety-six 
feet,  its  breadth  not  more  than  thirteen.  The  walls  were  panelled  with 

* The  Tigris  this  year  had  risen  much  higher  than  usual.  I have  already  men- 
tioned that  the  plain  of  Nimroud  was  completely  under  water;  opposite  Mosul  the 
flood  nearly  reached  the  mounds  of  Kouyunjik  and  Nebbi  Yunus 
t No.  XLIX.  Plan  I.  J No.  LI.  same  Plan. 


LOCUST-BEARERS. 


289 


Chap.  XVI.] 

sculptured  slabs  about  six  feet  high.*  Those  to  the  right,  in  descending 
represented  a procession  of  servants  carrying  fruit,  flowers,  game,  and  sup 
plies  for  a banquet,  preceded  by  mace-bearers.  The  first  servant  follow 
ing  the  guard  bore  an  object  which  I should  not  hesitate  to  identify  with 
the  pineapple,  unless  there  were  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Assyri- 
ans were  unacquainted  with  that  fruit.  The  leaves  sprouting  from  the 
top  proved  that  it  was  not  the  cone  of  a pine  tree  or  fir.  After  all,  the 
sacred  symbol  held  by  the  winged  figures  in  the  Assyrian  sculptures  may 
be  the  same  fruit,  and  not,  as  I have  conjectured,  that  of  a coniferous 
tree.f 

The  attendants  who  followed  carried  clusters  of  ripe  dates  and  flat  bask- 
ets of  osier- work,  filled  with  pomegranates,  apples,  and  bunches  of  grapes. 
They  raised  in  one  hand  small  green  boughs  to  drive  away  the  flies.  Then 
came  men  bearing  hares,  partridges,  and  dried  locusts  fastened  on  rods. 
The  locust  has  ever  been  an  article  of  food  in  the  East,  and  is  still  sold  in 
the  markets  of  many  towns  in  Arabia. $ Being  introduced  in  this  bas- 
relief  amongst  the  choice  delicacies  of  a banquet,  it  was  probably  highly 
prized  by  the  Assyrians. 

The  locust-bearers  were  followed  by  a man  with  strings  of  pomegran- 
ates ; then  came,  two  by  two,  attendants  carrying  on  their  shoulders  low 
tables,  such  as  are  still  used  in  the  East  at  feasts,  loaded  with  baskets  of 
cakes  and  fruits  of  various  kinds.  The  procession  was  finished  by  a long 
line  of  servants  bearing  vases  of  flowers. 

These  figures  were  dressed  in  a short  tunic,  confined  at  the  waist  by  a 
shawl  or  girdle.  They  wore  no  head-gear,  their  hair  falling  in  curls  on 
their  shoulders. 

On  the  opposite  walls  of  the  passage  were  fourteen  horses  without  trap- 
pings, each  horse  having  a simple  halter  twisted  round  its  lower  jaw,  by 
which  it  was  led  by  a groom.  The  animals  and  men  were  designed  with 
considerable  truth  and  spirit.  The  procession  was  marshalled  by  a staff - 
bearer,  or  chamberlain.  The  dresses  of  the  grooms  were  richer  than  those 

* The  figures  are  about  4£  feet  in  height. 

t It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  the  object  carried  by  the  winged  figures  may 
be  the  fruit  of  the  fan  palm,  a tree  whose  general  usefulness  has  rendered  it  sacred 
to  the  natives  of  parts  of  South  America,  but  which,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  could  not 
have  grown  in  Assyria,  or  in  any  countries  visited  by  the  Assyrians. 

t Burckhardt  (Notes  on  the  Bedouins,  p.  269.)  gives  the  following  account  of  the 
mode  of  preparing  them : — “ The  Arabs  in  preparing  locusts  as  an  article  of  food, 
throw  them  alive  into  boiling  water,  with  which  a good  deal  of  salt  has  been  mix- 
ed : after  a few  minutes  they  are  taken  out  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The  head,  feet, 
and  wings  are  then  torn  off;  the  bodies  are  cleansed  from  the  salt  and  perfectly 
dried ; after  which  process  whole  sacks  are  filled  with  them  by  the  Bedouins.  They 
are  sometimes  eaten  broiled  in  butter ; and  they  often  constitute  materials  for  a 
breakfast  when  spread  over  unleavened  bread  mixed  with  butter.”  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  the  locust  eaten  by  John  the  Baptist  in  the  wilderness  was  the  fruit 
of  a tree ; but  it  is  more  probable  that  the  prophet  used  a common  article  of  food, 
abounding  even  in  the  Desert. 


T 


290 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI. 


of  the  banquet-bearers.  They  wore  a short  tunic  and  an  embroidered  belt, 
and  to  this  was  attached  that  ornament  of  fur,  or  colored  fringe,  peculiar 
to  the  costumes  of  the  warriors  of  the  later  Assyrian  period.* 

Jt  is  probable  that  the  sculptures  forming  the  upper  end  of  the  passage, 
but  now  entirely  destroyed,  represented  the  king  receiving  this  double  pro- 
cession. The  passage  may  have  led  to  the  banqueting-hall,  or  to  a cham- 
ber, where  royal  feasts  were  sometimes  held,  and  was  therefore  adorned 
with  appropriate  subjects.  At  its  western  end  the  gallery  turned  abruptly 
to  the*  north,  its  wralls  being  there  built  of  solid  stone-masonry.  I lost  all 
further  traces  of  it,  as  the  workmen  were  unable,  at  that  time,  to  carry  on 
the  tunnel  beneath  an  accumulated  mass  of  earth  and  rubbish  about  forty 
feet  thick.  I did  not,  consequently,  ascertain  its  western  outlet.  We  had, 
however,  nearly  reached  the  edge  of  the  mound  ; and  as  there  was  no  space 
left  for  a chamber  of  any  size  beyond,  this  passage  may  have  opened  on  a 
flight  of  steps,  or  on  an  incline  leading  from  the  river,  and  forming  a kind 
of  private  entrance  or  postern  into  the  palace. 

As  the  workmen  could  no  longer,  without  some  danger,  excavate  in  this 
part  of  the  ruins,  they  had  returned  to  the  chamber  already  described  as 
containing  a series  of  bas-reliefs  representing  the  capture  and  sack  of  a 
large  city  in  the  mountains,  and  as  opening  into  the  broad  gallery  on  whose 
walls  were  depictured  the  various  processes  employed  by  the  Assyrians  in 
moving  their  colossal  figures. f From  this  chamber  branched  to  the  south 
a narrow  passage,!  whose  sculptured  panels  had  been  purposely  destroyed. 
It  led  into  a great  hall,  which  the  workmen  did  not  then  explored  They 
continued  for  a few  feet  along  its  western  side,  and  then  turning  through 
a doorway,  discovered  a chamber,  from  which  again,  always  following  the 
line  of  wall,  they  entered  a spacious  apartment, ||  completely  surrounded 
with  bas-reliefs,  representing  one  continuous  subject.  The  Assyrian  army 
was  seen  fording  a broad  river  amidst  wooded  mountains.  The  sculptor 
had  endeavored  to  convey  the  idea  of  a valley  by  reversing  the  trees  and 
mountains  on  one  side  of  the  stream.  Rivulets  flowed  from  the  hills  to  the 
river,  irrigating  in  their  course  vineyards  and  orchards.  The  king  in  his 
cnariot  was  followed  by  a long  retinue  of  warriors  on  foot  and  on  horses 
richly  caparisoned,  by  led  horses  with  even  gayer  trappings,  and  by  men 
bearing  on  their  shoulders  his  second  chariot,  which  had  a yoke  ornamented 
with  bosses  and  carvings.  He  was  preceded  by  his  army,  the  variously  ac- 
coutred spearmen  and  the  bowmen  forming  separate  regiments  or  divisions. 

* Specimens  of  the  led  horses,  and  of  the  figures  bearing  locusts,  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  slabs  in  this  passage  had  been  so  much  injured  by  fire,  that 
only  a few  of  them  could  be  removed.  See  Plates  7,  8,  and  9.  of  the  2nd  series  of 
Monuments  of  Nineveh  for  the  entire  series.  t No.  XLVIII.  Plan  I 

X No.  XLII.  same  plan ; 72  feet  long,  and  11  broad.  $ No.  XIX.  same  plan. 

II  Nos.  XXIX.  and  XXXVIII.  same  plan.  The  reader  will  understand  the  way  in 
which  the  excavations  were  here  carried  on  by  referring  to  the  Plan.  It  will  be  per- 
ceived that  there  is  an  uninterrupted  line  of  wall,  along  which  the  tunnel  was  carried, 
from  No.  XLII.  to  No.  XXXVIII.,  through  entrances  b,  g,  and /. 


TUe  King  in  his  Chariot  passing  through  a Stream  in  a Valley  (Kouyunjik>. 


292 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI. 


After  crossing  the  river  they  attacked  the  enemy’s  strongholds,  which  they 
captured  one  by  one,  putting  to  death  or  carrying  into  captivity  their  in- 
habitants. Unfortunately,  the  bas-reliefs  describing  the  general  result  of 
the  campaign,  and  probably  the  taking  of  the  principal  city,  had  been  de- 
stroyed. Over  one  of  the  castles  could  be  traced  a few  letters,  giving  no 
clue,  however,  to  its  name  or  site.  The  captives  wore  a kind  of  turban 
wrapped  in  several  folds  round  the  head,  and  a sh^rt  tun^c  confined  at  the 
waist  by  a broad  belt.  From  the  nature  of  the  country  it  may  be  conject- 
ured that  the  sculptures  represented  a campaign  in  some  part  of  Armenia, 
and  I am  inclined  to  identify  the  river  with  the  Euphrates,  near  whose  head- 
waters, as  we  learn  from  the  bull  inscriptions,  Sennacherib  waged  one  of 
his  most  important  wars. 

The  slabs  at  the  western  end  of  this  chamber  were  actually  curved  back- 
wards, showing  the  enormous  pressure  that  must  have  taken  place  from 
the  falling  in  of  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  by  which  not  only  the  ala- 
baster was  bent,  but  driven  into  the  wall  of  sun-dried  bricks. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  chamber  were  two  door- ways  leading  into  sep- 
arate apartments.  Each  entrance  was  formed  by  two  colossal  bas-reliefs 

of  Dagon,  or  the  fish-god.  Unfor- 
tunately the  upper  part  of  all  these 
figures  had  been  destroyed,  but  as 
the  lower  remained  from  above  the 
waist  we  can  have  no  difficulty  in 
restoring  the  whole,  especially  as 
the  same  image  is  seen  entire  on  a 
fine  Assyrian  cylinder  of  agate  in 
my  possession.  It  combined  the 
human  shape  with  that  of  the  fish. 
The  head  of  the  fish  formed  a mitre  above  that  of  the  man,  whilst  its 
scaly  back  and  fan-like  tail  fell  as  a cloak  behind,  leaving  the  human 
limbs  and  feet  exposed.  The  figure  wore  a fringed  tunic,  and  bore  the 
two  sacred  emblems,  the  basket  and  the  cone.* 

We  can  scarcely  hesitate  to  identify  this  mythic  form  with  the  Oannes, 
or  sacred  man-fish,  who,  according  to  the  traditions  preserved  by  Berossus, 
issued  from  the  Erythraean  Sea,  instructed  the  Chaldaeans  in  all  wisdom, 
in  the  sciences,  and  in  the  fine  arts,  and  was  afterwards  worshipped  as  a 
god  in  the  temples  of  Babylonia.  Its  body,  says  the  historian,  was  that  of 
a fish,  but  under  the  head  of  a fish  was  that  of  a man , and  to  its  tail 
were  joined  women’s  feet.  Five  such  monsters  rose  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
at  fabulous  intervals  of  time.f  It  has  been  conjectured  that  this  myth  de- 
notes the  conquest  of  Chaldaea  at  some  remote  and  prehistoric  period,  by 
a comparatively  civilised  nation  coming  in  ships  to  the  mouth  of  the  Eu- 

* It  is  remarkable  that  on  this  cylinder  the  all-seeing  eye  takes  the  place  of  the 
winged  human  figure  and  the  globe  in  the  emblem  above  the  sacred  tree. 

t Cory’s  Fragments,  page  30. 


Entrance  Passage,  Kouyunjik, 


295 


Chap  XVI  ] THE  CHAMBERS  0F  records. 

phrates.  I had  already*  identified  with  the  Babylonian  idol  a figure  in  a 

bas-relief  at  Khorsabad,  having  the  human 
form  to  the  waist,  and  the  extremities  of  a 
fish.  Such  figures  are  also  frequently  found 
on  antique  cylinders  and  gems,  but  those  at 
Kouyunjik  agreed  even  more  minutely  with 
the  description  of  Berossus,  for  the  human 
head  was  actually  beneath  that  of  the  fish 
whilst  the  human  feet  were  added  to  the  spreading  tail. 

The  Dagon  of  the  Philistines  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Phoenician 
coast  was  worshipped,  according  to  the  united  opinion  of  the  Hebrew  com- 
mentators on  the  Bible,  under  the  same  form.f  When  the  ark  of  the  Lord 
was  brought  into  the  great  temple  of  the  idol  at  Ashdod,  and  the  statue  fell 
a second  time,  “ the  head  of  Dagon  and  both  the  palms  of  his  hands  were 
cut  off  upon  the  threshold  ; only  the  fishy  part  of  Dagon  was  left  to  him.”f 
His  worship  appears  to  have  extended  over  Syria,  as  well  as  Mesopotamia 
and  Chaldsea.  He  had  many  temples,  as  we  learn  from  the  Bible,  in  the 
country  of  the  Philistines,  and  it  was  probably  under  the  ruins  of  one  of 
them  that  Samson  buried  the  people  of  Gaza  who  had  “ gathered  them- 
selves together  for  to  offer  a great  sacrifice  unto  Dagon  their  god,  and  to 
rejoice. ”§  We  also  find  a Beth-Dagon,  or  the  house  of  Dagon,  amongst  the 
uttermost  cities  of  the  children  of  Judah, ||  and  another  city  of  the  same 
name  in  the  inheritance  of  the  children  of  Asher.H 

Colonel  Rawlinson  states  that  he  has  read  the  name  of  Dagon  amongst 
the  gods  of  the  Assyrians  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

The  first  doorway,  guarded  by  the  fish-gods,  led  into  two  small  chambers 
opening  into  each  other,  and  once  panelled  with  bas-reliefs,  the  greater  part 
of  which  had  been  destroyed.**  On  a few  fragments,  still  standing  against 
the  walls,  could  be  traced  a city  on  the  shore  of  a sea  whose  waters  were 
covered  with  galleys.  I shall  call  these  chambers  “ the  chambers  of  rec- 
ords,” for,  like  “the  house  of  the  rolls,”  or  records,  which  Darius  ordered 
1o  be  searched  for  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  concerning  the  building  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem, ff  they  appear  to  have  contained  the  decrees  of  the  As- 
syrian kings  as  well  as  the  archives  of  the  empire. 

I have  mentioned  elsewhere^!  that  the  historical  records  and  public  doc- 
uments of  the  Assyrians  were  kept  on  tablets  and  cylinders  of  baked  clay. 

* See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  466. 

t The  authorities  respecting  this  god  are  collected  in  Selden,  “ De  Dis  Syris,”  and 
in  Beyer’s  commentary.  Abarbanel,  in  his  commentary  on  Samuel,  says  that  Dagon 
had  the  form  of  a fish,  from  the  middle  downwards,  with  the  feet  and  hands  of  a man 

t 1 Sam.  v.  4.  $ Judges,  xvi.  23. 

II  Joshua,  xv.  41.  From  the  connection  of  this  verse  with  the  33d,  it  would  appear 
that  the  town  was  in  a valley. 

IT  Joshua,  xix,  27.  1 Mac.  x.  83. 

ft  Ezra,  vi.  1. 


Fish-god  on  Gems  in  the  British 
Museum. 


**  Nos.  XL.  and  XLI.  Plan  I. 
ft  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  185. 


296 


NIN  EVEH  a N'D  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI 


Many  specimens  have  been  brought  ta  this  country.  On  a large  hexagon- 
al cylinder  presented  by  me  to  the  British  Museum  are  the  chronicles  of 
Essarhaddon  : on  a similar  cylinder  discovered  in  the  mound  of  Nebbi 
Yunus,  opposite  Mosul,  and  formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  late  Colonel 
Taylor,  are  eight  years  of  the  annals  of  Sennacherib  ; and  on  a barrel- 
shaped  cylinder  long  since  placed  in  the  British  Museum,  and  known  as 
Bellino’s,  we  have  part  of  the  records  of  the  same  king.*  The  importance 
of  such  relics  will  be  readily  understood.  They  present,  in  a small  com- 
pass, an  abridgment,  or  recapitulation,  of  the  inscriptions  on  the  great 
monuments  and  palace  walls,  giving  in  a chronological  series  the  events 
of  each  monarch’s  reign.  The  writing  is  so  minute,  and  the  letters  are  so 
close  one  to  another,  that  it  requires  considerable  experience  to  separate  and 
transcribe  them.  Fragments  of  other  cylinders  have  also  been  discovered, 
and  many  inscribed  tablets,  from  three  to  six  inches  in  length,  have  been 
long  preserved  in  England  and  it  various  European  collections. 

The  chambers  I am  describing  appear  to  have  been  a depository  in  the 
palace  of  Nineveh  for  such  documents.  To  the  height  of  a foot  or  move 
from  the  floor  they  were  entirely  filled  with  them  ; some  entire,  but  the 
greater  part  broken  into  many  fragments,  probably  by  the  falling  in  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  building.  They  were  of  different  sizes  ; the  largest  tab- 
lets were  flat,  and  measured  9 inches  by  6 J inches ; the  smaller  were  slight- 
ly convex,  and  some  were  not  more  than  an  inch  long,  with  but  one  or  two 
lines  of  writing.  The  cuneiform  characters  on  most  of  them  were  singu- 
larly sharp  and  well  defined,  but  so  minute  in  some  instances  as  to  be  al- 
most illegible  without  a magnifying  glass.  These  documents  appear  to  be 
of  various  kinds.  Many  are  historical  records  of  wars,  and  distant  expe- 
ditions undertaken  by  the  Assyrians  ; some  seem  to  be  royal  decrees,  and 
are  stamped  with  the  name  of  a king,  the  son  of  Essarhaddon  ; others 
again,  divided  into  parallel  columns  by  horizontal  .mes,  contain  lists  of  the 
gods,  and  probably  a register  of  offerings  made  in  their  temples.  On  one 
Dr.  Hincks  has  detected  a table  of  the  value  of  certain  cuneiform  letters, 
expressed  by  different  alphabetical  signs,  according  to  various  modes  of 
using  them ; a most  important  discovery : on  another,  apparently  a list  of 
the  sacred  days  in  each  month ; and  on  a third,  what  seems  to  be  a calen- 
dar. It  is  highly  probable  that  a record  of  astronomical  observations  may 
exist  amongst  them,  for  we  know  from  ancient  writers  that  the  Babyloni- 
ans inscribed  such  things  upon  burnt  bricks.  As  we  find  from  the  Ba- 
vian  inscriptions  that  the  Assyrians  kept  a very  accurate  computation  of 
time,  we  may  reasonably  expect  to  obtain  valuable  chronological  tables 
and  some  information  as  to  their  methods  of  dividing  the  year,  and  even  the 
day.  Many  are  sealed  with  seals,  and  may  prove  to  be  legal  contracts 
or  conveyances  of  land.  Others  bear  rolled  impressions  of  those  engraved 

* In  the  collection  of  inscriptions  published  by  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum 
will  be  found  a transcript  of  my  cylinder ; of  part  of  a second,  also  brought  by  me  to 
this  country  ; and  of  Bellino’s. 


Archive  Chamber  (Kouyunjik). 


298 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI. 


Inscribed  Tablet  impressed  with  Seals. 


cylinders  so  frequently  found  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  by  some  believed 
to  be  amulets.  The  characters  appear  to  have  been  formed  by  a very  del- 
icate instrument  before  the  clay  was  hardened  by  fire,  and  the  process  of 
accurately  making  letters  so  minute  and  complicated  must  have  required 
considerable  ingenuity  and  experience.  On  some  tablets  are  found  Phoe- 
nician, or  cursive  Assyrian  characters  and  other  signs. 

The  adjoining  chambers  contained  similar  relics,  but  in  far  smaller  num- 
bers. Many  cases  were  filled  with  these  tablets  before  I left  Assyria,  and  a 
vast  number  of  them  have  been  found,  I understand,  since  my  departure. 
A large  collection  of  them  is  already  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 
We  cannot  overrate  their  value.  They  furnish  us  with  materials  for  the 
complete  decipherment  of  the  cuneiform  character,  for  restoring  the  lan- 
guage and  history  of  Assyria,*  and  for  inquiring  into  the  customs,  sciences, 
and,  we  may  perhaps  even  add,  literature,  of  its  people.!  The  documents 
that  have  thus  been  discovered  at  Nineveh  probably  exceed  all  that  have 
yet  been  afforded  by  the  monuments  of  Egypt.  But  years  must  elapse  be- 
fore the  innumerable  fragments  can  be  put  together,  and  the  inscriptions 
transcribed  for  the  use  of  those  who  in  England  and  elsewhere  may  engage 
* Col.  Rawlinson  states  that  he  has  found  the  name  of  Sargon's  father  and  grand- 
father on  one  of  these  clay  tablets.  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  xxix.) 

t According  to  a tradition,  Seth  wrote  the  history  and  wisdom  of  the  ages  preced- 
ing the  Deluge  on  burnt  and  unburnt  bricks,  or  tablets,  that  they  might  never  perish : 
for  if  water  destroyed  the  unburnt,  the  burnt  would  remain  ; and  if  fire  destroyed  the 
baked  tablets,  those  which  had  not  been  exposed  to  heat  would  only  become  hard- 
ened. 


Inscribed  Tablet,  with  Inscription  at  one 
End  in  Cursive  Characters. 


FLOODS  AT  NIMROUD. 


299 


Chap.  XVI.] 

in  the  study  of  the  cuneiform  character.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Trus- 
tees of  the  British  Museum  will  undertake  the  publication  of  documents  of 
such  importance  to  the  history  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  second  entrance  formed  by  the  fish-gods  opened  into  a small  cham- 
ber, whose  sides  had  been  lined  with  bas-reliefs  representing  the  siege  of  a 
castle,  in  a country  wooded  with  fir  trees,  amongst  which  were  long  lines 
of  warriors  on  foot,  on  horseback,  and  in  chariots.^  But  there  were  no  re- 
mains of  inscription,  and  no  peculiarity  of  costume  to  identify  the  conquered 
people. 

A few  days  after  our  return  to  Mosul,  I floated  down  the  river  on  a raft 
to  Nimroud.  The  flood,  which  had  spread  over  the  plain  during  my  ab- 
sence in  the  Desert,  had  destroyed  a part  of  the  village.  The  mud  walls 
of  my  own  house  were  falling  in.  The  roof  was  supported  by  a few  rude 
beams,  and  the  rooms  with  their  furniture  were  deep  in  mud  and  silt.  The 
stables  and  outhouses  had  become  a heap  of  ruins,  and  the  enclosure  wall 
with  Ibrahim  Agha’s  loopholes  had  completely  disappeared.  The  centre 
of  the  plain  of  Nimroud  was  now  a large  lake,  and  the  cultivated  fields 
were  overspread  with  slime.  The  Shemutti  gathered  round  me  as  I ar- 
rived, and  told  me  of  crops  destroyed,  and  of  houses  swept  away. 

The  workmen  had  not  been  idle  during  my  absence,  and  discoveries  of 
considerable  interest  and  importance  had  been  made  in  the  high  mound  on 
the  level  of  the  artificial  platform.  The  first  trenches  had  been  opened  in 
the  side  of  the  ravine  between  the  ruins  of  the  tower  and  those  of  the  north- 
west palace.  A pavement  of  large  square  bricks,  bearing  the  usual  super- 
scription of  the  early  Nimroud  king,  was  soon  uncovered.  It  led  to  a wall 
of  sun-dried  bricks,  coated  with  plaster,  which  proved  to  be  part  of  a small 
temple. 

I have  already  mentioned!  that  a superstructure  of  bricks  rested  upon 
the  stone  basement- wall  of  the  tower,  at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  mound. 
It  was  against  the  eastern  and  southern  faces  of  this  upper  building  that 
the  newly-discovered  temple  abutted.  Four  of  its  chambers  were  explored, 
chiefly  by  means  of  tunnels  carried  through  the  enormous  mass  of  earth 
and  rubbish  in  which  the  ruins  were  buried.  The  great  entrances  were 
to  the  east.  The  principal  portal!  was  formed  by  two  colossal  human- 
headed lions,  sixteen  feet  and  a half  high  and  fifteen  feet  long.  They  were 
flanked  by  three  small  winged  figures,  one  above  the  other,  and  divided  by 
an  ornamental  cornice,  and  between  them  was  an  inscribed  pavement 
slab  of  alabaster.  In  front  of  each  was  a square  stone,  apparently  the 
pedestal  of  an  altar,  and  the  walls  on  both  sides  were  adorned  with  enam- 
elled bricks. 

About  thirty  feet  to  the  right,  or  north,  of  the  lion  gateway  was  a sec- 
ond entrance,  $ at  each  side  of  which  were  two  singular  figures.  One  was 
that  of  a monster,  whose  head,  of  fanciful  and  hideous  form,  had  long  point- 
* No.  XXXIX.  Plan  I.  f Page  106. 

t Ent.  1.  B.  Plan  II.  $ Ent.  2.  B.  same  Plan. 


TIIE  EVIL  SPIRIT. 


30] 


Chap.  XVI.] 

ed  ears  and  extended  jaws,  armed  with  huge  teeth.  Its  body  was  covered 
with  feathers,  its  fore-feet  were  those  of  a lion,  its  hind  legs  ended  in  the 
talons  of  an  eagle,  and  it  had  spreading  wings  and  the  tail  of  a bird.  Be- 
hind this  strange  image  was  a winged  man,  whose  dress  consisted  of  an 
upper  garment  with  a skirt  of  skin  or  fur,  an  under  robe  fringed  with  tas- 
sels, and  the  sacred  horned  hat.  A long  sword  was  suspended  from  his 
shoulders  by  an  embossed  belt ; sandals,  armlets,  and  bracelets,  completed 
his  attire.*  He  grasped  in  each  hand  an  object  in  the  form  of  a double 
trident,  resembling  the  thunderbolt  of  the  Greek  Jove,  which  he  was  in  the 
attitude  of  hurling  against  the  monster,  who  turned  furiously  towards  him. 

This  group  appears  to  represent  the  bad  spirit  driven  out  by  a good  dei- 
ty ; a fit  subject  for  the  entrance  to  a temple  dedicated  to  the  god  of  war. 
The  singular  combination  of  forms  by  which  the  Assyrian  sculptor  portray- 
ed the  evil  principle,  so  prominent  an  element  in  the  Chaldsean,  and  after- 
wards in  the  Magian,  religious  system,  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  reader. 
The  co-existence  of  a principle  of  evil  and  darkness,  with  the  principle  of 
good  and  light,  their  contests  for  supremacy,  the  temporary  success  of  the 
former,  and  its  ultimate  defeat,  appear  to  have  been  from  the  earliest  peri- 
ods essential  features  in  the  religious  tenets 
of  a large  portion  of  mankind.  They  thus 
sought  to  account  for  the  antagonistic  pow- 
er of  evil,  exemplified  in  man  by  the  bad 
passions,  moral  and  physical  infirmities,  and 
death,  and  in  nature  by  those  awful  phenom- 
ena which  occasionally  visit  the  face  of  the 
earth,  or  even  by  that  periodical  decay  to 
which  nature  herself  is  subject.  The  be- 
lief was  not  altogether  confined  to  the  coun- 
tries watered  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
and  to  Persia.  With  certain  modifications 
it  extended  westward,  and  in  the  common 
impersonification  of  the  evil  one,  which  has 
passed  into  Christendom,  may  perhaps  be 
traced  the  monstrous  forms  of  the  Assyrian 
demon. 

On  the  slabs  at  right  angles  to  these 
sculptures,  forming  the  outer  part  of  the  en- 
trance, were  two  colossal  human  figures, 
without  wings,  wearing  garlands  on  their 
heads,  and  bearing  branches  ending  in  three 
flowers. 

Within  the  temple,  at  right  angles  to  the 

entrance,  were  sculptured  fish-gods,  some- 
Fish-God,  at  Entrance  to  small  Temple  , ^ , . m , • c r 

(Nimroud).  what  different  in  form  from  those  in  the 

* Plate  5.  of  2nd  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


302 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI. 


palace  of  Kouyunjik.  The  fish’s  head  formed  part  of  the  three-honied  cap 
usually  worn  by  the  winged  figures.  The  tail  only  reached  to  the  waist 
of  the  man,  who  was  dressed  in  the  tunic  and  long-furred  robe,  commonly 
seen  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Nimroud.* 

To  the  right  of  this  entrance,  and  apparently  outside  the  walls  of  the 
temple,  was  discovered  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Assyrian  sculpture 
brought  to  this  country.  It  represents  the  early  Nimroud  king  in  high  re- 
lief, carved  on  a solid  block  of  limestone,  cut  into  the  shape  of  an  arched 
frame,  in  the  form  of  the  rock  tablets  of  Bavian  and  the  Nahr-el-Kelb. 
The  monarch  wears  his  sacrificial  robes,  and  carries  the  sacred  mace  in  his 
left  hand.  Hound  his  neck  are  hung  the  four  sacred  signs,  the  crescent, 
the  star  or  sun,  the  trident,  and  the  cross.  His  waist  is  encircled  by  the 
knotted  cord,  and  in  his  girdle  are  three  daggers.  Above  his  head  are  the 
mythic  symbols  of  Assyrian  worship,  the  winged  globe,  the  crescent,  the  star, 
the  bident,  and  the  horned  cap.  The  entire  slab,  8 ft.  8 in.  high,  by  4 ft.  6 
in.  broad,  and  1 ft.  3 in.  thick,  is  covered  behind  and  before,  except  where 
the  sculpture  intervenes,  with  an  inscription,  in  small  and  admirably  formed 
arrow-headed  characters.  It  was  fixed  on  a plain  square  pedestal  and  stood 
isolated  from  the  building.  In  front  of  it  was  an  altar  of  stone,  supported 
on  lions’  feet,  very  much  resembling  in  shape  the  tripod  of  the  Greeks. 

It  would  seem  from  the  altar  before  this  figure,  that  the  Assyrians,  like 
other  nations  of  old,  were  in  the  habit  of  deifying  the  heroes  of  their  race, 
and  that  the  king  who  extended  the  bounds  of  the  empire  to  distant  lands, 
and  raised  temples  to  the  gods,  received  after  his  death  divine  honors. 

Unfortunately,  the  heat  of  the  fire  which  had  consumed  the  building,  had 
also  broken  this  monument  into  two  pieces.  From  the  carelessness  shown 
in  its  transport  to  England,  this  fine  specimen  of  Assyrian  sculpture  sus- 
tained still  further  injury,  and  the  lower  part  is  now  almost  destroyed. 

The  inscription  must  have  contained  when  entire  several  hundred  lines, 
and  is  divided  on  the  back  of  the  slabs  into  two  columns.  It  commences 
with  an  invocation  to  the  god  Ashur,  the  supreme  lord,  the  king  of  the  cir- 
cle of  the  twelve  great  gods.  Then  follow  the  names  of  these  deities. 
They  are  the  same  as  those  on  the  black  obelisk  belonging  to  the  son  of 
the  king  represented  on  this  slab,  although  they  are  not  placed  in  the  same 
order,  which  is  so  far  important  as  it  enables  us  to  determine  the  exact 
name  and  title  of  each.  These  divinities  may  preside  over  the  twelve 
months,  corresponding  with  the  same  circle  in  the  Egyptian  mythology, 
with  which  it  is  possible  they  may  hereafter,  to  a certain  extent,  be  identi  • 
tied  The  first-named  is  Anu  (?),  the  last  Ishtar,  probably  Astarte,  or  the 
moon,  and  not  Venus,  as  some  have  believed.! 

* Specimens  of  all  these  figures  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

t This  is  evident  from  Lucian’s  “ De  Dea  Syr£,”  c.  4. ; and  see  Gesenius’s  “ The- 
saurus” in  voce  “Ashtoreth.”  (1  Kings,  xi.  5.  33.  2 Kings,  xxiii.  13.)  Quaere,  whether 
the  bull’s  horns  placed  on  the  head  of  this  divinity  were  not  originally  the  horns  of 
the  moon’s  crescent  1 


Entrance  to  Temple,  High  Mound  (Nimroud) 


304 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI 


After  this  invocation  occurs  the  name  of  the  founder  of  the  north-west 
palace,  read  by  Dr.  Hincks,  Assaracbal,  and  by  Colonel  Rawlinson,  Sardan- 
apalus,  with  a long  exordium,  apparently  of  a religious  nature,  which  has 
not  yet  been  satisfactorily  deciphered.  Then  follows  a full  account  of  his 
various  campaigns  and  wars,  of  which  I will  give  extracts  when  I describe 
similar  inscriptions  on  other  monuments  discovered  in  the  same  building. 

The  lion  entrance  led  into  a chamber  46  ft.  by  19  ft.  Its  walls  of  sun- 
dried  brick  were  coated  with  plaster,  on  which  the  remains  of  figures  and 
ornaments  in  color  could  still  be  faintly  traced.*  Nearly  opposite  to  the  en- 
trance was  a doorwayf  panelled  with  slabs  sculptured  with  winged  figures 
carrying  maces.  Flanking  it  on  the  four  sides  were  priests  wearing  garlands. 

The  inner  door  led  into  a chamber  47  ft.  by  31  ft.,1  ending  in  a recess 
paved  with  one  enormous  alabaster  slab,  no  less  than  21  ft.  by  16  ft.  7 in., 
and  1 ft.  1 in.  thick.  This  monolith  had  been  broken  into  several  pieces 
probably  by  the  falling  in  of  the  roof  of  the  building,  and  had  in  several 
places  been  reduced  to  lime  by  the  burning  beams  of  the  ceiling.  The 
whole  of  its  surface,  as  well  as  the  side  facing  the  chamber,  was  occupied 
by  one  inscription,  325  lines  in  length,  divided  into  two  parallel  horizontal 
columns,  and  carved  with  the  greatest  sharpness  and  care.  On  subsequent- 
ly raising  the  detached  pieces,  I found  that  the  back  of  the  slab,  resting  on 
a solid  mass  of  sun-dried  bricks,  was  also  covered  with  cuneiform  writing, 
occupying  three  columns.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  so  much  labor 
should  have  been  apparently  thrown  away  upon  an  inscription  which  would 
remain  unseen  until  the  edifice  itself  was  utterly  destroyed.  Still  more 
curious  is  the  fact,  that  whilst  this  inscription  contains  all  the  historical  de- 
tails of  that  on  the  opposite  side,  the  records  of  two  or  three  more  years  are 
added,  and  that  the  upper  inscription  stops  abruptly  in  the  middle  of  a sen- 
tence. It  is  possible  that  the  builders  of  fhe  temple,  foreseeing  its  ruin,  had 
determined  that  if  their  enemies  should  through  malice  deface  their  annals, 
there  should  still  remain  another  record,  inaccessible  and  unknown,  which 
would  preserve  the  history  of  their  greatness  and  glory  unto  all  time. 

The  inscription  on  this  great  monolith  appears  to  have  been  similar  in 
its  historical  details  to  that  on  the  king  in  the  frame.  I shall  quote  some 
specimens,  translated  by  Dr.  Hincks,  to  show  the  minuteness  with  which 
the  Assyrian  kings  chronicled  every  event  of  their  reign,  and  the  conse- 
quent value  of  their  historical  records.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that,  although 
these  inscriptions  are  in  the  form  of  annals,  the  years  are  not  mentioned. 
The  king  generally  sets  out  on  his  campaigns  in  one  particular  month, 
the  name  of  which  is  given  ; probably  in  the  autumn,  when  the  heats  of 
summer  were  over.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  collected  his  army, 
and  made  his  first  expedition  into  the  country  of  Nummi,  or  Numi,  proba- 
bly Elam  or  Susiana,  subsequently,  as  we  shall  find,  called  Numaki  or 
Nuvaki.  He  took  many  cities,  towns,  and  districts,  whose  names  have 
not  been  identified.  He  slew  their  women,  their  slaves,  and  their  chil- 

* B.  ch.  a.  Plan  2.  t Ent.  3.  B.  same  Plan.  } B.  ch.  b.  same  Plan. 


INSCRIBED  MONOLITH. 


305 


Chap.  XVI.] 

dren,  and  carried  away  their  cattle  and  flocks.  Their  fighting  men  es- 
caped to  a hill  fort  (?).  “ Their  houses  he  burned  like  stubble ” (?).  Many 

other  countries  to  the  south  and  south-east  of  Assyria,  some  of  which  are 
mentioned  on  the  obelisk,  were  conquered  during  this  campaign.  The  city 
of  Nishtun  (?)  is  particularly  described  as  one  of  considerable  importance. 
He  seized  its  king  or  governor,  whose  name  reads  Babou,  the  son  of  Ba- 
boua,  and  imprisoned  him  in  Babylon.  “ At  that  time  the  cities  of  Nerib 
(their  position  is  doubtful),  their  principal  cities,  he  destroyed.  Fom  Ne- 

rib  he  departed  to  the  city  of  Tushka A palace  for  his  dwelling 

he  made  there,  and  placed  pillars  (?)*  at  the  gates,  and  put  a statue  of 
....  (probably  some  kind  of  stone)  ....  and  set  up  tablets,  and  made 
a place  for  them  in  the  citadel.”! 

He  appears  subsequently  to  have  turned  his  arms  to  the  north,  and  to 
have  received  tribute  from  the  kings  of  Nahiri  (the  country  between  the 
head  waters  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris)  consisting  of  chariots  (?),  horses 
....  (probably  some  other  animal),  silver,  gold,  various  objects  of  cop- 
per, oxen,  sheep,  and  asses  (?) ; he  then  placed  an  officer  of  his  own  over 
the  conquered  people. 

An  account  follows  of  the  building  of  the  north-west  palace  ofNimroud, 
which,  when  deciphered,  will  be  of  considerable  interest,  and  may  enable 
us  to  restore  that  edifice.  It  had  been  founded  by  one  of  his  forefathers, 
but  had  been  deserted  and  allowed  to  fall  into  ruins.  He  now  rebuilt  it, 
raising  pillars  of  wood  (?)  and  of  some  other  material,  and  setting  up  thrones, 
and  three  other  objects  always  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  thrones, 
but  the  precise  nature  of  which  has  not  as  yet  been  determined.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  countries  over  whom  he  ruled  sent  things  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  iron  (?),  for  the  new  palace.  He  also  built  two  cities  on  the 
Euphrates,  one  on  each  bank  (?),  calling  one  after  his  own  name,  and  the 
other  after  the  name  of  the  great  god  Ashur. 

Numerous  expeditions  to  countries  to  the  north,  west,  and  south  of  Assyria 
are  then  related  in  detail  Amongst  them  one  to  Carchemish,  where  he 
received  the  tribute  of  Sangara,  king  of  the  Khatti  (the  Hittites  or  people 
of  Syria),  including  a great  variety  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  some  ap- 
parently to  be  recognised  by  their  pure  Hebrew  names.  As  few  of  the  cit- 
ies and  countries  conquered  and  visited  by  this  king  have  yet  been  identi- 
fied, and  a mere  repetition  of  the  same  dry  details  would  scarcely  interest 
the  reader,  I will  merely  give  literal  versions,  as  far  as  they  can  be  given, 
of  the  history  of  two  of  the  most  important  campaigns.  They  will  show 
the  style  of  these  remarkable  chronicles,  and  the  minuteness  with  which 
events  were  recorded. 

* Perhaps  inscribed  pillars,  such  as  Darius  set  up  when  he  crossed  the  Bosphoiua. 
(Herod,  iv.  87.) 

t Similar  tablets  appear  to  have  been  frequently  put  up  by  the  Assyrian  kings,  a» 
we  see  from  a bas-relief  at  Khorsabad,  representing  Sargon  besieging  a castle,  on  the 
walls  of  which  there  is  a tablet  of  himself,  or  one  of  his  predecessors. 

U 


306  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XVI. 

The  first  paragraph  relates  to  the  campaign  of  the  king  on  the  borders 
of  the  Euphrates. 

“ On  the  22d  day  of  the  month  ....  I departed  from  Calah  (the 
quarter  of  Nineveh  now  called  Nimroud).  I crossed  the  Tigris.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris  I received  much  tribute.  In  the  city  of  Tabit  I halt- 
ed. I occupied  the  banks  of  the  river  Karma  (?  the  Hermus,  or  eastern 
confluent  of  the  Khabour).  In  the  city  of  Megarice  I halted.  From  the 
city  of  Megarice  I departed.  I occupied  the  banks  of  the  Khabour  (Cha- 
boras).  I halted  at  the  city  of  Sadikanni  (?  or  Kar-dikanni).  I received 
the  tribute  of  Sadikanni.  From  Sadikanni  I departed.  In  Kedni  I halt- 
ed. I received  the  tribute  of  the  city  of  Kedni.  From  Kedni  I departed 
to  the  city  of  . . . lemmi.  In  the  city  of  . . . lemmi  I halted.  From 
the  city  of  . . . lemmi  I departed.  In  the  city  of  Beth-Khilapi  I halted. 
The  tribute  of  Beth-Khilapi  I received,  gold,  silver,”  and  many  other  ar- 
ticles, amongst  which  are  apparently  objects  of  clothing,  or  embroidered 
stuffs.  Then  follow  his  marches  day  by  day  to  the  cities  of  Sirki,  Tzufri, 
Naqua-rabani,  and  Kindani,  from  each  of  which  he  received  tribute  in  gold, 
silver,  several  objects  not  identified,  cattle,  and  sheep.  The  inscription  goes 
on — “ The  city  of  Kindani  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Euphrates. 
From  Kindani  I departed  : on  a mountain,  by  the  side  of  the  Euphrates,  I 
halted.  From  the  mountain  I departed.  In  Beth-Shebaiya,  over  against 
Karid,  I halted.  The  city  of  Karid  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Euphrates.  From  Bath-Shebaiya  I departed  : on  the  top  of  (or  above) 
Anat  I halted.  Anat  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  Euphrates”  (agreeing 
with  the  position  of  the  modern  town  of  Ana).  He  then  attacked  and  took 
the  principal  city  of  Shadu  (?),  of  the  country  of  Suka,  and  the  city  of 
Tzur  (?),  the  capital  of  Shadu  (?),  whose  inhabitants  were  assisted  by  the 
soldiers  of  Bishi  (a  nation  also  alluded  to  in  the  second  year  of  the  annals 
of  Sennacherib).  Nebo-Baladan,  king  of  Kar-Duniyas,  is  then  mentioned, 
showing  that  the  campaign  was  carried  down  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
far  to  the  south  of  Babylon. 

The  second  extract  is  from  the  records  of  a campaign  in  northern  Syria. 
Having  first  crossed  the  Euphrates  : 

“ From  Kunulua,  the  capital  of  Lubarna,  the  Sharutinian,*  I departed. 
The  Arantu  (Orontes)  I crossed.  On  the  banks  of  the  Arantu  I encamped. 
From  the  banks  of  the  Arantu  I departed.  Between  the  countries  of  Sa- 
raban  and  Tapan (?)  I occupied  the  country.  By  the  seashore  I en- 
camped. To  the  city  of  Ariboua  (?),  a principal  city  of  Lubarna,  the 
Sharutinian,  I returned (undeciphered  passage).  I caused 

* This  city,  one  apparently  of  considerable  size  and  importance,  must  have  stood 
somewhere  near  Antioch,  or  between  Antioch  and  Aleppo.  The  Sharutinians  may 
probably  be  identified  with  the  Shairetana  of  the  Egyptian  monuments,  at  one  time 
the  allies,  and  at  another  the  enemies,  of  Egypt.  Few  travellers  are  aware  that, 
above  the  city  of  Antioch,  carved  in  the  rock,  are  colossal  figures  of  an  Egyptian 
sphinx  and  two  priests.  I have  been  informed  that  there  are  other  similar  monu- 
ments in  the  neighbouring  mountains. 


RECORDS  OF  THE  KING. 


307 


Chap.  XVI.] 

some  men  of  Assyria  to  dwell  in  his  palace  If.).  Whilst  I was  in.  Ari- 
boua  the  cities  of  Lukuta  I took.  I slew  many  of  their  men.  I over- 
threw and  burned  their  cities.  Their  fighting  men  (or  ? the  desert- 
ers from  my  army)  I laid  hold  of.  On  stakes  over  against  their  city 
I impaled  them.*  At  that  time  the  countries  that  are  upon  Lebanon  I 
took  possession  of,  to  the  great  sea  of  the  country  of  Akkari  (the  Medi- 
terranean). On  the  great  sea  I put  my  servants  (?).  Sacrifices  to  the 
gods  I offered.  The  tribute  of  the  kings  of  the  people  who  dwelt  near 
the  sea,  of  the  Tyrians,  the  Sidonians,  the  Kubalians,  the  Mahalatai  (?), 
the  Ma  . . . . ai,  the  Kha  . . . . , and  the  Akkarians  (all  nations  to 
the  north  of  Tyre),  and  of  the  city  of  Arvad,  which  is  in  the  middle  of 
the  sea — silver  and  gold  pieces,  rings  (?)  of  copper,  ingots  (?)  of  copper, 
two  kinds  of  clothing  if)  perhaps  the  dyed  cloth  of  Tyre,  or  embroideries 
such  as  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible),  great  ‘ pat gouti'  and  small 
• pagouti'  (meaning  not  determined),  some  wooden  objects,  apparently  of 
ceder,  and  pearls  (?),  from  the  rivers  at  or  between  the  sea.f  I went  to 
the  mountain  of  Kamana  (the  Camanus,  in  the  north  of  Syria).  I sacri- 
ficed to  the  gods.  I made  bridges  (or  beams),  and  pillars  (?).  From 
Kamana  I brought  them  to  Bithkara,  for  my  own  house,  for  the  temple  of 
San,  for  the  temple  of  the  sun.  I went  to  the  forests  and  cut  them  down, 
and  made  bridges  (?)  (or  roofs  or  beams)  of  the  wood,  for  Ishtar,  mistress 
of  the  city  of  Nineveh,  my  protectress.”]: 

The  chief  events  of  the  reign  of  this  king  are  briefly  alluded  to  in  the 
standard  and  other  inscriptions  discovered  in  the  north-west  palace  at 
Nimroud ; but  in  the  records  just  described  we  have  a minuteness  of 
geographical  detail,  which  enables  us  to  trace  the  course  of  his  expedi- 
tions with  great  certainty.  The  forms  of  expression  in  these  chronicles 
differ  from  those  on  later  monuments.  There  even  appears  to  be  an  oc- 
casional attempt  at  poetical  illustration  ; for  instance,  instead  of  giving 
the  exact  amount  of  spoil  taken  from  a conquered  country,  the  king  de- 
clares that  “it  exceeded  the  stars  of  heaven  ; ” and  when  speaking  of  the 
destruction  of  enemy’s  cities,  he  likens  it  to  “ the  burning  of  stubble ” (?). 
His  expeditions  seem  to  have  been  attended  by  great  cruelties  and  sacri- 
fice of  human  life,  and  he  celebrates  the  burning  of  innumerable  women 

* This  barbarous  practice,  frequently  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs,  seems,  there- 
fore, to  have  prevailed  from  the  earliest  times  in  the  East.  Darius  impaled  3000 
Babylonians  when  he  took  their  city.  (Herod,  iii.  159.)  The  last  instance  with 
which  I am  acquainted  of  this  punishment  having  been  inflicted  in  Turkey,  vras  at 
Baghdad,  where,  about  ten  years  ago,  Nejib  Pasha  impaled  four  rebel  Arab  Sheikhs, 
one  at  each  comer  of  the  bridge.  They  survived  for  many  hours.  It  is  said  that, 
unless  they  drink  water,  when  they  instantly  die,  persons  so  treated  will  live  even 
for  two  or  three  days. 

f Might  this  word,  translated  conjecturally  pearls,  mean  the  shell-fish  from  which 
the  Tyrian  dye  was  extracted! 

X The  whole  of  the  last  passage  is  very  obscure ; the  translation  is  partly  con- 
jectural. 


308 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON, 


[Chap.  XVI. 


and  children.  The  evidence  of  the  populous  state  of  Mesopotamia  at  that 
period  quite  corresponds  with  the  vast  number  of  artificial  mounds,  the 
ruins  of  ancient  settlements,  still  existing  in  that  country,  and  described 
in  the  foregoing  pages. 

Opening  into  the  recess  paved  with  this  great  monolith  was  a small 
room,  or  rather  closet,  13  feet  by  3,  which  may  have  been  used  to  keep 
the  sacrificial  utensils  and  the  garments  of  the  priests. 

The  entrance  formed  by  the  good  spirit  driving  out  the  evil  principle  led 
into  a chamber*  connected  by  separate  doorways  with  the  two  rooms  last 
described.  The  walls  were  simply  plastered,  and  there  were  no  remains 
found  in  it  but  the  fragments  of  an  uninscribed  slab. 

Standing  one  day  on  a distant  part  of  the  mound,  I smelt  the  sweet  smell 
of  burning  cedar.  The  Arab  workmen,  excavating  in  the  small  temple, 
had  dug  out  a beam,  and,  the  weather  being  cold,  had  at  once  made  a fire 
to  warm  themselves.  The  wood  was  cedar ; probably  one  of  the  very 
beams  mentioned  in  the  inscription  as  brought  from  the  forests  of  Lebanon 
by  the  king  who  built  the  edifice.  After  a lapse  of  nearly  three  thousand 
years,  it  had  retained  its  original  fragrance.  Many  other  such  beams  were 
discovered,!  and  the  greater  part  of  the  rubbish  in  which  the  ruin  was 
buried,  consisted  of  charcoal  of  the  same  wood.  It  is  likely  that  the  whole 
superstructure,  as  well  as  the  roof  and  floor  of  the  building,  like  those  of 
the  temple  and  palace  of  Solomon,  were  of  this  precious  material. 

In  these  ruins  was  also  found  a mass  of  lead  melted  by  the  fire,  for  em- 
bedded in  it  was  the  iron  head  of  a hatchet.  Amongst  the  various  small 
objects  collected  were, 


Fragment  in  blue  Clay  (Nimroud).  Eye  in  black  Marble  and  Ivory  (Nimroud). 

Figures  of  winged  deities,  &c.,  of  clay,  colored  in  the  mass  with  & blue 
derived  from  copper ; eyes,  beards,  hair,  and  ornaments  in  enamel,  proba- 
bly belonging  to  figures  of  wood,  metal,  or  ivory,  resembling  the  crysela- 
phantine  statues  of  the  Greeks ; eyes  of  black  marble  inlaid  with  ivory, 
with  the  eye-balls  of  a bright  blue  enamel,  belonging  to  similar  statues  : 
and  arms,  legs,  and  other  parts  of  figures  in  charred  wood.  A box  of  chal- 
cedony probably  used  for  some  precious  ointment.  Another  box  of  the 
same  shape  in  porcelain  (?)  has  holes  round  the  rim,  and  was  originally  in- 
laid with  gold,  traces  of  which  still  remain. 

* Several  specimens  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  + B.  Chamber  C.,  Plan  II 


Chap.  XVI.] 


ENTRANCE  GUARDED  BY  LIONS. 


309 


Box  in  Porcelain?  (Nimroud). 


Fragment  in  Porcelain  ? (Nimroud). 


Fragments  of  porcelain  (?),  parts  of  a cup  or  vase,  with  carvings  in  low 

relief,  representing  a castle  with  women  on 
the  walls,  the  hind  legs  of  a camel,  and  a 
captive  carrying  a cauldron.  An  inscription 
appears  to  have  described  the  event  repre- 
sented, and  to  have  contained  the  name  of  a 
king.  Only  a few  characters  remain. 

Several  inscribed  fragments  of  agate,  lap- 
is-lazuli, cornelian,  and  other  precious  mate- 
rials, beads,  cylinders,  and  one  or  two  clay 
tablets  with  inscriptions  and  impressions  of 
seals,  complete  the  list  of  small  objects  dis- 
covered in  this  temple. 

The  inscriptions  across  the  sculptured  slabs 
are  nearly  the  same  as  the  standard  inscrip- 
tion in  the  northwest  palace  ; those  at  the 
back  also  contain  the  name  of  the  founder  of  that  edifice,  who,  it  thus  ap- 
pears, was  likewise  the  builder  of  the  temple. 

About  one  hundred  feet  to  the  east  of  the  building  last  described,  and 
on  the  very  edge  of  the  artificial  platform,  I discovered  a second  temple. 
Its  principal  entrance  faced  the  south,  and  was  on  the  same  level  as  the 
north-west  palace.  This  gateway  was  formed  by  two  colossal  lions  with 
extended  jaws,  gathered  up  lips  and  nostrils,  flowing  manes,  and  ruffs  of 
bristly  hair.  The  heads,  though  to  a certain  extent  conventional  in  form, 
were  designed  with  that  vigor  so  remarkably  displayed  by  the  Assyrian 
sculptor  in  the  delineation  of  animals.  The  limbs  conveyed  the  idea  of 
strength  and  power,  the  veins  and  muscles  were  accurately  portrayed,  and 
the  outline  of  the  body  was  not  deficient  in  grace  and  truth.  But  the  front 
of  the  animal,  which  was  in  full,  was  narrow  and  cramped,  and  unequal 
in  dignity  to  the  side.  In  the  general  treatment  the  whole  sculpture  had 
much  of  that  peculiar  feeling  and  character  that  mark  the  archaic  monu- 
ments of  Greece,  and  it  was  on  this  account  peculiarly  interesting.  In  it, 


Entrance  to  a small  Temple  (Nimroud) 


Chap.  XVI.]  statue  of  the  king.  31  j 

indeed,  we  may  perhaps  trace  those  conventional  forms  from  which  the 
Greek  artist  first  derived  his  ideal  Lion.*  The  sculptor  has  given  five 
legs  to  the  animal  for  the  same  reason  that  he  gave  them  to  the  sphinxes, 
that  they  might  offer  a complete  front  and  side  view. 

This  gateway,  about  eight  feet  wide,  was  paved  with  one  inscribed  slab 
The  height  of  the  lions  was  about  eight  feet,  and  their  length  thirteen. 
An  inscription  was  carved  across  them.  In  front  of  them,  in  the  corners 
formed  by  walls  projecting  at  right  angles  with  the  entrance,  were  two  al- 
tars, hollow  at  the  top,  and  ornamented  with  gradines  resembling  the  bat- 
tlements of  a castle. f The  exterior  walls 
appeared  to  have  been  adorned  with  enam- 
elled bricks,  many  of  which  still  remained. 

Unfortunately,  one  of  these  lions  had  been 
too  much  injured  by  fire  to  bear  removal. 
The  other,  although  cracked  in  several  places 
when  discovered,  and  consequently  moved  in 
pieces,  has  been  preserved,  and  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

The  Lion  portal  led  into  a chamber  57  feet 
by  25.$  At  one  end  was  a recess  similar  to 
that  in  the  opposite  temple,  and  also  paved 
with  one  great  alabaster  slab,  inscribed  on 
both  sides.  This  monolith,  19^  ft.  by  12  ft., 
was  likewise  broken  into  several  pieces,  and 
had  been  injured  in  parts  by  fire. 

The  inscription  on  the  upper  side,  divided 
into  two  columns,  and  containing  230  lines, 
was  nearly  the  same  as  that  on  the  king  in 
the  frame  and  on  the  monolith  in  the  other 
temple.  It  was  also  a record  of  the  wars  and 
campaigns  of  the  early  Nimroud  king,  and 
was  important  as  enabling  us  to  restore  such 
parts  of  the  other  inscriptions  as  are  want- 
ing, and  as  furnishing  various  readings  of  the 
same  text.  The  inscription  on  the  under 
part  was  a mere  abridgment  of  the  other. 
Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  principal  cham- 
statue  of  King,  from  Temple  (Nimroud).  ber  were  two  small  slabs  joined  together.  On 
each  was  the  same  inscription,  merely  containing  passages  from  the  stand- 
ard inscription. 

The  other  rooms  in  the  same  building  contained  no  inscriptions,  sculp- 
tures, or  other  objects  of  interest.  The  walls  had  been  plastered  and  painted. 

* Plate  2.,  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

t An  altar  nearly  similar  in  shape  is  seen  on  the  top  of  a hill,  in  a bas-relief  at 
Khorsabad,  Botta,  plate  16.  $ C.  Plan  II. 


312 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVI. 


In  the  earth  above  the  great  inscribed  slab,  was  found  an  interesting 
figure,  3 feet  4 inches  high,  and  cut  in  a hard,  compact  limestone.  It  ap- 
peared to  represent  the  king  himself  attired  as  high  priest  in  his  sacrifi- 
cial robes.  In  his  right  hand  he  held  an  instrument  resembling  a sickle, 
and  in  his  left  the  sacred  mace.  Round  his  waist  was  the  knotted  girdle  ; 
and  his  left  arm,  like  that  of  the  king  in  the  opposite  temple,  was  partly 
concealed  by  an  outer  robe.  His  garments  descended  to  his  feet,  the  toes 
alone  projecting  from  them.  The  beard  and  hair  were  elaborately  curled. 
The  features  were  majestic,  and  the  general  proportions  of  the  statue  not 
altogether  incorrect,  with  the  exception  of  a want  of  breadth  in  the  side 
view  peculiar  to  Assyrian  works  of  art  of  this  nature.  It  was,  however, 
chiefly  remarkable  as  being  the  only  entire  statue  “ in  the  round”  of  this 
period,  hitherto  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh. 

On  the  breast  is  an  inscription  nearly  in  these  words  : — After  the  name 
and  titles  of  the  king,  “ The  conqueror  from  the  upper  passage  of  the  Tigris 
to  Lebanon  and  the  Great  Sea,  who  all  countries,  from  the  rising  of  the  sun 
to  the  going  down  thereof,  has  reduced  under  his  authority.”  The  statue 
was,  therefore,  probably  raised  after  his  return  from  the  campaign  in  Syria, 
described,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the  monoliths,  and  alluded  to  in  the  stand- 
ard inscription. 

This  statue  originally  stood  on  a pedestal  of  reddish  limestone,  which, 
with  the  figure  itself,  was  found  broken  into  several  pieces.  They  have 
been  restored,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.* 


Ivory  Head  from  small  Temple  (Nimroud). 


Amongst  the  smaller  objects  discovered  whilst  removing  the  earth  from 
the  chambers  in  this  edifice  were  several  rudely  carved  heads  in  alabas- 
ter, which  may  have  been  parts  of  a throne  or  altar,  or  of  some  architect- 
ural ornament ; fragments  of  enamel  belonging  to  wooden  or  ivory  figures; 
and  the  head  of  a griffin  or  mythic  animal  in  ivory,  most  probably  belong- 
* Plate  52.  of  2nd  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


VARIOUS  FIGURES. 


313 


Chap.  XVI.] 

ing  to  a wooden  figure,  or  to  the  top  of  a staff,  as  there  are  holes  for  the 
nails  by  which  it  was  fastened. 

The  two  interesting  buildings  just  described,  the  only  undoubted  remains 
of  temples  hitherto  found  at  Nimroud,  complete  the  discoveries  at  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  mound.  They  enable  us,  as  will  hereafter  be  seen, 
to  restore  part  of  the  group  of  edifices  raised  on  the  grand  platform  in  this 
quarter  of  Nineveh. 


Landing  Place  with  Ferry-boats  on  the  Tigris,  at  Mosul.  ^ 

CHAPTER  XVII. 


THE  SUMMER. ENCAMPMENT  AT  KOUYUNJIK. VISITORS. MODE  OF  LIFE. DEPARTURE 

FOR  THE  MOUNTAINS. AKRA. ROCK-TABLETS  AT  GUNDUK. DISTRICT  OF  ZIBARI. 

NAMET  AGHA. DISTRICT  OF  SHIRWAN OF  BARADOST OF  GHERDI OF  SHEMDINA. 

MOUSA  BEY.  NESTORIAN  BISHOP. CONVENT  OF  MAR  HANANISHO. DISTRICT  AND 

PLAIN  OF  GHAOUR. DIZZA. AN  ALBANIAN  FRIEND. BASH-KALAH. IZZET  PASHA. 

A JEWISH  ENCAMPMENT. HIGH  MOUNTAIN  PASS. MAHMOUDIYAH. FIRST  VIEW  OF 


WAN. 

The  difficulties  and  delay  in  crossing  the  Tigris,  now  swollen  by  the 
melting  of  the  mountain  snows,  induced  me  to  pitch  my  tents  on  the  mound 
of  Kouyunjik,  and  to  reside  there  with  all  my  party,  instead  of  daily  pass- 
ing to  and  fro  in  the  rude  ferry-boats  to  the  ruins.  The  small  European 
community  at  Mosul  was  increased  in  June  by  the  arrival  of  a large  party 
of  travellers.  Two  English  gentlemen  and  their  wives  who  passed  through 
on  their  way  to  Baghdad  : the  Hon.  Mr.  Walpole,  who  has  since  published 
an  account  of  his  adventures  in  the  East ; the  Rev.  Mr.  Malan,  to  whom 
I am  indebted  for  many  beautiful  sketches,  and  of  whose  kindness  in  afford- 
ing me  these  valuable  illustrations  I again  seize  the  opportunity  of  making 
a grateful  acknowledgment ; the  Rev.  Mr.  Bowen,  an  English  clergyman, 
on  a tour  of  inspection  to  the  Eastern  churches,  with  whom  I spent  many 
agreeable  and  profitable  hours  amongst  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon, 
and  his  companion,  Mr.  Sandresky,  were  our  visitors,  and  were  most  of 
them  my  guests. 

Our  tents  were  pitched  at  the  northern  corner  of  Kouyunjik,  near  some 


SUMMER  OF  THE  DESERT. 


315 


Chap.  XVII.] 

earthen  banks  and  embrasures,  which  tradition  points  out  as  the  batterieg 
of  Nadir  Shah,  when  he  directed  his  guns  against  the  town  of  Mosul. 
The  spring  was  now  fast  passing  away  ; the  heat  became  daily  greater ; 
the  corn  was  cut,  and  the  plains  and  hills  put  on  their  summer  clothing 
of  dull  parched  yellow.  “ The  pasture  is  withered,  the  tender  herb  faileth, 
the  green  herb  is  no  more.”^  It  was  the  season,  too,  of  the  Sherghis,  or 
burning  winds  from  the  south,  which  occasionally  swept  over  the  face  of 
the  country,  driving,  in  their  short-lived  fury,  everything  before  them. 
Their  coming  was  foretold  by  a sudden  fall  in  the  barometer,  which  rose 
again  as  soon  as  they  had  passed.  It  required  the  united  exertions  of  my 
workmen  to  hold  the  flapping  canvas  of  the  large  tent,  whilst  the  smaller 
were  generally  carried  far  away,  and  their  contents  hurled  in  every  direc- 
tion over  the  mound  or  the  plain. f 

At  Nimroud  the  excavations  had  been  almost  stopped  : at  Kouyunjik 
they  were  still  carried  on  as  actively  as  my  means  would  permit.  I was 
now  occupied  in  moving  and  packing  sculptures  from  both  ruins.  From 
Nimroud  the  beautiful  bas-relief  of  the  king  in  the  arched  frame,  described 
in  the  previous  chapter,  the  good  spirit  driving  out  the  evil  principle,  the 
fish-god,  the  colossal  lion  from  the  small  temple,  and  several  other  interest- 
ing sculptures,  were  taken  to  the  river-bank,  and  sent  on  rafts  to  Busrah. 
At  Kouyunjik  none  of  the  slabs  could  be  removed  entire.  I could  only 
pack  in  fragments  several  of  the  bas-reliefs  representing  the  moving  of  the 
great  bulls,  six  of  the  led  horses,  the  figures  bearing  locusts  and  game  for 
the  banquet,  from  the  descending  passage,  and  one  or  two  battle-scenes  de- 
scribed in  the  previous  pages.  The  cases  were  dragged  in  carts  to  the 
Tigris,  unloaded  below  the  piers  of  the  ancient  bridge,  and  there  placed  on 
rafts  prepared  to  receive  them. 

During  the  day,  when  not  otherwise  occupied,  I made  drawings  of  the 
bas-reliefs  discovered  in  the  subterranean  passages.  My  guests,  choosing 
some  convenient  place  underground  near  the  parties  who  were  at  work, 
spread  their  carpets  beneath  the  crumbling  sculptures.  We  all  went  be- 
low soon  after  the  sun  had  risen,  and  remained  there,  without  again  seek- 
ing the  open  air,  until  it  was  far  down  in  the  western  horizon.  The  tem- 
perature in  the  dark  tunnels  was  cool  and  agreeable,  nearly  twenty  degrees 
of  Fahrenheit  lower  than  that  in  the  shade  above  ; but  I found  it  unwhole- 
some, the  sudden  change  in  going  in  and  out  causing  intermittent  fever. 

After  the  sun  had  set  we  dined  outside  the  tents,  and  afterwards  re- 
clined on  our  carpets  to  enjoy  the  cool  balmy  air  of  an  Eastern  night. 
The  broad  silver  river  wound  through  the  plain,  the  great  ruin  cast  its 
dark  shadows  in  the  moonlight,  the  lights  of  “ the  lodges  in  the  gardens  of 
cucumbers”^  flickered  at  our  feet,  and  the  deep  silence  was  only  broken  by 

* Isaiah,  xv.  6.  Translation  by  the  Rev.  John  Jones. 

t Isaiah  describes  these  whirlwinds,  xxi.  1.  (same  version),  “Like  the  southern 
tempests  violently  rushing  along  from  the  Desert,  he  cometh  from  a terrible  land.” 

t Isaiah,  i.  8.  These  temporary  huts  are  raised  in  the  gardens  and  plantations  of 


316 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XVII. 


the  sharp  report  of  a rifle  fired  by  the  watchful  guards  to  frighten  away  the 
wild  boars  that  lurked  in  the  melon  beds.  We  slept  under  the  open  sky, 
making  our  beds  in  the  field.  Around  us  were  the  tents  of  the  Jebour 
workmen  ; their  chiefs  and  the  overseers  generally  gathered  round  us  to 
talk  over  the  topics  of  the  day  until  the  night  was  far  spent. 

July  had  set  in,  and  we  were  now  in  “ the  eye  of  the  summer.”.  My 
companions  had  been  unable  to  resist  its  heat.  One  by  one  we  dropped 
off  with  fever.  The  Doctor,  after  long  suffering,  had  gone  with  Mr.  Wal- 
pole to  the  cooler  regions  of  the  Kurdish  hills,  there  to  wait  until  the  state 
of  the  excavations  might  enable  me  to  join  them.  Mr.  Cooper,  too,  had  so 
much  declined  in  health  that  I sent  him  to  the  convent  of  Mar  Metti,  on 
the  summit  of  the  Gebel  Makloub.  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam  and  myself 
struggled  on  the  longest,  but  at  length  we  also  gave  way.  Fortunately 
our  ague  attacks  did  not  coincide.  We  were  prostrate  alternate  days,  and 
were,  therefore,  able  to  take  charge  alternately  of  the  works.  By  the  11th 
of  July  I had  sent  to  Busrah  the  first  collection  of  sculptures  from  Kouyun- 
jik,  and  on  that  day,  in  the  middle  of  the  hot  stage  of  fever,  and  half  de- 
lirious, I left  Mosul  for  the  mountains.  There  were  still  parts  of  central 
Kurdistan  unvisited  by  the  European  traveller.  The  districts  belonging  to 
the  Zibari  Kurds,  between  Rahwanduz  and  the  Nestorian  valleys,  had 
but  recently  made  a tardy  and  partial  submission  to  the  Porte,  and,  still 
unoccupied  by  Turkish  garrisons  or  troops,  acknowledged  only  their  own 
hereditary  chiefs.  The  tribes  inhabiting  them  are  renowned  for  their  law 
lessness,  and  commerce  had  not  yet  penetrated  into  their  strongholds. 

I determined,  therefore,  first  to  visit  these  districts  on  my  way  to  Wan,  to 
devote  some  days  to  the  examination  of  the  ruins  and  cuneiform  inscriptions 
in  and  near  that  city,  and  then  to  return  to  Mosul  through  the  unexplored  up- 
lands to  the  south  of  the  lake  of  Wan,  and  by  such  of  the  Nestorian  valleys 
as  I had  not  seen  during  my  former  journey  in  the  mountains.  I should 
then  spend  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer  in  the  cool  regions  of  Kurdistan, 
and  be  again  at  Nineveh  by  September,  when  the  heats  begin  to  decline 

Few  European  travellers  can  brave  the  perpendicular  rays  of  an  Assyr 
ian  sun.  Even  the  well-seasoned  Arab  seeks  the  shade  during  the  day, 
and  journeys  by  night,  unless  driven  forth  at  noontide  into  the  plain  by 
necessity,  or  the  love  of  war.  As  we  had  no  motive  for  neglecting  the 
usual  precautions,  we  struck  our  tents  late  in  the  afternoon,  and  got  upon 
our  horses  at  the  foot  of  the  mound  of  Kouyunjik  as  the  sun  went  down. 
With  me  were  Hormuzd,  my  old  servants,  and  the  faithful  Bairakdar. 
Mr.  Cooper  was  to  join  us  on  the  following  day,  and  we  were  to  seek  the 
Doctor  and  Mr.  Walpole  at  Akra. 

Five  hours’  ride  over  the  plain  brought  us  to  the  small  Turcoman  vil- 
lage of  Bir  Hillan  (the  well  of  stone),  which  stands  on  the  south-eastern 
spur  of  the  Makloub  hills.  After  two  hours’  rest  we  continued  our  jour- 

melons,  cucumbers,  and  other  fruit,  by  the  men  who  watch  day  and  night  to  protect 
them  against  thieves  and  wild  animals 


Chap.  XVII.]  REACH  AKRA-  317 

ney,  and  crossed  this  spur  before  morning  dawned.  The  Gebel  Makloub 
is  here  divided  into  two  distinct  ranges  by  a deep  valley.  The  southern 
ridge,  rocky  and  furrowed  like  the  northern,  is  called  the  Gebel  Ain-es- 
sufra  (the  hill  of  the  yellow  spring),  from  a discolored  fountain  in  one  of 
its  ravines,  a place  of  pilgrimage  of  the  Yezidis.  One  of  the  annual  festi- 
vals of  this  sect  falling  on  the  day  of  our  journey,  we  saw  many  families 
wending  their  way  to  the  holy  place.  The  villages,  which  formerly  stood 
on  the  hill  side,  have  been  long  since  deserted. 

Leaving  the  Gebel  Makloub,  we  descended  into  a broad  plain,  stretching 
from  it  to  the  first  Kurdish  range,  and  soon  found  ourselves  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ghazir,  here  a clear  sparkling  stream  clothed  with  tall  oleanders, 
now  bending  under  their  rosy  blossoms.  We  sought  the  shade  of  some 
spreading  walnut-trees,  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  near  the  small  Kurdish 
village  of  Kaimawa. 

Here  Mr.  Cooper  joined  us,  and  we  were  again  on  our  way  in  the  after- 
noon. Instead  of  striking  for  the  mountains  by  the  direct  path  across  the 
plain  of  Navkur,  we  rode  along  the  foot  of  a range  of  low  hills,  forming 
its  western  boundary,  to  the  large  Kurdish  village  of  Bardaresh.  Having 
rested  for  a few  hours,  we  descended  in  the  middle  of  the  night  into  a plain 
receiving  the  drainage  of  the  surrounding  highlands,  and  during  the  rainy 
season  almost  impassable  from  mud.  In  the  summer  the  broad  fissures 
and  deep  crevices,  formed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  render  it  scarcely  less 
difficult  to  beasts  of  burden.  Scattered  over  it  are  many  flourishing  vil- 
lages, inhabited  almost  entirely  by  Kurds,  who  cultivate  the  rich  and  fruit- 
ful soil.  Winding  streams  irrigate  fields  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  rice,  and 
turn  numerous  corn-mills.  Artificial  mounds,  the  remains  of  ancient  civil- 
isation, but  of  small  size  when  compared  with  the  great  ruins  of  Assyria, 
rise  amongst  the  hovels  of  the  Kurdish  peasants.  I passed  several  that 
bore  marks  of  having  been  tapped  by  my  industrious  agents,  but  none  ap- 
peared to  contain  ruins.  They  had  not  been  sufficiently  examined  to  show 
for  what  purpose  they  had  been  raised. 

After  we  had  crossed  the  parched  and  burning  plain  we  entered  a val- 
ley in  the  Kurdish  hills,  watered  by  a stream  called  Melik  or  Gherasin. 
We  had  to  climb  over  much  broken  ground — rocky  ridge  and  ravine — be- 
fore reaching  the  slope  of  the  mountain  covered  with  the  gardens  and  or- 
chards of  Akra.  We  tarried  for  a moment  at  a cool  spring  rising  in  a nat- 
ural grotto,  and  collected  into  two  large  basins.  As  such  places  usually 
are,  it  was,  if  not  a sacred,  a genial  spot  to  the  Mussulmans,  and  they  had 
chosen  a small  open  terrace  near  for  a burial  ground.  Saints  abound 
amongst  the  Kurds,  as  amongst  all  ignorant  people,  and  there  are  few 
grave-yards  without  a large  supply  of  their  tombs  : that  near  the  fountain 
of  Akra  appeared  to  be  particularly  favored,  and  the  place  of  mourning  was 
made  gay  by  the  many-colored  shreds  and  remnants  of  old  garments,  which 
* fluttered  like  streamers  from  the  tall  head-stones.* 

* The  custom  of  placing  ex-voto  offerings  on  or  near  the  tomb  of  a holy  person- 


318 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVII. 


We  had  no  difficulty  in  finding  our  European  fellow-travellers.  The 
first  Kurd  we  met  pointed  to  a well- wooded  garden  ; above  its  trees  peered 
their  white  tents.  As  we  rode  into  it,  however,  no  one  came  out  to  wel- 
come us.  I entered  the  first  tent,  and  there,  stretched  out  on  their  carpets, 
in  a state  of  half-consciousness,  the  prey  to  countless  flies,  lay  the  Doctor 
and  Mr.  Walpole.  It  was  with  difficulty  I could  rouse  them  to  learn  the 
history  of  their  fever.  The  whole  party  were  in  the  same  state  ; the  serv- 
ants prostrate  like  their  masters.  I lost  no  time  in  enforcing  a system  of 
diet,  and  placing  my  patients  under  a course  of  treatment  for  ague,  with 
which  long  experience  had  given  me  some  acquaintance. 

In  the  same  garden  was  encamped  the  Mutesellim,  or  Turkish  governor, 
of  Akra.  As  it  was  the  month  of  Ramazan,  when  good  Mussulmans  es- 
chew all  food  from  dawn  to  sunset,  he  passed  the  day  in  sleep,  to  awake 
as  the  sun  went  down  and  the  hour  of  feasting  drew  near.  It  was  even- 
ing, consequently,  before- 1 visited  him.  He  sat  under  a large  open  shed 
built  with  green  houghs.  It  was  well  furnished  with  soft  divans,  and  stood 
on  the  very  brink  of  a large  hosh , or  reservoir,  of  clear  water,  which  re- 
flected the  flickering  light  of  numerous  colored  lamps  hung  from  the  branch- 
es of  the  surrounding  trees.  Although  Akra  stands  on  the  mountain-side, 
it  is  still  within  the  region  of  the  great  heats,  and  the  inhabitants  pass  the 
summer  nights  beneath  the  sky.  During  this  season  they  leave  their  dwell- 
ings, and  encamp  in  the  gardens.  The  town  contains  nearly  six  hundred 
families,  and  the  whole  district  about  three  hundred  villages  and  hamlets, 
furnishing  a considerable  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  pashalic  of  Mosul. 

Some  days  elapsed  before  my  companions  were  able  to  journey.  I took 
advantage  of  the  delay  to  visit  some  bas-reliefs  near  the  neighbouring  vil- 
lage of  Gunduk.  We  passed  on  the  road  several  hamlets,  inhabited  partly 
by  Kurds  and  partly  by  Catholic  Chaldseans,  recently  converted  from  the 
Nestorian  Church.*  In  Gunduk  there  are  still  about  twenty  families  who 
have  remained  in  the  Xestorian  faith,  and  a few  Jews.  The  village  is 
pleasantly  built  on  the  slope  of  a hill,  overhanging  a deep  valley  filled  with 
shady  gardens. 

There  are  two  sculptured  tablets  in  the  rocks  above  Gunduk.  They 
have  been  carved  at  the  mouth  of  a spacious  natural  cavern,  whose  roof  is 
fretted  with  stalactites,  and  down  whose  sides  trickles  cool  clear  water,  and 
hang  dark  ferns  and  creeping  plants.  It  is  called  Guppa  d’Mar  Yohanna, 
or  the  cave  of  St.  John,  and  near  it  is  an  ancient  Nestorian  church  dedica- 
ted to  Saint  Audishio.  The  bas-reliefs  are  Assyrian.  The  upper  repre- 
sents a man  slaying  a wild  goat  with  a spear.  In  the  lower,  as  far  as  1 
could  distinguish  the  sculpture,  which  is  high  on  the  rock  and  much  in- 

generally  pieces  tom  from  the  garments — prevails  throughout  the  East.  Frequently 
the  branches  of  a neighbouring  tree,  and  the  iron-grating  of  the  windows  of  the  rest- 
ing-place of  a saint,  are  completely  covered  with  such  relics. 

* These  villages  were  Khurfa,  Ras-al-Ain,  Khardiz,  and  Shiekhi,  or  Sheikh  Mo 
naramed. 


Chap.  XVII.] 


BAS-RELIEFS  at  gunduk. 


319 


jured,  are  two  women  facing  each  other  and  seated  on  stools.  Each  holds 
a child  above  a kind  of  basin  or  circular  vessel,  as  if  in  the  act  of  baptizing 
it.  Behind  the  seated  female  to  the  left,  a figure  hears  a third  child,  and 
is  followed  by  a woman.  On  the  opposite  side  is  a group  of  three  persons, 
apparently  sacrificing  an  animal.  There  are  no  traces  of  inscriptions  on  or 
near  the  tablets. 

Whilst  I was  examining  these  sculptures,  the  Nestorian  Kiayah  came  to 
me.  He  was  a shamasha  or  deacon,  a venerable  old  man  with  a white 
beard  falling  on  his  breast.  The  upper  sculpture,  he  said,  represented  Saint 
John  with  his  horse  ; hence  the  name  of  the  cavern  ; the  lower  was  some 
church  ceremony  which  he  could  not  exactly  explain.  Returning  with  him 
to  his  dwelling,  where  he  had  prepared  a plentiful  breakfast,  we  passed  the 
heat  of  the  day  under  a shady  porch  overlooking  the  plain. 

There  are  several  Nestorian  Chaldsean  villages  at  the  foot  of  these  hills. 
Three  miles  to  the  north  of  Gunduk  is  Shoush,  and  beyond  it  Shermen, 


Rock- Sculptures  near  the  Village  of  Gunduk. 


frequently  the  residence  of  Mar  Shamoun,  the  Nestorian  patriarch.  At  a 
short  distance  from  Shermen  farther  northwards,  is  the  gorge  of  Bavian, 
with  its  remarkable  rock-sculptures. 


320 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYII 


On  the  17th  July  my  companions  were  able  to  move  to  the  higher  mount- 
ains. We  all  longed  for  a cooler  climate,  and  we  rejoiced  as  at  sunrise  we 
left  our  garden.  The  town,  through  which  we  passed,  contains  a few  well- 
built  stone  houses,  rising  one  above  the  other,  a mosque,  a bath,  and  a 
ruined  castle ; and  was  formerly  the  stronghold  of  an  independent  chief, 
who  enjoyed  the  title  of  pasha,  and  boasted,  like  his  relation  of  Amadiyah, 
a descent  from  the  Abasside  caliphs.  The  last,  Mohammed  Seyyid,  has 
long  been  a kind  of  prisoner  at  Mosul. 

A precipitous  and  difficult  path  leads  up  the  mountain.  From  the  sum- 
mit of  the  pass,  the  eye  wanders  over  the  plains  of  Navkur  and  Sheikhan, 
the  broken  hill  country  around  Arbil,  and  the  windings  of  the  Zab  and  the 
Grhazir.  On  the  opposite  side  is  a deep  valley  dividing  the  Akra  hills  from 
a second  and  loftier  range.  We  now  entered  the  region  of  dwarf  oaks,  and 
stopped,  after  a short  day’s  journey,  at  the  Kurdish  hamlet  of  Hashtgah. 
surrounded  by  gigantic  trees  and  watered  by  numerous  streams.  It  is  in 
the  Kurdish  district  of  Zibari,  still  governed  by  one  of  the  few  remaining 
hereditary  chiefs. 

Through  the  valley  ran  a broad  clear  stream,  one  of  the  confluents  of 
the  Zab,  called  by  the  Kurds  Durusho  or  Bairaisho.*  We  rode  along  its 
banks  for  nearly  an  hour,  and  then  struck  into  a narrow  gorge  thickly  wood- 
ed with  oak.  Another  stony  and  precipitous  pass  was  between  us  and  the 
principal  district  of  Zibari.  From  its  summit  the  main  stream  of  the  Zab 
is  seen  winding  through  a rich  valley,  beyond  which  rise  the  more  central 
and  loftier  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  with  their  snow-bearing  peaks.  De- 
scending into  the  low  country  we  rode  by  the  village  of  Birikapra,  the  res- 
idence of  Mustafa  Agha,  the  former  head  of  the  Zibari  tribes.  The  pres- 
ent chief,  Namet  Agha,  dwells  at  Heren,  about  two  miles  beyond.  He 
had  lately  been  at  Mosul  to  receive  from  the  Pasha  his  cloak  of  investiture, 
and  during  his  visit  had  been  my  guest.  His  abilities  and  acquirements 
were  above  the  ordinary  Kurdish  standard,  which  indeed  is  low  enough : 
for,  as  the  Arab  proverb  declares,  “ Be  the  Kurd  a Kurd  or  a prophet,  he 
will  still  be  a bear.”  He  spoke  Persian  with  fluency,  and  was  not  igno- 
rant of  Arabic.  As  he  was  well  acquainted  with  the  geography  of  Kurd- 
istan, I learned  from  him  many  interesting  particulars  relating  to  the  less- 
known  districts  of  the  mountains. 

The  Kurds  belong  to  a sect  of  Mussulmans  notoriously  strict  in  the  ob- 
servance of  their  religious  duties.  The  Agha  had  feasted  all  night,  and 
was  now  sleeping  through  his  daily  fast.  He  was  stretched  on  a rich  car- 
pet beneath  a cluster  of  trees,  and  near  a reservoir  of  water,  outside  the 

* For  this  valley  I received  three  different  names,  Hassanawa,  Hassan-maima, 
and  Nahala,  the  latter  from  the  Zibari  chief.  The  difficulty  of  getting  a correct  name 
either  of  a place  or  a person  from  a Kurd  is  very  great,  and  travellers  in  Kurdistan 
can  scarcely  avoid  falling  into  frequent  errors  in  this  respect.  The  same  name  is 
pronounced  in  a variety  of  ways,  and  is  subject  to  all  manner  of  additions  and  con- 
tractions. If  it  have  any  meaning,  the  difficulty  is,  of  course,  less. 


NAMET  AGHA. 


321 


Chap.  XVII.] 

walls  of  his  small  mud  castle.  A thin  white  cloak,  embroidered  with 
silk  and  golden  threads,  was  thrown  over  him,  and  whilst  one  attendant 
fanned  his  head,  a second  gently  kneaded  his  naked  feet.  I begged  that 
he  should  not  he  disturbed,  and  we  proceeded  to  settle  ourselves  for  the 
day  under  the  trees. 

The  unusual  stir,  however,  soon  awoke  the  chief.  He  welcomed  me 
with  friendly  warmth ; and,  although  forbidden  to  eat  himself,  he  did  not 
leave  his  guests  uncared  for.  The  breakfast  brought  to  us  from  his  harem 
comprised  a variety  of  sweetmeats  and  savoury  dishes,  which  did  credit  to 
the  skill  of  the  Kurdish  ladies. 

I was  the  bearer  of  a letter  to  him  from  the  Pasha  : no  acceptable  com- 
munication, however,  as  it  treated  of  new  taxes,  a subject  very  generally 
disagreeable,  upon  tobacco,  cotton,  and  fruit,  which  the  Zibari  Kurds  were 
now  for  the  first  time  called  upon  to  pay.  The  salian,  too,  a kind  of  prop- 
erty tax,  was  raised  from  twenty-five  to  sixty  thousand  piastres  (about 
550 1.).  The  late  successful  expeditions  against  the  chiefs  of  Bohtan  dpi 
Hakkiari  had  encouraged  the  Porte  to  ask  money  of  the  previously  inde- 
pendent tribes  under  Namet  Agha ; and  although  no  Turkish  troops  had 
yet  entered  their  mountains,  the  Kurds  deemed  it  advisable  to  comply  for 
the  present  with  the  demand  rather  than  run  the  risk  of  an  invasion,  and 
a still  more  dreaded  evil,  the  conscription. 

There  are  about  fifty  Catholic  Chaldsean  families,  recent  converts  from 
Nestorianism,  in  Heren.  They  have  a church,  and  had  no  cause  to  com- 
plain of  their  Kurdish  masters,  especially  during  the  government  of  the 
present  chief. 

Namet  Agha’s  authority  extended  over  Zibari,  Shirwan,  Gherdi,  Bara- 
dost,  and  Shemdeena,  from  Akra  to  the  Persian  frontier.  These  districts 
are  occupied  by  different  Kurdish  tribes,  each  having  its  own  chief ; but 
they  had  then  submitted  to  the  Agha  of  Zibari,  and  paid  their  tribute 
through  him  to  the  governor  of  Mosul.  Namet  placed  me  under  the 
protection  of  his  cousin,  Mullah  Agha,  who  was  ordered  to  escort  us  to 
the  borders  of  the  pashalic  of  Hakkiari,  now  occupied  by  the  Turkish 
troops.  Our  guide  was  a tall  sinewy  mountaineer,  dressed  in  the  many- 
colored  loose  garments,  and  huge  red  and  black  turban  folded  round  the 
high  conical  felt  cap,  which  give  a peculiar  and  ungainly  appearance  to 
the  inhabitants  of  central  Kurdistan.  He  was  accompanied  by  three  at- 
tendants, and  all  were  on  foot,  the  precipitous  and  rocky  pathways  of  the 
mountains  being  scarcely  practicable  for  horses,  which  are  rarely  kept  but 
by  the  chiefs.  They  carried  their  long  rifles  across  their  shoulders,  and 
enormous  daggers  in  their  girdles. 

We  left  Heren  early  on  the  morning  of  the  19th,  and  soon  reaching  the 
Zab,  rode  for  two  hours  along  its  banks,  to  a spot  where  a small  raft  had 
been  made  ready  for  us  to  cross  the  stream.  Many  villages  were  scat- 
tered through  the  valley  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  the  soil  is  not  ill 
cultivated. 


X 


322 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVII. 


The  Zab  is  not  fordable  in  this  part  of  its  course.  Numerous  eddies 
and  rapids,  caused  by  sunken  rock,  render  it  unnavigable  even  by  rafts,  ex- 
cept during  the  floods  of  spring.  We  had  some  difficulty  in  crossing,  and 
were  compelled  to  pass  the  night  in  the  small  village  of  Rizan,  near  the 
ferry,  as  one  of  the  baggage-mules  refused  to  swim  the  stream,  and  was 
not  forced  over  until  near  dawn  on  the  following  morning. 

We  now  entered  the  tract  which  has  probably  been  followed  for  ages  by 
the  mountain  clans  in  their  periodical  migrations.  Besides  the  sedentary 
population  of  these  districts,  there  are  certain  nomade  Kurdish  tribes  called 
Kochers,  who  subsist  entirely  by  their  flocks.  As  they  do  not  engage  in 
agriculture,  but  rely  upon  the  rich  pastures  of  Assyria,  they  change  their 
encamping  grounds  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  gradually  ascend- 
ing from  the  plains  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Zab  towards  the  highest 
peaks  in  summer,  and  returning  to  the  low  country  as  the  winter  draws 
nigh.  The  principal  Kocher  tribes,  found  in  this  part  of  Kurdistan,  are  the 
Herki,  whose  encampments  we  had  seen  during  our  visit  to  the  Tai  in  the 
early  spring.*  They  are  notorious  petty  thieves  and  robbers,  and  during 
their  annual  migrations  commit  serious  depredations  upon  the  settled  in- 
habitants of  the  district  on  their  way,  and  more  especially  upon  the  Chris 
tians.  As  they  possess  vast  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  cattle,  their  track 
has  in  most  places  the  appearance  of  a beaten  road,  and  is,  consequently, 
well  fitted  for  beasts  of  burden. 

The  country  beyond,  or  to  the  east  of,  the  Zab  is  broken  into  a number 
of  parallel  ranges  of  wooded  hills,  divided  by  narrow  ravines.  Small  vil- 
lages are  scattered  here  and  there  on  the  mountain  sides,  in  the  midst  of 
terraces  cultivated  with  wheat  and  planted  with  fruit  trees.  The  scenery 
occasionally  assumes  a character  of  beauty  and  grandeur,  as  the  deep  green 
valleys  open  beneath  the  traveller’s  feet,  and  the  lofty  snow-capped  peaks 
of  Rahwanduz  rise  majestically  in  the  clear  blue  sky.  The  nights  were 
still  sufficiently  warm  for  us  to  sleep  in  the  open  air.  During  the  middle 
of  the  day  the  heat  of  the  sun  compelled  us  to  seek  for  shade.  Our  first  rest, 
after  leaving  the  Zab,  was  in  the  gardens  of  Kouran,  and  our  first  night’s 
encampment  near  the  small  hamlet  of  Bani,  on  the  declivity  of  a mount- 
ain. 

On  the  21st  July,  crossing  a high  ridge,  we  left  the  district  of  Zibari,  and 
entered  that  of  Shirwan,  whose  chief,  Miran  Bey,  came  out  to  meet  us  at 
the  head  of  his  armed  retainers.  He  led  us  to  the  large  village  of  Bersi- 
yah,  situated  beneath  a bold  and  lofty  peak  called  Piran.  A feast  had  been 
prepared  for  us,  and  we  rested  under  a walnut-tree.  Through  the  valley 
beneath  ran  a considerable  confluent  of  the  Zab,f  dividing  the  districts  of 
Shirwan  and  Gherdi.  During  the  afternoon,  we  rode  for  three  hours  along 
this  stream,  through  open  valleys  and  narrow  gorges,  until  we  reached  Ha- 

* See  chap.  X. 

t Three  names  were  given  me  for  this  stream : Av  Sherah,  Rudbar  Keklik,  and 
Berasghird. 


VALLEY  OF  CHAPPATA. 


323 


Chap.  XVII.] 

rouni,  in  the  district  of  Baradost.  Most  of  the  villages  in  these  mountains 
have  small  mud  forts,  with  either  four  or  six  towers, — the  places  of  refuge 
and  defence  of  the  numerous  petty  chiefs  during  their  frequent  broils  and 
blood-feuds.  We  met  a few  Jewish  families  who  wander  from  village  to 
village.  The  men  are  pedlars  and  goldsmiths,  and  are  not  unwelcon^ 
guests,  even  in  the  intolerant  families  of  the  Kurds,  as  they  make  and  re- 
fashion the  ornaments  of  the  ladies. 

On  one  of  the  many  peaks  towering  above  Harouni,  is  the  large  village 
of  Khan-i-resh,  with  its  orchards  and  gardens,  the  residence  of  the  chief  of 
the  district  of  Baradost.  We  reached  it  by  a very  rapid  ascent  in  an  hour 
and  a half.* 

We  were  received  by  the  Mir,  Fezullah  Bey,  in  a spacious  chamber,  sup- 
ported by  wooden  pillars,  and  completely  open  on  the  side  facing  the  val- 
ley, over  which  it  commanded  an  extensive  and  beautiful  prospect.  The 
turban  of  the  chief,  a Cashmere  shawl  striped  red  and  white,  vied  in  size 
with  the  largest  headgear  we  had  seen  in  Kurdistan.  His  robes  were  of' 
silk  richly  embroidered,  and  his  dark  eyes  were  rendered  more  lustrous  by 
a profuse  besmearing  of  kohl  over  the  eyqjids.  He  was  surrounded  by  a 
crowd  of  well-armed  and  well-dressed  attendants,  and  received  us  as  if  he 
had  been  the  petty  sovereign  of  the  hills.  Although  he  had  condescended 
for  the  last  two  years  to  contribute  some  eight  purses  (3 51.)  towards  the 
Turkish  revenues,  he  still  boasted  an  entire  independence,  and  submitted 
with  evident  ill-will  to  the  control  of  the  Agha  of  Zibari,  under  whom  his 
tribes  had  been  placed  by  the  Pasha  of  Mosul. f He  received  Mullah  Agha, 
however,  with  civility,  and  read  the  letters  of  introduction  from  Namet 
Agha,  of  which  I was  the  bearer.  Like  most  of  the  mountain  chiefs,  he 
spoke  Persian,  the  language  used  in  Kurdistan  for  all  written  communica- 
tions, and  in  books,  except  the  Koran  and  a few  pious  works,  which  are  in 
Arabic.  The  Kurdish  dialects  are  mere  corruptions  of  the  Persian,  and  are 
not,  with  rare  exceptions,  employed  in  writing. 

The  Mir  pressed  me  to  pass  the  night  with  him  as  his  guest ; but  after 
partaking  of  his  breakfast,  I continued  my  journey,  and  reached,  by  sunset, 
the  small  turreted  stronghold  of  Beygishni. 

The  next  morning  we  crossed  one  bf  the  shoulders  of  the  lofty  peak  of 
Ser-i-Kesh,  into  the  valley  of  Chappata.J  We  were  met  on  the  way  by  a 
party  of  Nestorians,  who  had  come  out  to  see  me,  headed  by  the  brother  of 
the  Bishop  of  Gherdi.  He  urged  me  to  turn  aside  to  the  Christian  villages, 
of  which  there  are  several  in  the  valley  ; but  as  it  was  necessary  to  visit 
the  Mir  of  Gherdi,  through  whose  territories  we  were  now  travelling,  and 
whose  protection  we  consequently  required,  I declined  his  invitation.  He 
walked  by  me  as  far  as  Zernin,  the  castle  of  the  Kurdish  chief,  and  then 

* Khan-i-resh  is,  by  observation,  4372  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

f It  was  this  chief,  or  one  of  his  dependants,  I believe,  who  plundered  and  was 
about  to  murder  two  American  missionaries,  who  attempted  to  cross  the  mountains 
the  year  after  my  visit.  % Or  Chapmain,  in  Chaldaean 


324 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYII. 


left  a relation  to  guide  us  to  the  dwelling  of  the  Bishop  of  Shemesdin  or 
Shemdeena.  As  usual,  he  complained  of  bitter  oppression  and  injustice 
from  the  Kurdish  Mirs,  who  had  lately  driven  a large  part  of  the  Christian 
population  across  the  frontiers  into  Persia. 

i The  Mir  of  Gherdi  was  away  from  his  castle  ; and,  after  having  rested 
there  and  eaten  bread,  we  left  the  bold  upland  upon  which  the  village 
stands,  and  entered  a wild  and  narrow  gorge.  A very  steep  pathway  led 
us  to  the  summit  of  the  northern  shoulder  of  the  Ser-i-Resh,  from  whence 
we  gazed  over  a sea  of  mountain  ranges,  whose  higher  peaks  were  white 
with  eternal  snow.  As  we  wound  down  a rugged  track  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  pass,  we  came  upon  a party  of  gaily  dressed  Kurds,  crouching  in 
a circle  round  a bubbling  spring.  They  were  Iahya  Bey,  the  Mir,  and  his 
people,  who  had  come  from  Rua  to  meet  me.  The  chief,  after  the  usual 
exchange  of  civilities,  insisted  upon  returning  to  that  village  with  us,  and 
mounted  his  fine  white  mare,  whose  tail  was  dyed  bright  red  with  henna 
to  match  his  own  capacious  scarlet  trowsers.  I could  scarcely  refuse  his 
offer  of  hospitality,  although  our  day’s  journey  was  thereby  much  shortened, 
and  we  rode  together  down  the  mountain  until,  turning  into  a valley,  we 
found  the  chief’s  carpets  spread  beneath  the  trees,  with  the  repast  that  he 
had  prepared  for  us. 

We  had  now  left  the  naked  hills  which  skirt  the  Assyrian  plains,  and 
had  entered  the  wooded  districts  of  Kurdistan.  On  the  following  day  we 
journeyed  through  a valley  thick  with  walnuts  and  other  large  trees,  and 
followed  the  windings  of  a stream  called  by  the  Kurds  Shambo,  one  of  the 
principal  confluents  of  the  Zab.  We  crossed  it,  backwards  and  forwards, 
by  wicker  suspension  bridges,  until  we  ascended,  through  a forest  of  or- 
chards watered  by  innumerable  streamlets,  to  Nera,  the  village  of  Mousa 
Bey,  the  chief  of  Shemdina. 

The  solitude  of  the  place  was  only  broken  by  a few  boys  who  were  bath- 
ing in  a brawling  stream.  The  chief  himself  and  the  inhabitants  were 
still  slumbering  after  their  night’s  observance  of  the  Ramazan.  We 
pitched  our  tents  near  some  springs  on  an  open  lawn,  and  waited  the  re- 
turn of  an  aged  servant  who  had  been  disturbed  by  the  noise  of  our  cara- 
van, and  had  undertaken  to  announce  our  arrival  to  his  master. 

We  had  evidently  to  deal  with  a man  of  civilisation  and  luxury,  for  the 
old  Kurd  shortly  returned  followed  by  numerous  attendants,  bearing  sher- 
bets and  various  Persian  delicacies  in  china  bowls.  Mousa  Bey  himself 
came  to  us  in  the  afternoon,  and  his  manners  and  conversation  confirmed 
the  impression  that  his  breakfast  had  produced.  Intercourse  with  Persia, 
beyond  whose  frontiers  his  own  tribe  sometimes  wandered,  had  taught  him 
the  manners  and  language  of  his  neighbours.  He  was  somewhat  proud  of 
his  acquirements  ; and  when  he  found  that  he  could  exhibit  them  before 
the  crowd  of  armed  followers  that  respectfully  surrounded  him,  by  talking 
to  me  in  a learned  tongue,  a bond  of  friendship  was  immediately  estab- 
lished between  us.  He  told  me  that  he  was  descended  from  one  of  the 


A NESTORIAN  BISHOP. 


325 


Chap.  XVII.] 

most  ancient  of  Kurdish  families,  whose  records  for  many  hundred  years 
still  exist ; and  he  boasted  that  Sheikh  Tahar,  the  great  saint,  had  deemed 
him  the  only  chief  worthy,  from  his  independence  of  the  infidel  government 
of  the  Sultan,  to  receive  so  holy  a personage  as  himself  after  the  downfall 
of  Beder  Khan  Bey.  This  Sheikh  Tahar,  who,  as  the  main  instigator  of 
many  atrocious  massacres  of  the  Christians,  and  especially  of  the  Nestori- 
ans,  ought  to  have  been  pursued  into  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  mountains 
by  the  Turkish  troops,  and  hanged  as  a public  example,  was  now  suffering 
from  fever.  He  sent  to  me  for  medicine ; but  as  his  sanctity  would  not  per- 
mit him  to  see,  face  to  face,  an  unbelieving  Frank,  and  as  he  wished  to 
have  a remedy  without  going  through  the  usual  form  of  an  interview  with 
the  Doctor,  I declined  giving  him  any  help  in  the  matter. 

Mousa  Bey  was  at  this  time  almost  the  only  chief  in  Kurdistan  who  had 
not  yet  made  a formal  submission  to  the  Turkish  government.  His  terri- 
tories were,  therefore,  a place  of  refuge  to  those  fugitives  who,  less  fortu- 
nate than  himself,  had  been  driven  from  their  strongholds  by  the  arms  or 
intrigues  of  the  Porte.  He  bewailed  the  discords  which  severed  the  tribes, 
and  made  them  an  easy  prey  to  the  Osmanli.  It  is,  indeed,  fortunate  for 
the  Sultan  that  this  warlike  population,  extending  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Baghdad,  has  never  obeyed  one  head,  but  has  been 
split  into  a thousand  clans,  ever  engaged  in  their  petty  blood-feuds,  and 
opening,  for  the  sake  of  private  revenge,  their  almost  inaccessible  valleys 
and  mountains  to  the  common  enemy.  The  Turks,  wise  in  their  genera- 
tion, have  pursued  their  usual  policy  successfully  in  Kurdistan  ; the  dis- 
sensions of  the  chiefs  have  been  fomented,  and,  thus  divided,  they  have 
fallen  one  by  one  victims  to  treachery  or  to  force. 

In  Nera  are  many  Jewish  families,  who  make  a livelihood  by  weaving 
the  colored  woollen  stuffs  worn  by  the  Kurds.  The  Bishop  of  Shemisden 
(or  Shemdeena),  hearing  of  my  arrival,  sent  one  of  his  brothers  to  meet  me. 
He  came  to  us  in  the  evening,  and  inveighed  against  the  fanaticism  and 
tyranny  of  the  Bey,  who,  he  declared,  had  driven  many  Christians  from 
their  villages  into  Persia  ; on  the  morrow  I should  myself  witness  the  un- 
happy state  of  the  poor  Nestorians. 

We  rose  early  on  the  following  day,  and  left  Nera  long  before  the  pop- 
ulation was  stirring,  by  a very  steep  pathway,  winding  over  the  face  of 
a precipice,  and  completely  overhanging  the  village.  Reaching  the  top 
of  the  pass  we  came  upon  a natural  carpet  of  Alpine  flowers  of  every 
hue,  spread  over  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  mountain,  and  cooled  and 
moistened  by  the  snows  and  glaciers  which  fringed  the  deep  basin. 
The  valley  at  our  feet  was  the  Nestorian  district  of  Shemisden,  thick- 
ly set  with  Christian  villages,  the  first  of  which,  Bedewi,  we  reached 
after  passing  a few  cultivated  patches  cleared  from  the  forest  of  oaks. 
The  inhabitants  who  flocked  out  to  see  us  were  miserably  poor,  the  chil- 
dren starved  and  naked,  the  men  and  women  scarcely  half  covered  with 
rags.  Leaving  the  caravan  to  proceed  to  our  night’s  resting-place,  I turn- 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


325 


[Chap.  XVII. 


ed  down  the  valley  with  my  companions  to  visit  the  bishop  at  his  con- 
vent* of  Mar  Hananisho. 

A ride  of  three  quarters  of  an  hour  brought  us  to  the  episcopal  residence. 1 
Mar  Isho,  the  bishop,  met  me  at  some  distance  from  it.  He  was  shabbily 
dressed,  and  not  of  prepossessing  appearance  ; but  he  appeared  to  be  good- 
natured,  and  to  have  a fair  stock  of  common  sense.  After  we  had  ex- 
changed the  common  salutations,  seated  on  a bank  of  wild  thyme,  he  led 
the  way  to  the  porch  of  the  church.  Ragged  carpets  and  felts  had  been 
spread  in  the  dark  vestibule,  in  the  midst  of  sacks  of  corn,  bourghoul,  and 
other  provisions  for  the  bishop’s  establishment.  Various  rude  agricultural 
instruments,  and  spinning  wheels,  almost  filled  up  the  rest  of  the  room  ; 
for  these  primitive  Christians  rely  on  the  sanctity  of  their  places  of  worship 
for  the  protection  of  their  temporal  stores. 

The  church  itself  was  entered  by  a low  doorway,  through  which  a man 
of  moderate  size  could  scarcely  squeeze  himself,  and  was  even  darker  than 
the  anteroom.  It  is  an  ancient  building,  and  the  bishop  knew  nothing  of 
the  date  of  its  foundation.  Although  service  is  occasionally  performed,  the 
communion  is  not  administered  in  it.  One  or  two  tattered  parchment 
folios,  whose  title-pages  were  unfortunately  wanting,  but  which  were  evi- 
dently of  an  early  period,  were  heaped  up  in  a corner  with  a few  modern 
manuscripts  on  paper,  the  prey  of  mildew  and  insects.  The  title  of  the 
bishop  is  “ Metropolitan  of  Roustak,”  a name  of  which  I could  not  learn 
the  origin.  His  jurisdiction  extends  over  many  Nestorian  villages  chiefly 
in  the  valley  of  Shemisden. $ Half  of  this  district  is  within  the  Persian 
territories,  and  from  the  convent  we  could  see  the  frontier  dominions  of  the 
Shah.  It  is  in  the  high  road  of  the  periodical  migrations  of  the  great  tribe 
of  Herki,  who  pass  like  a locust-cloud  twice  a year  over  the  settlements  of 
the  unfortunate  Christians,  driving  before  them  the  flocks,  spoiling  the 
granaries,  and  carrying  away  even  the  miserable  furniture  of  the  hovels. 
It  is  in  vain  that  the  sufferers  carry  their  complaints  to  their  Kurdish  mas- 
ter ; he  takes  from  them  double  the  lawful  taxes  and  tithes.  The  Turkish 
government  has  in  this  part  of  the  mountains  no  power,  if  it  had  the  in- 
clination, to  protect  its  Christian  subjects. 

After  we  had  partaken  of  the  frugal  breakfast  of  milk,  honey,  and  fruit 

* As  I have  used  the  word  convent,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  that 
the  Nestorians  have  no  establishments  answering  to  Roman  Catholic  places  of  re- 
tirement, and  that  monastic  vows  are  not  taken  by  them. 

t The  height  of  the  convent  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is,  by  observation,  6625  feet. 

t The  following  are  the  villages  in  the  valley  of  Shemisden,  or  Shemdeena.  Those 
marked  K.  are  inhabited  by  Mussulman  Kurds,  those  with  an  N.  by  Nestorians : — 
Butaimo  (N.),  Bedewi  (N.),  Benerwi  (K.),  Sheikhan  (K.),  Bakurt  (K.),  Souri  (K.),  Be- 
babi  (N.),  Bemulli  (K.),  Fakkayien  (K.),  Tatte  (K.),  Mezrai  (K.),  Beburka  (K.),  Khusna 
(K.),  Gurdekki  (K.),  Jemanan  (K.),  Shaweeta  (K.),  Gaouna  Gundi  (K.),  Maseru  (K.), 
Gara  (K.),  Bedinari  (K.),  Mullai  (K.),  Galaishim  (K),  Peshkalan  (K),  Madrita  (K), 
Bale  (K.),  Katoona  (N.  and  K.),  Hallana  (N).  The  remaining  Nestorian  villages  in 
the  district  of  Shemisden  are  Souraserri,  Hallan,  Teis,  Nerdoosa,  Tallana,  Harounan, 
Serdost,  Deriean,  Serunos,  Derrieya,  Mar  Isho,  Beyghirdi,  and  Bentur. 


PLAIN  OF  GHAOUR. 


327 


Chap.  XVII.] 

prepared  for  us  by  the  bishop,  we  turned  again  into  the  high  road  to  Bash- 
Kalah.  We  had  another  pass  to  cross  before  descending  into  the  valley  of 
Harouna,  where  our  caravan  had  encamped  for  the  night.  On  the  mount- 
ain top  were  several  Nestorian  families  crouching,  half  naked,  for  shelter 
beneath  a projecting  rock.  They  seized  the  bridles  of  our  horses  as  we 
rode  by,  beseeching  us  to  help  them  to  recover  their  little  property,  which, 
but  a few  hours  before,  had  been  swept  away  by  a party  of  Herki  Kurds. 
I could  do  nothing  for  these  poor  people,  who  seemed  in  the  last  stage  of 
misery.  On  the  other  side  of  the  valley  we  spied  the  black  tent  of  the 
robbers,  and  their  vast  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  horses  roving  over  the 
green  pastures.  Their  encampments  were  scattered  over  the  uplands  even 
to  the  borders  of  the  snow,  and  to  the  feet  of  the  bare  perpendicular  peaks 
forming  the  highest  crests  of  the  mountains.  We  were  not  certain  what 
our  own  fate  might  be,  were  we  to  fall  in  with  a band  of  these  notorious 
marauders. 

From  the  summit  of  the  pass  we  looked  down  into  two  deep  and  well- 
wooded  valleys,  hemmed  in  by  mountains  of  singularly  picturesque  form. 
In  that  to  the  left  we  could  indistinctly  see  two  large  villages,  Erawa  and 
Serunos,  the  latter  once  the  dwelling-place  of  the  Mirs  of  Shemdeena.  We 
descended  into  the  more  northern  valley,  and  passing  the  miserable  Nes- 
torian  hamlet  of  Sourasor,  and  the  ruined  church  and  deserted  Christian 
village  of  Tellana,  reached  our  tents  about  sunset.  They  were  pitched 
near  Harouna,  whose  Nestorian  inhabitants  were  too  poor  to  furnish  us  with 
even  the  common  coarse  black  bread  of  barley. 

A low  ridge  separated  us  from  the  district  of  Ghaour  or  Ghiaver,  a re- 
markable plain  of  considerable  extent ; the  basin,  it  would  seem,  of  some 
ancient  lake,  and  now  a vast  morass,  receiving  the  drainage  of  the  great 
mountains  which  surround  it.  To  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  a perfect  wall 
of  rock,  from  which  spring  the  lofty  snow-clad  peaks  of  Jelu,  the  highest 
of  central  Kurdistan.  To  the  east,  a line  of  hills  form  the  frontier  limits 
of  Turkey  and  Persia.  We  had  now  quitted  the  semi-independent  Kurd- 
ish valleys,  and  had  entered  the  newly-created  province  of  Hakkiari,  gov- 
erned by  a Pasha,  who  resides  at  Bash-Kalah.  The  plain  of  Ghaour  is, 
however,  exposed  to  the  depredations  of  the  Herki  Kurds,  who,  when  pur- 
sued by  the  Turkish  troops,  seek  a secure  retreat  in  their  rocky  fastnesses, 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  pashalic. 

The  district  contains  many  villages,  inhabited  by  a hardy  and  industri- 
ous race  of  Nestorian  Christians.  The  American  missionaries  of  Ooroomi- 
yah  have  crossed  the  frontier  since  my  visit,  and  have,  I am  informed, 
opened  schools  in  them  with  encouraging  prospects  of  success.  Ghaour  is 
a Nestorian  bishopric. 

We  were  obliged  to  follow  a track  over  the  low  hills  skirting  the  plains 
in  order  to  avoid  the  marsh.  On  its  very  edge  we  passed  several  Kurd- 
ish villages,  the  houses  being  mere  holes  in  the  earth,  almost  hidden  by 
heaps  of  dry  dung  collected  for  fuel.  The  snow  lies  deep  in  this  elevated 


328 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVII. 


region  more  than  half  the  year,  and  all  communication  is  cut  off  with  the 
rest  of  the  world,  except  to  the  adventurous  footman  who  dares  brave  the 
dangers  of  the  mountain  storm.  During  the  summer  the  moist  earth 
brings  forth  an  abundance  of  flowers,  and  the  plain  was  now  chequered 
with  many-colored  patches.  Here  and  there  were  small  fields  of  grain, 
which  had  just  time  to  ripen  between  the  snows  of  the  long  winters.  The 
husbandman  with  his  rude  plough,  drawn  sometimes  by  ten  buffaloes,  was 
even  now  preparing  the  heavy  soil  for  the  seed.  The  cold  is  too  great  for 
the  cultivation  of  barley,*  of  fruits,  and  even  of  most  vegetables,  and  there 
is  not  a solitary  tree  in  the  plain.  The  supplies  of  the  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  derived  from  Persia. 

A ride  of  six  hours  and  a half  brought  us  to  the  large  village  of  Dizza, 
the  chief  place  of  the  district,  and  the  residence  of  a Turkish  Mudir,  or  pet- 
ty governor.  This  office  was  filled  by  one  Adel  Bey,  the  brother  of  Izzet, 
the  Pasha  of  the  province.  A small  force  of  regular  and  irregular  troops 
was  quartered  with  him  on  the  inhabitants,  and  he  had  two  guns  to  awe 
the  Kurds  of  the  neighbourhood.  Soon  after  my  arrival  I called  on  him 
Seated  near  him  on  the  divan  I found  my  old  friend  Ismail  Agha  of  Tepe- 
lin,  who  had  shown  me  hospitality  three  years  before  in  the  ruined  castle 
of  Amadiyah.f  He  was  now  in  command  of  the  Albanian  troops  forming 
part  of  the  garrison.  A change  had  come  over  him  since  we  last  met. 
The  jacket  and  arms  which  had  once  glittered  with  gold,  were  now  greasy 
and  dull.  His  face  was  as  worn  as  his  garments.  After  a cordial  greet- 
ing he  made  me  a long  speech  on  his  fortunes,  and  on  that  of  Albanian  ir- 
regulars in  general.  “ Ah  ! Bey,”  said  he,  “ the  power  and  wealth  of  the 
Osmanlis  is  at  an  end.  The  Sultan  has  no  longer  any  authority.  The  ac- 
cursed Tanzimat  (Reform)  has  been  the  ruin  of  all  good  men.  Why,  see 
Bey,  I am  obliged  to  live  upon  my  prey ; I cannot  eat  from  the  treasury, 
nor  can  I squeeze  a piastre — what  do  I say,  a piastre  ? not  a miserable 
half-starved  fowl,  out  of  the  villagers,  even  though  they  be  Christians. 
Forsooth  they  must  talk  to  me  about  reform,  and  ask  for  money  ! The  Al- 
banian’s occupation  is  gone.  Even  Tafil-Bousi  (a  celebrated  Albanian 
condottiere)  smokes  his  pipe,  and  becomes  fat  like  a Turk.  It  is  the  will 
of  God.  I have  foresworn  raki,  I believe  in  the  Koran,  and  I keep  Ram- 
azan.” 

The  night  was  exceedingly  cold.  The  change  from  the  heat  of  the 
plains  to  the  cool  nights  of  the  mountains  had  made  havoc  amongst  our 
party.  Nearly  all  our  servants  were  laid  up  with  fever,  as  well  as  the 
Doctor  and  Mr.  Walpole,  who  had  rarely  been  free  from  its  attacks  during 
the  journey.  I could  not,  however,  delay,  and  on  the  following  morning 
our  sickly  caravan  was  again  toiling  over  the  hills.  We  had  now  entered 
the  Armenian  districts.  The  Christian  inhabitants  of  Dizza  are  of  that 
race  and  faith.  From  the  elevated  plain  of  Ghaour  a series  of  valleys 

* The  plain  of  Ghaour  is,  by  observation,  6493  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  163. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  ZAB. 


329 


Chap.  XVII.] 

leads  to  Bash-Kalah,  and  the  stream  which  winds  through  them  joins  the 
head  waters  of  the  Zab.  We  encamped  for  the  night  at  the  Kurdish  vil- 
lage of  Perauniss. 

Next  day,  near  the  village  of  Charderrah  (the  four  valleys),  we  passed 
some  ponds  of  muddy  water,  bubbling  with  gaseous  exhalations  of  a sul- 
phurous smell, # and  reached  in  the  afternoon  Antiss,  inhabited  by  Arme- 
nians and  Nestorians. 

Lower  down  the  same  valley  we  found  several  mineral  springs,  deposit- 
ing large  quantities  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  fantastic  forms,  and  converting 
into  stone  all  that  they  touched.  Basins,  one  rising  above  the  other  like 
those  of  an  artificial  fountain,  received  the  trickling  water  as  it  issued  from 
long  conduits,  which  appeared  to  be  cut  through  the  whitest  marble.  Here 
and  there  gas  issued  from  the  earth  with  a hissing  noise,  but  the  temper- 
ature of  the  spring  was  not  higher  than  that  of  the  pools  we  had  examined 
the  day  before. 

The  branch  of  the  Zab,  which  we  had  seen  gradually  swollen  by  small 
mountain  rills,  had  become  a considerable  stream.  We  forded  it  near  the 
ruins  of  a fine  bridge,  apparently  of  early  Turkish  masonry,  and  beneath  an 
old  deserted  castle  called  Kalianon.  We  now  entered  the  valley  of  this 
great  confluent  of  the  Tigris,  its  principal  source  being  but  a few  miles  to 
the  north  of  us,  near  the  frontiers  of  Persia.  The  land  is  so  heavy,  that  the 
rude  plough  of  the  country  requires  frequently  as  many  as  eight  pairs  of 
oxen.  The  Armenian  ploughmen  sit  on  the  yokes,  and  whilst  guiding  or 
urging  the  beasts  with  a long  iron-pointed  goad,  chant  a monotonous  ditty, 
to  which  the  animals  appear  so  well  accustomed,  that  when  the  driver 
ceases  from  his  dirge,  they  also  stop  from  their  labors. 

A dell  near  our  path  was  pointed  out  to  me  as  the  spot  where  the  unfor- 
tunate traveller  Schulz  was  murdered  by  Nur  Ullah  Bey,  the  Kurdish 
chief  of  Hakkiari.f  Turning  up  a narrow  valley  towards  the  high  mount- 
ains, we  suddenly  came  in  sight  of  the  castle  of  Bash-Kalah,  one  of  the 
ancient  strongholds  of  Kurdistan.  Its  position  is  remarkably  picturesque. 
It  stands  on  a lofty  rock,  jutting  out  from  the  mountains  which  rise  in  a per- 
pendicular wall  behind  it.  At  its  foot  are  grouped  the  houses  of  a village. 

* The  highest  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  escape  of  gas  was  82°  ; that  of  the 
atmosphere  71°. 

t I subsequently  met  in  the  Nestorian  district  of  Baz,  a Christian,  who  was  in  the 
service  of  Nur  Ullah  Bey  at  the  time  of  the  murder,  and  was  employed  to  bury  the 
body.  According  to  him,  Schulz,  who  passed  by  the  name  of  Yohanan,  was  taken 
by  the  guides,  furnished  him  by  a Persian  Prince,  to  Nur  Ullah  Bey,  instead  of  to  Mar 
Shamoon,  whom  he  intended  to  visit.  He  was  described  in  a letter  sent  to  the  Kurd- 
ish chief  as  a dangerous  man,  who  was  spying  out  the  country ; an  impression  which 
was  confirmed  by  his  habit  of  making  notes  continually  and  openly.  He  remained  ten 
days  with  the  Bey,  and  then  continued  his  journey  accompanied  by  Kurdish  guards, 
who  killed  him  by  their  master’s  orders  beside  a stream  called  Av  Spiresa,  near  the 
castle  of  Pisa,  close  to  Bash-Kalah.  Two  of  his  Christian  servants  were  murdered  with 
him : his  two  Persian  attendants  were  taken  to  Nur  Ullah  Bey,  and  also  put  to  death. 


330 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVII. 


We  were  met  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village  hy  the  Muhrdar,  or  seal- 
bearer,  of  the  Pasha,  with  an  escort  of  cawasses.  He  led  us  to  a convenient 
spot  for  our  tents,  near  a spring,  and  shortly  after  brought  provisions  for 
ourselves  and  horses,  sent  by  the  governor,  who,  it  being  early  in  the  after- 
noon, was  still  in  bed  after  his  night’s  vigils.  It  was  not  until  long  after 
dark  that  I visited  Izzet  Pasha.  I found  him  encamped  at  a considerable 
elevation  in  a rocky  ravine,*  which  we  reached,  guided  hy  cawasses  carry- 
ing huge  glass  lanterns,  by  a very  precipitous  and  difficult  track.  A small 
rivulet  had  been  dammed  up  in  front  of  his  tents  and  formed  a reservoir 
which  mirrored  the  red  light  of  a number  of  torches. 

I remained  with  him  until  the  night  was  far  advanced,  and  then  return- 
ed tq  our  encampment.  He  informed  me  that  there  was  a direct  road  from 
Bash-Kalah  to  Mosul  of  forty  hours,  through  Beit-Shehhet,  Daoudiyah,  and 
Dohuk,  which,  with  very  little  labor  and  expense,  could  be  made  practica- 
ble for  guns.  Izzet  Pasha’s  province,  formed  out  of  the  territories  of  several 
Kurdish  chiefs  who  had  been  recently  captured  and  sent  in  exile  to  distant 
parts  of  the  empire,  consisted  principally  of  the  district  of  A1  Bagh  (of  which 
Bash-Kalah  is  the  chief  place),  the  mountainous  regions  of  Hakkiari,  with 
the  Nestorian  valleys,  Berwari  and  Amadiyah.  The  whole  of  this  country 
had,  for  the  first  time,  been  brought  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
Porte.  The  Pasha  was  desirous  of  ascertaining  its  resources,  and  especially 
the  extent  of  its  mineral  wealth,  of  which  exaggerated  reports  had  reached 
Constantinople.  The  inexperienced  officers  sent  to  survey  his  pashalic,  had 
already  discovered  one  or  two  mines,  the  most  profitable  hitherto  being  one 
of  arsenic,  'which  he  had  farmed  on  advantageous  terms  to  some  Armenian 
merchants. 

Bash-Kalah  was  formerly  the  dwelling-place  of  Nur  Ullah  Bey,  a Kurd- 
ish chief  well  known  for  his  rapacious  and  blood-thirsty  character,  and  as 
the  murderer  of  Schulz.  He  joined  Beder  Khan  Bey  in  the  great  massa- 
cres of  the  Nestorians,  and  for  many  years  sorely  vexed  those  Christians 
wrho  were  within  his  rule.  After  a long  resistance  to  the  troops  of  the 
Sultan,  he  was  captured  about  two  years  before  my  visit,  and  banished  for 
life  to  the  island  of  Candia.  Late  at  night  I visited  Wali  Pasha,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Turkish  troops,  who  resided  in  the  stronghold  of  the  for- 
mer chief.  I reached  the  harem,  then  occupied  by  the  general,  through 
many  dark  passages  leading  from  the  arched  gateway.  The  walls  and 
towers  are  ill-built,  and  it  was  chiefly  owing  to  its  inaccessible  position 
that  the  castle  was  so  long  able  to  defy  the  undisciplined  forces  sent 
against  it. 

My  companions  and  servants  being  much  in  want  of  rest,  I stopped  a day 
at  Bash-Kalah.  On  resuming  our  journey  we  took  a direct  though  difficult 
track  to  Wan,  only  open  in  the  middle  of  summer.  Following  a small 
stream,  we  entered  a ravine  leading  into  the  very  heart  of  the  mountains. 

* The  place  of  our  encampment  at  Bash-Kalah  was,  by  observation,  7818  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 


A JEWISH  ENCAMPMENT. 


331 


Chap.  XVII.] 

Three  hours’  ride,  always  rapidly  ascending  along  the  hanks  of  the  rivulet, 
brought  us  to  a large  encampment.  The  flocks  had  been  driven  down  from 
the  higher  pastures,  and  were  gathered  together  to  he  milked  before  the 
black  tents.  A party  of  women  already  crouched  round  their  sheep.  Their 
long  hair  was  platted  in  tresses  ending  in  tassels  mingled  with  gold  coins. 
From  a high  turban  of  gay  colors,  also  adorned  with  coins,  a thin  white 
veil  fell  over  their  shoulders,  and  their  flowing  garments  were  of  bright 
silk.  The  children  ran  to  and  fro  with  wooden  howls,  and  a girl  standing 
near  sang  a plaintive  air,  heating  the  measure  on  a tambourine.  The  feat- 
ures of  the  women  and  of  the  men,  who  came  out  of  their  tents  as  we  rode 
up,  as  well  as  the  tongue  in  which  they  addressed  one  another,  showed  at 
once  that  they  were  not  Kurds.  They  were  Jews,  shepherds,  and  wander- 
ers, of  the  stock,  may  be,  of  those  who,  with  their  high  priest  Hyrcanus, 
were  carried  away  captive  from  Jerusalem  by  Tigranes  in  the  second  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  and  placed  in  the  city  and  neighbourhood  of  Wan.  Their 
descendants,  two  hundred  years  after,  were  already  so  numerous  that  Sha- 
pour  (Sapores)  II.  destroyed  no  less  than  10,000  families  in  Wan  alone.* 

We  encamped  near  the  Jewish  nomades,  and  I visited  their  tents,  but 
could  learn  nothing  of  their  history.  They  fed  their  flocks,  as  their  fathers 
had  done  before  them,  in  these  hills,  and  paid  taxes  to  the  governor  of 
Bash-Kalah.  There  were  many  other  families,  keepers  of  sheep  like  them- 
selves, scattered  over  the  mountains  ; they  were  shepherds  again,  as  they 
had  been  when  they  were  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians. 

We  had  now  reached  the  higher  regions  of  Kurdistan. f Next  morning 
we  soon  left  the  narrow  flowery  valley  and  the  brawling  stream,  and  en- 
tered an  undulating  upland  covered  with  deep  snow,  considerably  more 
than  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  On  all  sides  of  us  were 
towering  peaks,  and  to  the  west  a perfect  sea  of  mountains,  including  the 
lofty  ranges  of  Hakkiari  and  Bohtan.  Far  away  to  the  north  was  the 
azure  basin  of  Lake  Wan,  and  beyond  it  rose  the  solitary  white  cone  of  the 
Subhan  Dagh.  A light  wind  drove  a few  fleecy  clouds  across  the  sunny 
landscape,  now  veiling  some  distant  hill,  now  hiding  in  shadow  the  deep 
valleys.  A covey  of  large  birds  sailed  with  a rapid  swoop,  and  with  the 
whistling  sound  peculiar  to  the  partridge  kind,  from  an  opposite  height,  and 
alighted  within  a few  yards  of  me.  They  were  the  Kabk-i-dereh,  or  the 
Our-kaklik  as  they  are  called  by  the  Turks  ; a gigantic  partridge,  almost 
the  size  of  a small  turkey,  only  found  in  the  highest  regions  of  Armenia  and 
Kurdistan. 

Descending  rapidly,  and  passing,  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  one  or 
two  miserable,  half-deserted  Kurdish  hamlets,  we  entered  a long  narrow 
ravine,  shut  in  by  perpendicular  cliffs  of  sandstone  and  conglomerate. 
This  outlet  of  the  mountain  streams  opens  into  the  valley  of  Mahmoudiyah, 

* Moses  of  Chorene,  1.  ii.  c.  19.  St.  Martin,  Mem.  sur  l’Annenie,  vol.  i.  p.  139. 
These  Jews,  I am  assured,  indulge,  like  their  Mussulman  neighbours,  in  polygamy. 

t The  Jewish  encampment  was  9076  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


332 


[Chap.  XVII. 


in  the  centre  ol  which  rises  an  isolated  rock  crowned  by  the  picturesque 
castle  of  Kosh-Ab. 

We  pitched  our  tents  on  a green  lawn,  near  the  bank  of  the  foaming 
stream  which  sweeps  round  the  foot  of  the  castellated  rock.  Soon  after 
our  arrival  a Kurdish  Bey,  of  venerable  appearance,  a descendant  of  the 
hereditary  chiefs  of  Mahmoudiyah,  called  upon  me.  He  had  once  been  the 
owner  of  the  castle,  but  had  been  driven  from  it  by  an  adventurer  of  some 
celebrity  in  this  part  of  Kurdistan.  This  marauder  had  recently  been 
captured  by  the  Turks,  who  had  seized  his  property,  but  had  not  restored 
it  to  its  rightful  owner.  The  village,  once  a town,  whose  ruined  mosques, 
baths,  and  bridges  still  remain,  was  named  Mahmoudiyah,  after  a certain 
Mahmoud  Bey,  who  was  of  the  noble  Kurdish  family  claiming  lineal  de- 
scent from  the  Abbasside  Caliphs,  of  which  the  Bey  of  Jezireh,  or  Bohtan, 
is  the  acknowledged  head.  The  castle,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is 
called  Nerin,  or  more  generally  Kosh-Ab,  “ the  sweet  water,”  from  the 
pure  stream  flowing  beneath  it.  Two  brothers,  named  Khan  Murad  and 
Khan  Abdal,  mere  mountain  robbers,  brought  together  some  years  ago  a 
band  of  followers  who  laid  waste  this  part  of  Kurdistan.  Khan  Abdal, 
by  a sudden  night  attack,  seized  the  castle  of  Kosh-Ab,  and  soon  subdued 
the  surrounding  country.  In  this  stronghold  the  brothers  long  defied  the 
Turkish  government,  levying  black-mail  upon  such  caravans  as  ventured 
to  pass  through  their  territories,  and  oppressing  with  fines  and  forced  con- 
versions their  Christian  subjects.  It  was  but  the  year  before  our  visit 
that  they  had  yielded  to  the  troops  sent  against  them,  and  had  been  sent 
into  banishment,  with  the  rest  of  the  rebel  chiefs,  to  Candia. 

With  the  Kurdish  Bey  came  one  Ahmed  Agha,  a chief  of  the  large  border 
tribe  of  Mogri,  an  intelligent  man,  who  conversed  freely  on  the  state  of  the 
country,  and  gave  me  some  interesting  information  regarding  the  frontiers. 
The  fear  of  the  conscription  has  driven  many  families  into  Persia,  and  into 
the  more  independent  districts  of  Kurdistan.  On  the  whole,  the  wander- 
ing tribes  are  becoming  less  formidable  to  the  Porte  than  they  formerly 
were.  The  northern  frontiers  between  Turkey  and  Persia  are  no  less  un- 
settled than  the  southern.  The  tribes  that  inhabit  them  refusing  allegi- 
ance to  both  governments,  and  receiving  encouragement  from  both  in  ag- 
gressions upon  their  neighbours,  have  hitherto  been  sure  of  a place  of  ref- 
uge by  crossing  the  border,  when  their  depredations  have  at  length  driven 
either  power  to  send  a military  expedition  against  them.  A commission 
was  finally  named  by  the  two  Mohammedan  states,  in  conjunction  with 
England  and  Russia,  to  settle  the  long-vexed  question  of  the  boundaries, 
which,  in  1841,  nearly  led  to  a war  between  them.  Diplomatic  difficul- 
ties and  national  jealousies,  embittered  by  religious  differences,  have  hith- 
erto retarded  the  labors  of  this  joint  commission ; but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that, 
by  the  help  of  the  European  officers  who  are  members  of  it,  the  survey  will 
ere  long  be  completed,  and  the  terms  proposed  be  accepted.  The  uncer- 
tainty which  has  so  long  existed  as  to  the  nationality  of  the  various  front- 


CASTLE  OF  KOSH-AB. 


333 


Chap.  XYIL] 

ier  tribes  will  then  be  set  at  rest,  and  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  the 
unsettled  states  ofKurdistan,  and  of  the  frequent  disputes  between  the  two 
powers,  will  be  removed. 

To  the  east  of  the  district  of  Mahmoudiyah,  and  in  that  of  Karasou,  are 
many  Yezidi  villages  and  a considerable  Jewish  population.*  Both  races 
are  much  oppressed  by  the  Kurdish  chiefs,  who  take  their  property,  and 
even  their  lives,  with  perfect  indifference,  “ the  Cadis,”  as  Ahmed  Agha 
informed  me,  “having  given  fetwahs  (decrees)  that  both  were  lawful  to 
the  true  believer.” 

We  rose  early  next  morning,  and  went  up  to  the  castle.  As  it  was  still 
Ramazan,  the  small  garrison  of  regular  troops  and  undisciplined  Albanians 
had  feasted  during  the  night,  and  were  now  sleeping.  We  knocked  at  the 
iron-bound  gate  for  some  time  without  arousing  the  slumberers.  At  length 
a slipshod  sentinel,  who  appeared  to  have  been  fast  asleep  at  his  post  drew 
back  the  rusty  bolts.  He  would  not,  however,  admit  us,  until  he  had 
received  orders  from  the  officer  in  command,  who,  with  much  good-nature, 
slipt  on  a threadbare  uniform,  turned  out  the  scarcely  awakened  guard, 
and  received  us  with  military  honors.  The  castle  is  falling  into  ruins, 
though  its  towers  still  rise  boldly  from  the  edge  of  the  precipice,  overhang- 
ing at  a giddy  height  the  valley  below.  In  them,  open  to  the  cool  breezes 
of  the  mountain,  are  the  dwelling-rooms  of  the  old  Kurdish  chiefs,  adorned 
with  tasteful  lattice-work,  and  with  the  painted  panellings  and  gilded 
cornices  of  Persia.  They  are  now  tenanted  by  the  Turkish  troops,  whose 
bright  arms  and  highly-polished  kitchen  utensils  hang  on  the  gaudy  walls. 
A few  long  brass  guns  richly  embossed,  the  work  of  the  early  Turkish  con- 
querors of  Kurdistan,  lie,  upset  from  their  carriages,  on  the  crumbling  bat- 
tlements. After  drinking  coffee  and  smoking  pipes  with  the  captain  of 
the  guard,  we  walked  down  the  narrow  pathway  leading  to  the  valley,  and, 
mounting  our  horses,  joined  the  caravan,  which  had  preceded  us  on  the 
road  to  Wan. 

Hormuzd  having  been  seized  with  a severe  attack  of  fever,  and  a heavy 
storm  breaking  over  us,  we  stopped,  after  a ride  of  about  fourteen  miles,  at 
the  Armenian  village  of  Hindostan,  situated  in  a rich  but  thinly-peopled 
valley,  called  Khawassan.  On  the  following  morning  we  crossed  this  val- 
ley to  Nourtchouk,  at  the  outskirts  of  which  I was  met  by  the  priest  at  the 
head  of  the  inhabitants.  A range  of  low  hills  now  separated  us  from  the 
plain  and  lake  of  Wan.  "We  soon  reached  their  crest,  and  a landscape  of 
surpassing  beauty  was  before  us.  At  our  feet,  intensely  blue  and  spark 
ling  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  was  the  inland  sea,  with  the  sublime  peak  of 
the  Subhan  Dagh,  mirrored  in  its  transparent  waters.  The  city,  with  its 
castle-crowned  rock  and  its  embattled  walls  and  towers,  lay  embowered 

* Amongst  the  Jewish  population  scattered  widely  over  this  part  of  ancient  Media, 
might  be  sought  the  descendants  of  the  ten  tribes,  with  more  probability  than  in  the 
various  lands  which  ingenious  speculation  has  pointed  out  as  the  dwelling-places  of 
the  remnant  of  Israel. 


334 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVII. 


in  orchards  and  gardens.  To  our  right  a rugged  snow-capped  mountain 
opened  midway  into  an  amphitheatre,  in  which,  amidst  lofty  trees,  stood 
the  Armenian  convent  of  Yedi  Klissia  (the  seven  churches).  To  the  west 
of  the  lake  was  the  Nimroud  Dagh,  and  the  highlands  nourishing  the 
sources  of  the  great  rivers  of  Mesopotamia.  The  hills  forming  the  fore- 
ground of  our  picture  were  carpeted  with  the  brightest  flowers,  over  which 
wandered  the  flocks,  whilst  the  gaily  dressed  shepherds  gathered  around  us 
as  we  halted  to  contemplate  the  enchanting  scene. 

'VYe  now  descended  rapidly  towards  Wan,  and  as  we  issued  into  the  plain, 
a party  of  horsemen  galloped  towards  us.  I soon  recognised  amongst  them 
my  friend  Mr.  Bowen ; with  him  wrere  the  Cawass-Bashi  and  a troop  of 
irregular  cavalry,  sent  out  by  the  Pasha  to  escort  me  into  the  city.  Nor 
did  the  governor’s  kindness  end  with  this  display  of  welcome.  After  wind- 
ing for  nearly  an  hour  through  orchards  and  gardens,  whose  trees  were 
bending  under  the  weight  of  fruit,  and  then  through  the  narrow  and  crowd- 
ed streets,  we  were  led  to  his  serai  or  palace,  which,  such  as  it  was,  had 
been  made  ready  for  our  use,  and  where  his  treasurer  was  waiting  to  re- 
ceive us.  Notwithstanding  the  fast,  an  abundant  breakfast  of  various  meats 
and  sweet  messes,  cooked  after  the  Turkish  fashion,  had  been  prepared  for 
us,  and  we  soon  found  repose  upon  a spacious  divan,  surrounded  by  all  the 
luxuries  of  Eastern  life. 


The  Castle  of  Mahmoudiyah. 


\ 


Kurds  of  Wan. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

MEHEMET  PASHA. DESCRIPTION  OF  WAN. ITS  HISTORY. IMPROVEMENT  IN  ITS  CONDI- 
TION.  THE  ARMENIAN  BISHOP. THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS. — THE  CAVES  OF  KHOR- 

KHOR. THE  MEHER  KAPOUSI. A TRADITION. OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  INSCRIPTIONS. 

TABLE  OF  KINGS  MENTIONED  IN  THEM. THE  BAIRAM. AN  ARMENIAN  SCHOOL. 

THE  AMERICAN  MISSIONS. PROTESTANT  MOVEMENT  IN  TURKEY. AMIKH. THE  CON- 

VENT OF  YEDI  KLISSIA. 

Mehemet  Pasha  was  living  during  the  fast  of  Ramazan  in  a kiosk  in 
one  of  the  gardens  outside  the  city  walls.  We  had  scarcely  eaten,  before 
he  came  himself  to  welcome  us  to  Wan.  He  was  the  son  of  the  last  Bos- 
tandji-Basha  of  Constantinople,  and  having  been  brought  up  from  a child 
in  the  imperial  palace,  was  a man  of  pleasing  and  dignified  manners,  and 
of  considerable  information.  Although  he  had  never  left  his  native  coun- 
try, he  was  not  ignorant  of  the  habits  and  customs  of  Europe.  He  had 
long  served  the  Sultan  in  difficult  and  responsible  posts,  and  to  his  discre- 
tion and  sagacity  was  chiefly  to  be  attributed  the  subjugation  of  Beder- 
Khan  Bey  and  the  rebel  Kurdish  tribes.  His  rule  was  mild  and  concili- 
ating, and  he  possessed  those  qualities  so  rare  in  a Turkish  governor,  yet 
so  indispensable  to  the  civilisation  and  well-being  of  the  empire, — a strict 
honesty  in  the  administration  of  the  revenues  of  his  province,  and  a sense 
of  justice  beyond  the  reach  of  bribes.  From  Christians  and  Kurds  we  had 
received,  during  our  journey  through  his  pashalic,  the  highest  testimony  to 
his  tolerance  and  integrity. 

In  the  evening  I returned  his  visit,  and  found  him  surrounded  by  the 
chiefs  and  elders  of  the  city,  and  by  the  officers  of  his  household.  I sat 


336 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYIII. 


with  him  till  midnight,  the  time  passing  in  that  agreeable  conversation 
which  a well-educated  Turk  so  well  knows  how  to  sustain. 

I remained  a week  at  Wan,  chiefly  engaged  in  copying  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions, and  in  examining  its  numerous  remarkable  monuments  of  an- 
tiquity. 

The  city  is  of  very  ancient  date.  It  stands  on  the  borders  of  a large  and 
beautiful  lake,  a site  eminently  suited  to  a prosperous  community.  The 
lofty  mountains  bordering  the  inland  sea  to  the  east,  here  recede  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre,  leaving  a rich  plain  five  or  six  miles  in  breadth, 
in  the  midst  of  which  rises  an  isolated,  calcareous  rock.  To  the  summit  of 
this  natural  stronghold  there  is  no  approach,  except  on  the  western  side, 
where  a gradual  but  narrow  ascent  is  defended  by  walls  and  bastions. 
From  the  earliest  ages  it  has  consequently  been  the  acropolis  of  the  city, 
and  no  position  could  be  stronger  before  the  discovery  of  the  engines  of 
modern  warfare.  The  fortifications  and  castle,  of  a comparatively  recent 
date,  are  now  in  ruins,  and  are  scarcely  defensible,  with  their  few  rusty 
guns,  against  the  attacks  of  the  neighboring  Kurds. 

According  to  Armenian  history,  the  Assyrian  queen  Semiramis  founded 
the  city,  which,  after  her,  was  originally  named  Schamiramjerd.  Here,  in 
the  delicious  gardens  which  she  had  planted  in  the  fertile  plain,  and  which 
she  had  watered  with  a thousand  rills,  she  sought  refuge  from  the  intoler- 
able heats  of  a Mesopotamian  summer,  returning  again,  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  to  her  palaces  at  Nineveh. 

The  first  city  having  fallen  to  decay,  it  is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt, 
shortly  before  the  invasion  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  an  Armenian  king 
named  Wan,  after  whom  it  was  subsequently  called.  It  appears  to  have 
been  again  abandoned,  for  we  find  that  it  was  once  more  raised  from  its 
foundations  in  the  second  century  b.  c.  by  Yagharschag,  the  first  king  of 
the  Arsacian  dynasty  of  Armenia,  who  made  it  the  strongest  city  in  the 
kingdom.  In  the  eleventh  century  it  was  ceded  by  the  royal  family  of 
the  Ardzrounis  to  the  Greek  emperors,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the 
Seljuk  Turks.  It  fell,  in  1392,  into  the  hands  of  Timourlane,  who,  accord- 
ing to  his  custom,  gave  the  inhabitants  over  to  the  sword.  Even  in  his 
day,  the  great  monuments  of  solid  stone,  raised  by  the  Assyrian  queen, 
were  still  shown  to  the  stranger. 

Moses  of  Chorene,  the  early  historian  of  Armenia,  has  faithfully  described 
its  position  and  its  antiquities ; the  isolated  hill,  rising  in  the  midst  of  a 
broad  plain  covered  with  flourishing  villages,  and  watered  by  innumerable 
streams  ; the  chapels,  chambers,  treasuries,  and  caverns  cut  in  the  living 
rock,  and  the'  great  inscriptions  written,  as  it  were,  on  the  face  of  the  prec- 
ipice, as  pages  are  written  with  a pen  on  wax.  Twelve  thousand  work- 
men and  six  thousand  master  masons  were  employed,  he  declares,  by  Sem- 
iramis to  execute  those  mighty  works.  The  artificial  caves  and  the  in- 
scriptions still  remain,  but  modern  research  has  proved  that  they  belong  to 
a far  different  period  than  that  to  which  they  were  assigned  by  the  Ar- 
menian antiquary. 


THE  CITY  OF  WAN. 


337 


Chap.  XVIII.] 

The  first  traveller  who,  in  modern  times,  examined  the  remarkable  re- 
mains of  antiquity  at  Wan  was  the  unfortunate  Schulz.  He  visited  the 
place  in  1827.  The  cuneiform  inscriptions  carved  on  the  rock  were  known 
to  exist  long  before  his  day,  but  he  was  the  first  to  copy  them,  and  from 
his  copies  they  have  been  published  by  the  Asiatic  Society  of  France.* 
Since  the  time  of  Schulz,  the  city  has  undergone  many  changes.  It  was 
seized  by  the  rebel  Kurdish  chief,  Khan  Mahmoud,  who  massacred  the 
Turkish  garrison,  inflicted  large  fines  upon  the  Christians,  and  grievously 
oppressed  the  dependent  villages.  After  the  troops  of  the  Sultan  had  made 
many  vain  attempts  to  recover  the  place,  it  finally  yielded  two  years  before 
my  journey.  Under  the  mild  rule  of  Mehemet  Pasha  it  was  rapidly  rising 
to  prosperity.  The  protection  he  had  given  to  the  Armenians  had  en- 
couraged that  enterprising  and  industrious  people  to  enlarge  their  com- 
merce, and  to  build  warehouses  for  trade.  Two  handsome  khans,  with 
bazars  attached,  were  nearly  finished.  Shops  for  the  sale  of  European  ar- 
ticles of  clothing  and  of  luxury  had  been  opened  ; and,  what  was  of  still 
more  importance,  several  native  schools  had  already  been  established. 
These  improvements  were  chiefly  due  to  one  Sharan,  an  Armenian  mer- 
chant and  a man  of  liberal  and  enlightened  views,  who  had  seconded  with 
energy  and  liberality  the  desire  of  the  Pasha  to  ameliorate  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  Christian.population.f 

Shortly  after  my  arrival,  the  Armenian  bishop  called  upon  me.  He 
was  dressed  in  the  peculiar  costume  of  his  order, — long  black  robes  and  a 
capacious  black  hood  almost  concealing  his  head, — and  was  accompanied 
by  the  priests  and  principal  laymen  of  his  diocese.  On  his  breast  he  wore 
the  rich  diamond  crescent  and  star  of  the  Turkish  order  of  merit,  of  which 
he  was  justly  proud.  It  had  been  asked  for  him  of  the  Sultan  by  the 
Pasha,  as  an  encouragement  to  the  Christians,  and  as  a proof  of  the  spirit 
of  tolerance  which  animated  the  government.  If  such  principles  were  fully 
carried  out  in  Turkey,  there  would  be  good  hope  for  the  empire.  Although 
he  had  been  duly  elected  several  years  before  to  his  episcopal  dignity,  he 
still  wanted  the  formal  consecration  of  the  patriarch  of  his  church.  This 
ceremony  had  hitherto  been  omitted  on  account  of  differences  which  had 
estranged  the  Armenian  clergy  residing  in  the  Turkish  dominions  from  the 
head  of  their  sect,  whose  seat  is  the  convent  of  Echmiadsin,  made  over  to 

* In  the  ninth  volume  of  the  new  series  of  their  Transactions ; a memoir  by 
Schulz  accompanies  the  inscriptions. 

t I must  not  omit  to  mention  the  name  of  Dr.  Bimerstein,  a German  gentleman  at 
the  head  of  the  quarantine  establishment,  from  whom  I received  much  civility  and 
assistance  during  my  stay  at  Wan,  and  who,  by  the  influence  he  had  obtained  over 
the  Pasha,  and  by  his  integrity  and  good  sense,  had  contributed  considerably  towards 
the  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  Christians,  and  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
pashalic.  He  was  a pleasing  exception  in  a class  made  up  of  the  refuse  and  outcasts 
of  Europe,  who  have  done  more  than  is  generally  known  to  corrupt  the  Turkish  char- 
acter and  to  bring  an  European  and  a Christian  into  contempt.  I am  proud  to  say 
that  an  Englishman  is  not,  I believe,  to  be  found  amongst  them. 

y 


338 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYIII. 

Russia  at  the  close  of  the  last  war.  These  differences,  arising  from  polit- 
ical interference  in  the  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  had  for 
some  time  threatened  a division  in  the  community,  that  portion  of  it  which 
acknowledges  the  authority  of  the  Sultan  wishing  to  place  itself  under  a 
patriarch  who  resides  at  Cis,  in  Cilicia,  and,  consequently,  beyond  foreign 
control.  The  quarrel  had  now,  however,  been  settled,  and  the  bishop  was 
on  the  eve  of  his  departure  to  receive  that  consecration  which  was  essential 
to  his  due  admission  into  the  Armenian  hierarchy. 

The  modern  town  of  Wan  stands  at  the  foot,  and  to  the  south  of,  the 
isolated  rock.  Its  streets  and  bazars  are  small,  narrow,  and  dirty ; but  its 
houses  are  not  ill  built.  It  is  surrounded  by  fruitful  gardens  and  orchards, 
irrigated  by  artificial  rivulets  derived  from  the  streams  rising  in  the  Yedi 
Klissia  mountains.  It  may  contain  between  twelve  and  fifteen  thousand 
inhabitants.  The  whole  pashalic  at  the  time  of  my  visit  paid  an  annual 
sum  of  six  thousand-purses  (about  27,000Z.)  to  the  Turkish  treasury.  In 
the  town  there  was  a garrison  of  a thousand  foot  and  five  hundred  horse, 
and  the  commander  of  the  troops  in  the  district  and  in  the  adjoining  prov- 
ince of  Hakkiari  was  at  the  head  of  five  thousand  men.* 

The  old  hereditary  pashas  of  Wan,  as  well  as  the  principal  families,  were 
of  Turkish  origin,  and  came,  I was  informed  by  some  of  their  descendants, 
from  Konia  (Iconium),  about  three  hundred  years ^ago.  The  chiefs,  how- 
ever, of  the  surrounding  districts  are  Kurds.  Two  families,  named  the 
Topchi-oglus  and  the  Timour-oglus,  divided  the  town  into  opposite  factions, 
which  were  continually  at  war,  and  carried  their  bloody  feuds  almost  daily 
into  the  streets.  The  Timour-oglus  were  the  most  powerful,  and  it  was 
through  their  means  that  Khan  Mahmoud  possessed  himself  of  the  place. 

The  inscriptions  of  Wan  are  of  two  distinct  periods,  though  all  in  the 
cuneiform  writing.  The  most  ancient  are  in  a character  identical  with 
that  on  the  oldest  monuments  of  Assyria.!  The  only  one  not  entirely  in 
this  Assyrian  character  is  on  the  southern  face  of  the  rock,  inaccessible 
from  all  sides,  but  easily  legible,  on  account  of  the  size  and  distinctness  of 
its  letters,  by  a glass  from  below.  It  was  copied  by  Schulz,  and  is  a tri- 
lingual tablet  of  Xerxes  the  son  of  Darius,  very  nearly  word  for  word  the 
same  as  those  of  the  same  king  at  Hamadan  (Ecbatana)  and  Persepolis. 

The  earliest  inscriptions  are  found  on  two  square  stones  built  into  a 
wall  near  the  western  gateway  of  the  city,  and  immediately  beneath  the 
only  entrance  to  the  castle.  This  wall  appears  to  have  been  part  of  the 
old  fortifications,  and  at  a more  recent  period  formed  one  of  the  sides  of  a 

* Wan  is  about  5600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

t The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Wan  writing  is  a tendency  to  repeat  the  hori- 
zontal wedge  when  two  wedges  intersect : thus  H(~  for  Hh  In  this  character 

are  the  inscriptions  at  Pahlou,  on  the  Euphrates  (Brit.  Mus.  Series,  p.  74.),  on  a rock 
near  Malatiyah  on  the  same  river  (copied  by  M.  Miihlbach,  and  published  by  the 
Syro-Egyptian  Society),  on  a column  at  Patnos  (copied  by  the  Hon.  F.  Walpole), 
and  in  various  parts  of  Armenia,  but  principally  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Wan 


340  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON  [CHAP-  XVIII 

Christian  church,  dedicated  to  St  John,  hut  now  in  ruins.*  The  inscribed 
stones  were  taken  from  some  far  more  ancient  building. 

The  two  inscriptions  are  similar,  and  contain  the  names  of  a king  and 
his  father,  which  have  not  been  satisfactorily  deciphered.  They  are  written, 

T HP  Hf<T  TJ  T M HH  fcn  HT<T 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  royal  titles 

« st-  Elf « sm  + « I « V £t  'S  'tr<T 

are  precisely  the  same  as  to  those  used  by  the  early  monarchs  of  Assyria, 
with  the  exception  of  “ King  of  Nahiri,”  a name  apparently  applied  to  the 
northernmost  part  of  Mesopotamia,  between  the  head  waters  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris,  and  perhaps  even  including  the  lake  of  Wan.  It 
is  possible  that  this  country  may  also  be  identified  with  the  Naharina  of 
the  Egyptian  monuments,  which,  there  are  grounds  for  believing,  may  have 
been  far  to  the  north  of  the  Mesopotamia  of  the  Greeks. 

It  is  also  to  be  remarked  that  the  language  of  these  inscriptions  appears 
to  be  Assyrian,!  whilst  that  of  all  the  others  is  peculiar  to  Wan.  Never- 
theless, the  names  of  the  kings  in  them  can  be  genealogically  connected,  as 
it  will  be  seen,  with  those  on  the  other  monuments. 

But  the  most  important  records  at  Wan  are  carved  on  the  southern  face 
of  the  isolated  rock,  round  the  entrance  to  a set  of  excavated  chambers, 
probably  once  serving  as  tombs,  which,  unlike  the  artificial  caves  at  Ba- 
vian  and  Malthaiyah,  may  be  referred  to  the  same  period  as  the  inscrip- 
tions. As  those  inscriptions  record  the  victories  and  deeds  of  a monarch, 
it  is  highly  probable  that  they  were  placed  over  royal  sepulchres. 

A flight  of  twenty  narrow  steps  cut  in  the  perpendicular  face  of  the  pre- 
cipice, and  partly  destroyed,  so  as  to  be  somewhat  difficult  and  dangerous. 


Interior  of  a Tomb  in  the  Rock  (Wan). 


* In  Schulz’s  collection  only  one  of  these  inscriptions  is  given  (No.  1.);  one  is 
seven,  the  other  eight  lines  in  length. 

t The  same  forms  of  expression  occur  in  these  inscriptions  as  in  the  standard  in- 
scription of  Nimroud  : compare  the  2nd  and  3rd  lines  of  Schulz’s  copy  with  the  6th 
and  7th  lmes  of  Brit.  Mus  Series,  p.  3. 


Hock  tombs  at  wan, 


341 


Chap.  XVIII.] 

leads  to  a narrow  ledge,  above  which  the  rock  has  been  carefully  smoothed, 
and  is  still  covered  with  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  character.  Here  an 
entrance,  about  7 feet  deep,  opens  into  a hall,  34 \ feet  long,  by  nearly  21 
wide  and  12  high,  leading  by  four  doorways  into  as  many  distinct  cham- 
bers. Around  its  walls  are  window-like  recesses,  and  between  them,  and 
on  each  side  of  the  doorways,  are  ornamental  niches,  with  holes  in  the  cen- 


tre, which  may  have  held  metal  lamps.  The  floor  has  been  excavated  in 
two  places  into  squares  a few  inches  deep ; I cannot  conjecture  for  what 
purpose. 

The  door  to  the  left  on  entering  leads  into  a small  chamber,  1 1 ft.  8 in. 
by  9 ft.  8 in.,  surrounded  by  similar  window-like  recesses.  In  it  is  a sec- 
ond doorway  opening  upon  a well  or  pit,  filled  to  within  a few  feet  of  the 
mouth  with  stones  and  rubbish.  There  were  no  means  of  ascertaining  its 
depth  or  original  use  without  removing  the  contents.  The  three  other 
doors  in  the  entrance  hall  lead  to  square  rooms,  surrounded  by  niches,  but 
without  other  ornament.  The  excavations  are  sometimes  called  by  the 
Turks  “Khorkhor  Mugaralari,”  the  caves  of  Khorkhor,  from  a garden  of 
that  name  below  them. 

The  inscriptions  on  the  face  of  the  rock  around  the  outer  entrance  to 
these  chambers  are  contained  in  eight  parallel  columns,  including  in  all 
above  300  lines  and  thirteen  consecutive  paragraphs.*  The  letters  are 
large  and  admirably  carved,  and  the  writing  is  divided  by  horizontal  lines. 
They  are  defective  in  many  places,  partly  from  natural  decay,  but  mainly 
from  wilful  injury  : the  obliterated  characters  may  to  a great  extent  be  re- 
stored by  a comparison  of  the  several  inscriptions  which  contain  correspond- 
* These  inscriptions  are  numbered  from  ii  to  viii.  in  Schulz’s  collection. 


342 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYIII. 


ing  passages.*  These  rock-tablets  are  the  records  of  a king  whose  name, 
according  to  Dr.  Hincks,  is  Arghistis.  He  invokes  the  gods  of  his  nation, 
and  celebrates  the  conquest  of  various  peoples  or  tribes,  whose  names  still 
require  to  be  identified,  but  who  probably  inhabited  countries  to  the  north 
of  Armenia  ; he  describes  the  burning  of  their  temples  and  palaces,  and  the 
carrying  away  of  captives  and  of  an  immense  spoil  of  horses,  camels,  cat 
tie,  and  sheep,  the  numbers  of  each  being  given  with  apparent  exactness. 
The  name  of  the  region  in  which  these  conquests  were  chiefly  made  seems 
to  read  Mana. 

The  gardens  beneath  these  inscriptions  belong  to  the  family  of  one  of  the 
former  hereditary  Pashas  of  Wan.  A spring  gushes  forth  from  the  foot  of 
the  rock,  and  over  it  is  a small  tablet,  once  containing  a legend  in  arrow- 
headed  characters,  now  entirely  destroyed.  The  grounds,  as  I have  ob- 
served, are  called  Khorkhor,  and  this  name  has  been  believed  to  occur  in 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  as  the  ancient  name  of  Wan,  on  the  supposition 
that  it  is  still  given  to  the  whole  castle.  I was  assured,  however,  that  it 
is  limited  to  these  gardens.! 

The  remaining  inscriptions  are  on  the  northern  face  of  the  rock.  They 
are  five  in  number.!  The  longest  and  most  important  contains  twenty- 
nine  lines,  and  is  on  the  side  wall  to  the  left  on  entering  an  artificial  vault- 
ed recess.  It  has  been  partly  destroyed  by  a rude  cross  cut  by  the  Arme- 
nians across  the  tablet.  The  cave  is  called  the  “ Khazana  Kapousi,”  or 
the  treasure  gate,  and  is  held  to  be  a sacred  spot  by  Christians  and  Mus- 
sulmans. Beneath  it,  according  to  tradition,  an  iron  gate,  guarded  by  genii 
armed  with  swords  of  flame,  closes  the  entrance  to  a vast  hall  filled  with 
all  manner  of  riches.  The  magic  words  that  can  alone  open  this  portal 
are  contained  in  the  inscription,  which  is  guarded  at  night  by  a serpent, 
who  retires  at  break  of  day  into  a hole  near  the  cave.§ 

An  inscription  of  seventeen  lines  is  carved  at  the  entrance  to  a second 
artificial  chamber,  and  on  tablets  cut  in  the  rock  are  three  more,  each  of 
nineteen  lines,  word  for  word  alike,  but  with  orthographical  variations  in 
the  royal  name. 

Four  of  these  inscriptions  belong  to  the  father  of  the  king,  who  recorded 
his  conquests  on  the  southern  face  of  the  rock.  His  name,  according  to 
Dr.  Hincks,  may  be  read  Minuas.  They  merely  contain  the  royal  titles 
and  invocations  to  the  gods.  The  long  inscription  in  the  vaulted  recessll 
is  of  the  grandson  of  Minuas,  the  latest  king  mentioned  on  the  monuments 
of  Wan.  It  is  of  considerable  interest  as  containing  the  name  of  a coun- 

* And  see  Dr.  Hincks’s  Memoir  on  the  Inscriptions  of  Wan,  § 2.  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  % 

t The  ancient  province  of  Khorkhorunik  was  to  the  west  of  the  lake  of  Wan ; the 
city  of  Wan  stood  in  that  of  Dosb. 

t Numbered  in  Schulz’s  collection  from  xii.  to  xvi. 

$ Schulz  gives  this  tradition,  which,  like  many  others,  is  probably  of  very  ancient 
date. 

11  Schulz,  No.  xii. 


Chap.  XVIII.] 


INSCRIPTIONS  AT  WAN 


343 


try.  <1  ^ tyyy=  which  Dr.  Hincks  identifies  with  Babylon, 

and  as  enumerating,  first  in  detail,  the  amount  of  booty  taken  from  three 
different  countries,  and  afterwards  giving  the  total  amount  of  the  whole. 
By  this  double  account  the  one  checking  the  other,  a clue  was  afforded  to 
the  signs  representing  numerals  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  as  well  as  to 
their  respective  values,  a discovery  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  sa- 
gacity of  Dr.  Hincks.*  It  gives,  moreover,  a long  list  of  nations  conquered 
by  the  Armenian  king,  of  which  the  principal  appears  to  be  called  Abana, 
a name  not  yet  identified. 

The  Pasha  had  kindly  placed  the  “ Mimar  Bashi,”  or  architect  in  chief 
of  the  town,  an  intelligent  and  honest  Armenian,  named  Nikoos,  under  my 
orders  during  my  researches  at  Wan.  I also  found  in  the  place  a half-crazy 
Cawass,  who  had  been  all  the  way  to  Constantinople  to  obtain  a firman 
for  leave  to  dig  for  treasure  beneath  the  inscribed  tablets.  The  imperial 
document  had  been  granted,  with  a clause,  however,  that  a share  of  the 
riches  discovered  should  be  paid  into  the  Sultan’s  treasury.  His  search  had 
hitherto  been  vain,  although  his  purse  had  been  emptied  ; but  he  knew 
all  the  old  stones  and  inscriptions  in  the  neighborhood.  With  the  aid  of 
these  two  men  I carried  on  excavations  for  a short  time  at  the  foot  of  the 
northern  face  of  the  rock,  without  other  results  than  clearing  away  the 
earth  from  one  or  two  half-buried  tablets,  and  laying  bare  the  artificially 
smoothed  rock. 

About  a mile  and  a half  to  the  east  of  the  town,  near  a small  village  in 
the  gardens  of  Wan,  is  a recess  in  the  rock  15  feet  8 inches  high,  and  6 
feet  7 inches  broad,  containing  a long  cuneiform  inscription.  On  the  tab- 
let may  still  be  traced  the  remains  of  the  yellow  varnish,  or  glaze,  men- 
tioned by  Schulz.  The  ancient  Persians  appear  to  have  protected  their 
rock-carved  inscriptions  by  similar  means  from  the  effects  of  the  atmos- 
phere, traces  of  the  glaze  having  been  discovered  on  the  great  monument 
of  Bisutun.f  The  inscription  is  called  Meher  Kapousi,  which,  according 
to  the  people  of  Wan,  means  the  Shepherd’s  Gate,  from  a tradition  that  a 
shepherd,  having  fallen  asleep  beneath  it,  was  told  in  a dream  the  magic 
word  that  opened  the  spell-bound  portal.  He  awoke  and  straightway  tried 
the  talisman.  The  stone  doors  flew  apart,  disclosing  to  his  wondering  eyes 
a vast  hall  filled  with  inexhaustible  treasures  ; but  as  he  entered  they  shut 
again  behind  him.  He  filled  with  gold  the  bag  in  which,  as  he  tended  his 
flocks,  he  carried  his  daily  food.  After  repeating  the  magic  summons,  he 
was  permitted  to  issue  into  the  open  air.  But  he  had  left  his  crook,  and 
must  return  for  it.  The  doors  were  once  more  unclosed  at  his  bidding. 
He  sought  to  retrace  his  steps,  but  had  forgotten  the  talisman.  His  faith- 

* See  Dr.  Hincks’s  Paper  on  the  War  Inscriptions,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society. 

f Col.  Rawlinson,  Memoir  on  the  Inscriptions  of  Behistan,  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society. 


344 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVIII. 


ful  dog  waited  outside  until  nightfall.  As  its  master  did  not  come  back, 
it  then  took  up  the  bag  of  gold,  and  carrying  it  to  the  shepherd’s  wife,  led 
her  to  the  gates  of  the  cave.  She  could  hear  the  cries  of  her  husband,  and 
they  are  heard  to  this  day,  but  none  can  give  him  help. 

The  inscription  of  the  Meher  Kapousi  originally  consisted  of  ninety-five 
lines,  comprising  the  same  record  twice  repeated.  Only  about  sixty  are 
now  legible.  It  was  carved  by  order  of  two  kings,  who  appear  to  have 
reigned  together,  and  whose  names  Dr.Hincks  reads,  Ishpuinish  and  Min- 
uas.  It  contains  little  else  than  a list  of  sacrifices  and  offerings  made  to  a 
multitude  of  gods,  each  one  receiving  a share  probably  according  to  his  im- 
portance in  the  celestial  hierarchy,  the  lowest  in  rank  getting  only  one 
sheep,  and  the  highest  seventeen  oxen  and  thirty-four  sheep.  With  the 
gods  of  Armenia  are  mentioned  those  of  foreign  nations,  who  have  the 
smallest  portion  of  the  honors,  some  obtaining  but  half  an  ox. 

Near  the  Shepherd’s  Gate  the  rocks  are  excavated  into  a vast  number  of 
caves.  In  some  places  long  flights  of  steps  lead  nowhere,  but  finish  abrupt- 
ly in  the  face  of  the  perpendicular  precipice  ; in  others  the  cliff  is  scarped 
to  a great  height  without  any  apparent  object.  A singular  shaft,  ■with 
stairs,  leading  into  a cavern,  is  called  Zimzim.  It  is  difficult  to  account 
for  the  use  and  origin  of  these  singular  excavations  ; their  height  from  the 
plain  and  their  inaccessible  position  almost  preclude  the  idea  of  their  hav- 
ing been  quarries. 

Several  slabs  of  black  basalt,  inscribed  with  cuneiform  characters,  have 
been  built  into  the  interior  walls  of  two  ancient  Armenian  churches  with- 
in the  town  of  Wan.*  They  had  been  whitewashed  with  the  rest  of  the 
building,  but  the  bishop  obligingly  ordered  the  plaster  to  be  removed  from 
them.  Some  of  the  inscriptions  are  no  longer  legible.  In  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  I found  parts  of  four  legends,!  which  appear  to  refer 
to  two  kings,  grandfather  and  grandson,  whose  names,  according  to  Dr. 
Hincks,  are  Ishpuinish  and  Milidduris.  They  are  historical,  containing  a 
record  of  the  capture  of  many  cities,  and  of  the  amount  of  spoil  carried 
away  from  conquered  countries. 

In  the  church  of  Surp  Sahak  I was  able  to  transcribe  two  inscriptions, 
one  under  the  altar,  the  other  in  the  vestibule  beneath  the  level  of  the  floor, 
which  had  to  be  broken  up  and  removed  before  I could  reach  the  stone. 
The  longest  consists  of  forty  lines,  the  other  of  twenty -seven.  The  begin- 
ning and  ending  of  the  lines  in  both  are  wanting.  They  belong  to  a king 
whose  name  Dr.  Hincks  reads  Arghistis,  and  one  of  them  celebrates  the 
capture  of  no  less  than  453  cities  and  105  temples  or  palaces,  and  the  car- 
rying away  of  25,170  (?)  men,  2734  officers,  73,700  sheep,  and  an  im- 
mense number  of  women,  oxen,  and  other  spoil.! 

* These  churches  are  probably  of  great  antiquity,  but  no  record  appears  to  remain 
of  the  date  of  their  foundation.  They  are  dark  and  rudely  built,  and  have  nothing 
remarkable  in  them.  t Two  are  given  by  Schulz,  Nos.  xxxviii.  and  xxxrx. 

t The  beginnings  of  the  lines  having  been  destroyed,  the  numbers  are  not  all  com- 
plete. 


Chap.  XVIII.] 


INSCRIPTIONS  AT  WAN. 


345 


The  only  inscription  at  Wan  that  I could  not  copy  was  the  trilingual  tab- 
let of  Xerxes.  It  is  on  the  most  inaccessible  part  of  the  rock,  about  sev- 
enty or  eighty  feet  above  the  plain.  Not  having  a glass  of  sufficient  pow- 
er, I was  unable  to  distinguish  the  characters  from  below.  As  it  had  been 
accurately  transcribed  by  Schulz,  and  resembles  those  of  the  same  king  at 
Persepolis  and  Hamadan,  I did  not  think  it  necessary  to  incur  any  risk  or 
expense  in  reaching  it  by  means  of  ropes  or  scaffolding.* 

In  the  rock  there  are  numerous  excavated  chambers,  some  even  exceed- 
ing in  dimensions  those  I have  described  ; but,  with  the  exception  of  a sim- 
ple seat  or  bench  of  stone,  about  two  and  a half  feet  high  on  one  side  of 
them,  they  are  perfectly  plain  and  unornamented.  They  appear  to  have 
been  used  as  tombs,  and  Schulz  declares  that  he  found  human  bones  in 
them ; but  it  is  doubtful  whether  those  remains  belonged  to  the  original  oc- 
cupants. Some  are  approached  by  flights  of  steps  cut  in  the  precipice  ; 
others  are  altogether  inaccessible  except  by  ropes  from  above.  As  they  all 
more  or  less  resemble  the  one  previously  mentioned,  I will  not  give  a par- 
ticular account  or  accurate  measurements  of  them.f 

I add  a list  of  the  kings  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  of  Wan  in  the 
order  of  their  succession,  which  may  be  interesting  to  the  historical  student. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 


>— Lutibri,  or  Lutibar.f 
Milidduris. 

pff  *-£*-  »ff-  E±f[.  Ishpuinish. 

T-  *-/"  STffc  V Minuas. 

— TT<Y'  *=Y  * ) 

(« <~M  -1T4  an  >+<  & *>  b“" 

-TT<T  Vv  Milidduris. 


It  is  yet  doubtful  to  what  family  of  languages  the  Wan  inscriptions 
must  be  assigned.  Some  believe  it  to  be  a Tatar  dialect ; or,  at  least,  to  be 
largely  intermixed  \yith  the  Mongolian  element.  Dr.  Hincks,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  of  opinion  that  it  is  Indo-Germanic,  and  adduces,  in  proof,  various 

* This  inscription  was  copied,  with  a strong  telescope,  by  Schulz,  and  is  published 
with  the  rest  of  his  transcripts. 

t Schulz  has  given  the  measurements,  and  a detailed  account  of  each  cavern,  in 
his  Memoirs. 

t The  above  are  Dr.  Hincks’s  version  of  the  reading  of  the  names.  He  entertains 
some  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  second  and  sixth,  the  first  part  of  which  is 
the  name  of  a goddess,  perhaps  the  Mylitta  of  Herodotus,  though  in  the  Babylonian 
inscriptions  it  seems  to  be  written  “ Gula.”  It  must  be  observed  that  they  are 
sometimes  written  with  orthographical  variations  in  the  inscriptions,  and  that  those 
in  the  above  list  are,  according  to  Dr.  Hincks’s  view,  in  the  nominative  case. 


146 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYIII. 


nstances  of  case-endings  corresponding  with  the  Sanscrit.*  Two  of  the 
nscriptions,  and  the  earliest  in  date,  as  I have  already  observed,  are  in  pure 
A.ssyrian. 

With  regard  to  the  date  of  the  monuments  there  appears  to  be  a clue 
which  may  enable  us  to  fix  it  with  some  degree  of  certainty.  In  an  in- 
scription from  Khorsabad,f  amongst  the  kings  conquered  by  Sargon  one  is 
mentioned  whose  name  corresponds  with  Arghistis,  the  fifth  in  the  Wan 
dynasty.  Supposing  the  two,  therefore,  to  be  the  same,  and  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  their  being  so,  we  may  assume  that  the  monarchs  of  the 
Wan  records  reigned  from  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  before 
Christ  to  the  end  of  the  seventh ; and  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  forms 
of  the  characters  leads  to  this  conjecture.  It  is  possible  that  between  the 
death  of  the  obelisk  king  and  the  reign  of  Sargon,  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
were  unable  to  enforce  their  authority  beyond  the  lofty  range  of  mount- 
ains to  the  north-east  of  Nineveh,  and  that  a dynasty,  which  may  indeed 
have  been  a branch  from  that  of  Assyria, $ established  itself  during  that 
period  in  Armenia,  and  maintained  its  independence  until  a great  conqueror 
again  sat  on  the  throne  of  Nineveh.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  Dr.  Hihcks 
believes  he  has  even  found  an  invasion  of  Babylonia  recorded  in  these  Ar- 
menian inscriptions.  If  such  be  the  case,  it  must  be  inferred  that  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  Assyrians  were  at  that  time  confined  within  very  narrow 
limits  round  their  capital  city. 

In  the  Khorsabad  inscription  Arghistis  is  called  king  of 

'Y  <HfKT  <Tsfc 

War-ar-di,  apparently  the  genitive  case  of  War-ar-ad,  a name  that  may  be 
identified  with  the  biblical  Ararath,  the  kingdom  of  Armenia. § But  at 
Wan  we  have  two  different  names  for  this  country.  In  the  oldest  inscrip- 
tions (those  in  the  Assyrian  language)  it  is  called  Nahiri,  a name  which, 
as  I have  already  mentioned,  was  applied  by  the  Assyrians  to  the  very 

* On  the  inscriptions  of  Wan.  Page  14.,  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

t Botta,  pi.  151. 1.  5. 

t Since  the  above  was  written  Col.  Rawlinson  has  announced  three  synchronisms 
between  the  inscriptions  of  Nineveh  and  Wan.  “ Lutipari  is  found  contending  with 
Sardanapalus  (the  builder  of  the  north-west  palace  at  Nimroud) ; his  son  Semiduri  is 
attacked  by  Deleboras  (the  obelisk  king) ; and  the  fifth  Wan  monarch,  Arghisti,  is  an 
antagonist  of  Sargon.”  Dr.  Hincks,  however,  denies  the  second  identification,  and 
entertains  considerable  doubt,  therefore,  as  to  the  first.  (Literary  Gazette,  Dec.  18, 
1852,  p.  931.)  It  is  a curious  fact  that  the  earliest  inscriptions  found  at  Wan  should 
be  in  Assyrian,  whilst  the  others  are  in  an  essentially  distinct  language.  Connected 
with  the  Armenian  tradition,  that  the  two  sons  of  Sennacherib,  after  they  had  slain 
their  father,  fled  into  Armenia,  and  established  royal  dynasties,  which  reigned  over 
that  country  with  northern  Mesopotamia  (St.  Martin,  vol.  i.  p.  163.),  it  might  have  led 
to  the  conjecture  that  the  inscriptions  were  of  a more  recent  period,  and  of  the  time 
between  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire  and  the  rise  of  the  Persian. 

BTTN  2 Kings,  xix.  37,  &c. 


CLOSE  OF  THE  RAMAZAN. 


347 


Chap.  XVIII.] 

northernmost  part  of  Mesopotamia,  if  it  can  be  called  Mesopotamia  at  all, 
between  the  head-waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  In  the  others  it  is 
termed  Biaynee, 


a name  not  yet  identified,  but  perhaps  not  unconnected  with  the  mount- 
ainous province  of  Adiabene,  to  the  north  of  Assyria.* 

At  sunrise,  on  the  8th  August,  the  roaring  of  cannon,  re-echoed  by  the 
lofty  rock,  announced  the  end  of  Ramazan,  and  the  beginning  of  the  peri- 
odical festivities  of  the  Bairam.  Early  in  the  morning  the  Pasha,  glitter- 
ing with  gold  and  jewels,  and  surrounded  by  the  members  of  his  household, 
the  officers  of  the  garrison,  and  the  gaily-dressed  chiefs  of  the  irregular 
troops,  rode  in  procession  through  the  streets  of  the  town.  As  it  is  cus- 
tomary, he  received  in  the  palace  the  visits  of  the  cadi,  mollahs,  and  prin- 
cipal Mussulman  inhabitants  of  Wan,  as  well  as  of  the  bishop,  clergy,  and 
elders  of  the  Armenian  Church.  The  population,  rejoicing  at  their  release 
from  a fast  almost  intolerable  in  summer,  decked  themselves  in  holiday  gar- 
ments, and  made  merry  in  the  houses  and  highways.  The  sounds  of  music 
and  revelry  issued  from  the  coffee-houses  and  places  of  public  resort.  The 
children  repaired  to  swings,  merry-go-rounds,  and  stalls  of  sweetmeats, 
which  had  been  raised  in  the  open  spaces  within  the  walls.  The  Chris- 
tians add  the  feast  to  their  own  festivals,  already  too  numerous,!  and,  like 
their  Mussulman  neighbours,  pay  visits  of  compliment  and  ceremony. 
Their  women,  who  are  said  to  be  handsome,  but  are  even  more  rigidly  con- 
cealed than  the  Mahommedan  ladies,  crept  through  the  streets  in  their  long 
white  veils. 

I called  in  the  evening  on  the  bishop,  and  next  morning,  at  his  invita- 
tion, visited  the  principal  schools.  Five  have  been  established  since  the 
^Jfall  of  the  Kurdish  Beys,  and  the  enjoyment  of  comparative  protection  by 
the  Christian  population.  Only  one  had  been  opened  within  the  walls  ; 
the  rest  were  in  the  gardens,  which  are  thickly  inhabited  by  Armenians, 
and  form  extensive  suburbs  to  Wan.  The  school  in  the  town  was  held  in 
a spacious  building  newly  erected,  and  at  that  time  scarcely  finished. 
More  than  two  hundred  children  of  all  ages  were  assembled.  They  wen 
through  theij  exercises  and  devotions  at  the  sound  of  a bell  with  great 
6^der  and  precision,  alternately  standing  and  squatting  on  their  hams  on 
small  cushions  placed  in  rows  across  the  hall.  An  outer  room  held  basins 
and  towels  for  washing,  and  the  cloaks  and  shoes  taken  off  on  entering. 
Books  were  scarce.  There  were  not  more  than  a score  in  the  whole  school. 

* The  country  is  also  thus  called  in  the  inscription  at  Pahlou  (Br.  Mus.  Series,  p. 
74.  1.  20.),  and  in  that  near  Malatiyah. 

t The  Mussulmans  have  only  two  great  annual  feasts  in  which  labor  gives  way  to 
rejoicings  and  festivities ; the  Christians  of  all  sects  have  little  else  but  fasts  and 
festivals  throughout  the  year.  A lazy  Christian  will  add  to  his  own  holidays  the 
Friday  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  Saturday  of  the  Jews. 


348 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XYIII. 

The  first  class,  which  had  made  some  progress,  had  a few  elementary  works 
on  astronomy  and  history,  published  hy  the  Armenian  press  at  Constanti- 
nople and  Smyrna,  hut  only  one  copy  of  each.  The  boys,  at  my  request, 
sang  and  chanted  their  prayers,  and  repeated  their  simple  lessons. 

Such  schools,  imperfect  though  they  be,  are  proofs  of  a great  and  increas- 
ing improvement  in  the  Christian  communities  of  Turkey.*  A change  of 
considerable  importance,  and  which,  it  is  to  he  hoped,  may  lead  to  the  most 
beneficial  results,  is  now  taking  place  in  the  Armenian  Church.  It  is  un- 
doubtedly to  be  attributed  to  the  judicious,  earnest,  and  zealous  exertions 
of  the  American  missionaries ; their  establishments,  scattered  over  nearly 
the  whole  Turkish  empire,  have  awakened  amongst  the  Christians,  and 
principally  amongst  the  Armenians,  a spirit  of  inquiry  and  a desire  for  the 
reform  of  .abuses,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  their  minds,  which  must  ulti- 
mately tend  to  raise  their  political,  as  well  as  their  social,  position  in  the 
human  scale.  It  is  scarcely  fifteen  years  since  the  first  institution  for 
Christian  instruction  on  Protestant  (independent)  principles  was  opened  by 
those  excellent  men  in  Constantinople.  By  a wise  selection  of  youths  from 
different  parts  of  the  empire,  who  from  their  character  and  abilities  were 
deemed  worthy  of  the  choice,  they  were  shortly  enabled  to  send  into  the 
provinces  those  who  could  sow  the  seeds  of  truth  and  knowledge,  without 
incurring  the  suspicions  attaching  to  strangers,  and  without  laboring  un- 
der that  ignorance  of  the  manners  and  languages  of  those  amongst  whom 
they  mix,  which  must  always  prove  so  serious  an  obstacle  to  foreigners  in 
their  intercourse  with  the  natives.  A movement  of  this  nature  could 
scarcely  escape  persecution.  The  Armenian  clergy,  not  unfavorable  to  the 
darkness  and  bigotry  which  had  for  centuries  disgraced  their  Church,  and 
exercising  an  uncontrolled  power  over  an  ignorant  and  simple  people, 
soon  raised  a cry  against  the  “ Evangelists,”  as  they  were  contemptuously 
called.  By  such  misrepresentations  and  calumnies  as  are  always  ready  at 
hand  to  the  enemies  of  progress  and  reform,  they  were  able  to  enlist  in 
their  favor  the  Turkish  authorities  at  the  capital  and  in  the  provinces. 
Unfortunately,  four  sects  alone,  the  Homan  Catholic,  the  Armenian,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Copt,  were  recognised  by  the  Porte  amongst  their  Chris- 
tian subjects.  The  reformed  Armenian  Church  was  consequently  without 
an  acknowledged  head,  and  unable,  to  communicate  directly  with  the  gov- 
ernment, to  make  known  its  tenets,  or  to  complain  of  the  acts  of  injustice 
and  persecution  to  which  it  was  exposed.  Many  persons  fell  victims  to 
their  opinions.  Some  were  cruelly  tortured  in  the  house  of  the  Patriarch 
himself,  and  others  were  imprisoned  or  utterly  ruined  in  Constantinople 
and  the  provinces.  Sir  Stratford  Canning  at  length  exerted  his  powerful 
* The  desire  of  a large  number  of  the  Armenians  to  improve  their  institutions,  and 
to  adopt  the  manners  of  Europe,  is  a highly  interesting,  and  indeed  important,  fact. 
I was  amused,  after  having  contributed  a trifle  to  the  funds  of  the  school,  at  having 
presented  to  me  a neatly  printed  and  ornamented  receipt,  with  the  amount  of  my  do- 
nation duly  filled  up  in  the  blank  space  left  for  the  purpose,  the  document  being  sign- 
ed by  the  head  of  the  school. 


RESULTS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MISSIONS. 


349 


Chap.  XVIII.] 

influence  to  protect  the  injured  sect  from  these  wanton  cruelties.  Through 
his  exertions  and  those  of  Lord  Cowley,  when  minister,  a firman  was  ob- 
tained from  the  Sultan,  placing  the  new  Protestant  community  on  the  same 
footing  as  the  other  Churches  of  the  empire,  assigning  to  it  a head,  or  agent, 
through  whom  it  could  apply  directly  to  the  ministers,  and  extending  to  it 
other  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Greeks.  This  act  of  . 
toleration  and  justice  has  given  fresh  vigor  to  the  spirit  of  inquiry  bred  by 
the  American  missionaries.  There  is  now  scarcely  a town  of  any  import- 
ance in  Turkey  without  a Protestant  community,  and  in  most  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  the  American  mission  has  opened  schools,  and  is  educating 
youths  for  the  priesthood.  Fortunately  for  the  cause,  many  men  of  irre- 
proachable character  and  of  undoubted  sincerity  from  the  Armenian  nation 
have  been  associated  with  it,  and  its  success  has  not  been  endangered*  like 
that  of  so  many  other  movements  of  the  same  kind,  by  interested,  or  hasty 
conversions.  Those  who  have  watched  the  effect  that  this  desire  for  im- 
provement and  for  religious  freedom  is  gradually  producing  upon  a large 
and  important  section  of  the  Christian  population  of  Turkey,  may  reason- 
ably hope  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  it  may  exercise  a marked 
influence  upon  other  Christian  sects,  as  well  as  upon  those  who  surround 
them  ; preparing  them  for  the  enjoyment  of  extended  political  privileges, 
and  for  the  restoration  of  a pure  and  rational  faith  to  the  East. 

The  influence  of  this  spirit  of  inquiry,  fostered  by  the  American  missions, 
has  not  been  alone  confined  to  those  who  have  been  cut  off  from  their  own 
community.  The  Armenian  clergy,  no  longer  able  to  coerce  their  flocks, 
or  to  persecute  those  who  left  them,  have  found  that  the  only  mode  of 
checking  the  schism  is  to  reform  the  abuses  of  their  own  Church,  and  to 
educate  and  instruct  their  people.  Schools  in  opposition  to  the  American 
establishments  have  been  opened  in  the  capital  and  in  most  of  the  large 
towns  of  Asia  Minor  ; and  elementary  and  theological  works,  of  a far  more 
liberal  character  than  any  hitherto  published  in  Turkey,  have  been  print- 
ed by  Armenian  printing-presses  in  Constantinople  and  Smyrna,  or  intro- 
duced into  the  country  from  Venice.  This  is  another,  though  an  indirect, 
result  of  their  labors,  which  the  American  missionaries  may  justly  contem- 
plate with  satisfaction,  unmingled  with  any  feelings  of  jealousy  or  ill-will. 

Whilst  on  this  subject,  and  connected  as  I have  been  with  the  Nesto- 
rians,  I must  not  omit  a tribute  of  praise  to  the  admirable  establishments 
of  the  American  missions  amongst  the  Chaldaeans  of  Ooroomiyah  in  Per- 
sia, under  the  able  direction  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Perkins.*  It  was  with  much 

* I cannot  refrain  from  recording  the  names  of  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Goddall,  Dwight, 
Holmes,  Hamlin,  and  Schauffler,  of  the  Constantinople  missionary  station  ; the  late 
excellent  and  enterprising  Dr.  Smith,  who,  like  the  estimable  Dr.  Grant,  his  fellow- 
laborer  in  the  same  field,  and  many  others  of  his  countrymen,  has  recently  fallen  a 
victim  to  his  zeal  and  devotion ; the  Rev.  Eli  Smith  of  Beyrout,  and  Perkins  of 
Ooroomiyah ; men  who  will  ever  be  connected  with  the  first  spread  of  knowledge 
and  truth  amongst  the  Christians  of  the  East,  and  of  whom  their  country  may  justly 
be  proud.  Personally  I must  express  my  gratitude  to  them  for  many  acts  of  kind- 


I 


350 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XVIII. 


regret  that  I was  compelled  to  give  up  the  plan  I had  formed  of  visit- 
ing that  small  colony  from  the  New  World.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Bowen,  who 
crossed  the  frontiers  from  Wan,  has  in  a true  Christian  spirit  borne  witness 
in  the  English  Church  to  the  enlightened  and  liberal  spirit  in  which  their 
labors  are  carried  on.  Forty  or  fifty  schools  have  been  opened  in  the  town 
of  Ooroomiyah  and  surrounding  villages.  The  abuses  that  have  crept  into 
this  primitive  and  highly  interesting  Church  are  being  reformed,  and  the 
ignorance  of  its  simple  clergy  gradually  dispelled.  A printing-press,  for 
which  type  has  been  purposely  cut,  now  publishes  for  general  circulation 
the  Scriptures  and  works  of  education  in  the  dialect  and  character  peculiar 
to  the  mountain  tribes.  The  English  language  has  been  planted  in  the 
heart  of  Asia,  and  the  benefits  of  knowledge  are  extended  to  a race  which, 
a few  years  ago,  was  almost  unknown  even  by  name  to  Europe. 

The  Armenian  bishop  of  Wan  was  not  wanting  in  intelligence  and  in 
liberal  feeling  ; but,  like  most  of  his  order,  he  was  profoundly  ignorant.  He 
had  not  seen  the  valuable  works  in  his  native  language,  even  those  of  the 
fathers  of  his  Church,  published  by  the  Mechitansts  of  Venice  ; and  was 
equally  surprised  and  gratified  with  printed  copies  of  the  works  of  Moses 
of  Chorene,  Eusebius,  and  one  or  two  other  authors  in  Armenian  which  I 
had  with  me.  The  convents  of  Wan  and  of  the  neighbourhood,  he  said, 
were  once  rich  in  ancient  manuscripts,  but  they  had  been  carried  away  by 
camel-loads  some  two  hundred  years  before  by  the  Persians,  and  were  be- 
lieved still  to  be  preserved  in  Isfahan.  With  the  exception  of  a few  printed 
copies  of  the  Scriptures,  and  some  religious  works  for  the  use  of  the  churches, 
there  are  now  no  books  in  the  city.  He  received  with  pleasure  from  Mr. 
Bowen  a copy  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  vulgar  Armenian  tongue,  re- 
marking that  it  would  be  a great  advantage  to  the  common  people  to  have 
a version  of  the  Scriptures  in  a language  which  they  could  understand. 
He  was  probably  not  aware  that  the  head  of  his  church  had  utterly  con- 
demned its  use,  and  had  anathematised  all  those  who  received  it. 

My  companions  had  been  compelled,  from  ill-health,  to  leave  the  plain, 
and  had  taken  refuge  in  the  convent  of  Yedi  Klissia,  from  the  sultry  heats 
of  the  plain.  Before  joining  them  I visited  the  village  of  Amikh,  where, 
according  to  my  Armenian  guide,  Nikoos,  an  inscription  was  engraved  on 
the  rocks.  I left  the  city  on  the  10th  of  August.  Wan  stands  at  a short 
distance  from  the  lake,  and  the  few  boats  which  traffic  along  the  shores 
anchor  at  a small  Iskelli,  or  port,  about  a mile  and  a half  from  the  gates. 
The  greater  part  of  this  village  is  now  under  water,  the  lake  having  grad- 
ually risen  during  the  last  few  years.  The  inhabitants  pretend  that  this 
rising  is  caused  by  a periodical  ebbing  and  flowing,  each  continuing  for  sev- 
en years,  and  that  the  waters  will  again  fall  to  their  former  level.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that,  from  some  cause  or  other  which  I cannot  explain, 

ness  and  friendship.  The  American  mission  has  now  establishments  in  Smyrna. 
Brousa,  Trebizond,  Erzeroom,  Diarbekir,  Mosul,  Aintab,  Aleppo,  and  many  other  cit- 
ies in  Asia  Minor,  together  with  native  agents  all  over  Turkey. 


MONASTERY  OF  YEDI  KLISSIA 


35i 


Chap.  XYIII.] 

many  villages  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  are  now  partly  submerged,  and 
that  there  appears  to  have  been  for  some  years  a gradual  increase  in  the 
waters. 

Leaving  the  small  port,  and  passing  some  pans  in  which  a kind  of  alka- 
line deposit  is  collected  from  the  water  of  the  lake  to  he  used  as  soap,  we 
struck  into  a fine  undulating  corn  country,  abounding  in  Christian  villages. 
The  soil  is  well  cultivated,  though  by  dint  of  much  labor.  Eight,  or  even 
ten,  pairs  of  oxen  are  frequently  yoked  to  a plough,  which  differs  from  that 
seen  in  any  other  part  of  Turkey  ; and  having  two  wheels,  one  larger  than 
the  other,  more  resembles  those  in  common  use  in  England.  The  land- 
scape was  richly  tinted  by  large  plots  of  bright  yellow  thistles, * cultivated 
for  the  oil  expressed  from  the  seeds,  and  used  by  the  Armenians  during 
their  numerous  fasts.  We  reached  at  sunset  a deep  bay  hemmed  in  by  gar- 
dens and  orchards,  and  sheltered  from  the  wind  by  an  amphitheatre  of  low 
rocky  hills.  I pitched  my  tent  about  a mile  from  the  village  of  Amikh, 
near  a transparent  spring,  in  a small  glade  shelving  to  the  water’s  edge, 
and  embowered  in  white  roses. 

Early  next  morning  I sought  the  inscriptions  which  I had  been  assured 
were  graven  on  the  rocks  near  an  old  castle,  standing  on  a bold  projecting 
promontory  above  the  lake.  After  climbing  up  a dangerous  precipice  by 
the  help  of  two  or  three  poles,  in  which  large  nails  had  been  inserted  to 
afford  a footing,  I reached  a small  natural  cave  in  the  rock.  A few  crosses 
and  ancient  Armenian  letters  were  rudely  cut  near  its  entrance.  There 
was  nothing  else,  and  I had  to  return  as  I best  could,  disappointed,  as  many 
a traveller  has  been  under  similar  circumstances  before  me. 

From  Amikh  I rode  across  the  country  in  a direct  line  to  the  monastery 
of  Yedi  Klissia,  whose  gardens  on  the  side  of  the  lofty  mountain  of  Wurrak 
are  visible  from  most  parts  of  the  plain.  I stopped  for  an  hour  at  the 
church  of  Kormawor  before  ascending  to  the  convent.  An  aged  priest,  with 
beard  white  as  snow,  and  wearing  a melon-shaped  cap,  and  long  black  robes, 
was  the  guardian  of  the  place.  He  led  me  into  an  arcade  surrounding  the 
inner  court  of  the  building.  Seeing  that  I was  a Frank,  he  fancied  at  once 
that  I was  searching  for  inscriptions,  and  pointed  to  a circular  stone,  the 
base  of  a wooden  column,  which,  he  said,  he  had  shown  many  years  before 
to  a traveller,  meaning  Schulz. f It  bears  three  imperfect  lines  of  cunei- 
form writing,  part  of  an  inscription  belonging  to  one  of  the  Wan  kings,  whose 
name  Dr.  Hincks  read  Minuas.  It  appears  to  record  the  foundation  of  a 
temple.  A second  inscription  on  a black  stone,  and  several  fragments  with 
the  same  royal  name,  are  built  into  the  walls. J 

I copied  that  which  remained  of  the  legends,  the  old  priest  hooking  a 
pair  of  primitive  spectacles  on  his  nose,  and  watching  my  movements  with 
anxious  curiosity.  He  entreated  me,  with  every  term  of  endearment,  to 

* Called  in  Turkish  Khanjerek. 

t The  inscription  is  published  in  his  collection,  No.  xxiii. 

t Schulz,  No.  xxiv. 


352 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XVIII. 


communicate  the  contents  to  him.  Were  they  talismans  for  the  discovery 
of  riches,  or  words  of  promise  to  the  Armenian  nation  ? They  recorded,  I 
told  him,  the  past  glories  of  his  race,  and  might  be  regarded  as  a promise 
that  by  education,  integrity,  and  reform,  these  glories  might  be  revived. 
This  explanation  was  scarcely  sufficiently  definite  to  satisfy  him.  How- 
ever, in  return  for  the  interpretation,  he  offered  me  a frugal  breakfast  of 
cheese  and  sour  milk. 

Eight  hours’  ride  from  Amikh  brought  me  to  the  large  Armenian  con- 
ent  of  Yedi  Klissia,  or  the  seven  churches,  built  of  substantial  stone  ma- 
sonry, and  inclosing  a spacious  courtyard  planted  with  trees.  It  has  more 
the  appearance  of  a caravanserai  than  that  of  a place  of  religious  retreat, 
and  is  beautifully  situated  near  the  mouth  of  a wooded  ravine,  halfway  up 
a bold  mountain,  which  ends  in  snowy  peaks.  Spread  beneath  it  is  a blue 
lake  and  a smiling  plain,  and  the  city,  with  its  bold  castellated  rock,  and 
its  turreted  walls  half  hid  in  gardens  and  orchards. 

The  church,  a substantial  modem  edifice,  stands  within  the  courtyard. 
Its  walls  are  covered  with  pictures  as  primitive  in  design  as  in  execution. 
There  is  a victorious  St.  George  blowing  out  the  brains  of  a formidable  drag- 
on with  a bright  brass  blunderbus,  and  saints,  attired  in  the  traditionary 
garments  of  Europe,  performing  extravagant  miracles.  The  intelligence 
of  the  good  priest  at  the  head  of  the  convent  was  pretty  well  on  a par 
with  his  illustrated  church  history.  He  was  a specimen  of  the  Armenian 

clergy  of  Asia  Minor.  As  he  de- 
scribed each  subject  to  me,  he  spoke 
of  the  Nestorians  as  heretics,  be- 
cause they  were  allowed,  by  the  can- 
ons of  their  church,  to  marry  their 
mothers  and  grandmothers  ; of  the 
Protestants  as  freemasons  or  athe- 
ists ; and  of  the  great  nations  of 
Europe  as  the  Portuguese,  the  In- 
glese,  the  Muscovs,  and  the  Abbash 
(Abyssinians). 

I found  two  short  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions ; one  on  a stone  amongst 
the  ruins  of  the  old  church,  the  oth- 
er built  into  the  walls  of  the  new.* 
They  also  belong  to  Minuas,  and 
merely  contain  the  name  and  titles 
Kurd  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Wan  of  the  king. 

* Nos.  xxviii.  and  xxix.  Schulz’s  Collection.  Schulz  gives  three  from  this  con- 
vent, one  of  which  may  have  been  covered  by  the  ruins  of  the  former  church  since 
his  visit. 


A Nestorian  Family  employed  in  the  Excavations  at  Kouyunjik. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

LEAVE  WAN THE  ARMENIAN  PATRIARCH. THE  ISLAND  OF  AKHTAMAR. AN  ARMENIAN 

CHURCH. HISTORY  OF  THE  CONVENT. PASS  INTO  MUKUS. THE  DISTRICT  OF  MU- 

KUS OF  SHATTAK OF  NOURDOOZ. A NESTORIAN  VILLAGE. ENCAMPMENTS. MOUNT 

ARARAT. MAR  SHAMOUN. JULAMERIK. VALLEY  OF  DIZ. PASS  INTO  JELU. NESTO- 
RIAN DISTRICT  OF  JELU. AN  ANCIENT  CHURCH. THE  BISHOP. DISTRICT  OF  BAZ — 

OF  TKHOMA RETURN  TO  MOSUL 

Sickness  had  overcome  both  Dr.  Sandwith  and  Mr.  Cooper.  A return 
to  the  burning  plains  of  Assyria  might  have  proved  fatal,  and  I advised 
them  to  seek,  without  further  delay,  the  cooler  climate  of  Europe  Mr 
Walpole,  too,  who  had  been  long  suffering  from  fever,  now  determined  upon 
quitting  my  party  and  taking  the  direct  road  to  Erzeroom. 

In  the  afternoon  of  the  12th  August  I left  the  gates  of  the  convent  of 
Yedi  Klissia  with  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam.  Once  more  I was  alone  with 
my  faithful  friend,  and  we  trod  together  the  winding  pathway  which  led 
down  the  mountain  side.  We  had  both  been  suffering  from  fever,  but  we 
still  had  strength  to  meet  its  attacks,  and  to  bear  cheerfully,  now  unhin- 
dered, the  difficulties  and  anxieties  of  our  wandering  life. 

We  made  a short  journey  of  three  and  a half  hours  to  the  pleasant  vil- 
lage of  Artamit  or  Adremit,  and  encamped  beneath  its  fruit  trees  in  a gar- 
den near  the  lake.*  Our  path  on  the  following  day  led  through  a hilly 
district,  sometimes  edging  a deep  bay,  then  again  winding  over  a rocky 
* There  are  two  cuneiform  inscriptions  near  the  village,  which  are  included  in 
Schulz’s  collection. 


Z 


354 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


promontory.  "We  crossed  by  a bridge  the  large  stream  which  we  had  seen 
at  Mahmoudiyah,  and  which  here  discharges  itself  into  the  lake.  The 
feast  of  St.  George  had  been  celebrated  during  the  previous  day  at  the 
church  of  Narek,  and  we  passed,  as  we  rode  along,  merry  groups  of  Arme- 
nians returning  from  their  pilgrimage.  The  women,  seated  with  their 
children  on  the  backs  of  mules  and  asses,  and  no  longer  fearing  the  glances 
of  haughty  Kurds,  had  lifted  their  veils  from  their  ruddy  faces.  They 
were  dressed  in  scarlet  cloaks,  which  half  concealed  their  festive  robes.  To 
their  platted  hair  was  attached  a square  black  pad  of  silk  hung  with  tas- 
sels, and  sometimes  with  coins.  Most  of  the  men  carried  umbrellas  to  pro- 
tect themselves  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  In  the  midst  of  them  we  met, 
surrounded  by  a crowd  of  adherents,  the  Patriarch  of  Akhtamar,  once  the 
head  of  the  Armenian  Church,  but  now  only  recognised  by  a small  section 
of  Christians  living  in  the  province  of  Wan.  He  rode  a mule,  and  was 
dressed  in  long  black  robes,  with  a silken  cowl  hanging  over  his  head. 
Several  youthful  priests,  some  carrying  silver-headed  wands,  followed  close 
behind  him.  He  was  on  his  way  to  the  city,  and  I thus  lost  the  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  him  at  his  residence  on  the  sacred  island. 

On  the  shores  of  the  lake  we  found  many  encampments  of  gipsies ; the 
men  to  be  distinguished  by  their  swarthy  countenances,  the  women  and 
children  by  their  taste  for  begging. 

We  passed  through  Vastan  ; in  the  eleventh  century  the  residence  of  the 
royal  Armenian  family  of  Ardzrouni,  but  now  a mere  village.  The  con- 
vent boat  was  on  the  beach,  three  miles  above  the  usual  landing-place. 
Four  sturdy  monks  were  about  to  row  it  back  to  the  island.  As  they  of- 
fered to  take  me  with  them,  I left  the  caravan  to  journey  onwards  to  our 
night’s  encamping  place,  and  with  Mr.  Rassam  and  the  Bairakdar,  we 
were  soon  gliding  over  the  calm  surface  of  the  lake.  Not  a breeze  rippled 
the  blue  expanse.  The  burning  rays  of  the  sun  were  still  full  upon  us,  and 
the  panting  boatmen  were  nearly  two  hours  before  they  reached  the  con- 
vent. 

In  the  absence  of  the  Patriarch  we  were  received  by  an  intelligent  and 
courteous  monk  named  Kirikor.  His  hair,  as  well  as  his  beard,  had  never 
known  the  scissors,  and  fell  in  long  luxuriant  curls  over  his  shoulders.  It 
was  of  jetty  black,  for  he  was  still  a young  man,  although  he  had  already 
passed  twenty  years  of  a monastic  life.  He  led  us  through  an  arched  door- 
way into  the  spacious  courtyard  of  the  convent,  and  thence  into  an  upper 
room  furnished  with  comfortable  divans  for  the  reception  of  guests.  Tea 
was  brought  to  us  after  the  Persian  fashion,  and  afterwards  a more  substan- 
tial breakfast,  in  which  the  dried  fish  of  the  lake  formed  the  principal  dish. 
Kirikor  had  visited  Jerusalem  and  Constantinople,  had  read  many  of  the 
works  issued  by  the  Venetian  press,  and  was  a man  of  superior  acquire- 
ments for  an  Armenian  monk  of  the  orthodox  faith. 

The  church,  which  is  within  the  convent  walls,  is  built  of  the  sandstone 
of  a rich  deep  red  color  that  has  been  quarried  for  the  turbehs  of  Akhlat. 


AN  ARMENIAN  CHURCH. 


355 


Chap.  XIX.] 

Like  other  religious  edifices  of  the  same  period  and  of  the  same  nation,  it  is 
in  the  form  of  a cross,  with  a small  hexagonal  tower,  ending  in  a conical 
roof,  rising  above  the  centre.  The  first  monastery  was  founded  by  a Prince 
Theodore  in  a.  d.  653  : and  the  church  is  attributed  to  the  Armenian  king 
Kakhik,  of  the  family  of  Ardzrouni,  who  reigned  in  the  tenth  century  ; but 
the  island  appears  from  a very  remote  date  to  have  contained  a castle  of 
the  Armenian  kings.  The  entrance  and  vestibule  of  the  church  are  of  a 
different  style  from  the  rest  of  the  building,  being  a bad  imitation  of  modern 
Italian  architecture.  They  were  added  about  one  hundred  years  ago  by  a 
patriarch,  whose  tomb  is  in  the  courtyard.  The  interior  is  simple.  A few 
rude  pictures  of  saints  and  miracles  adorn  the  walls,  and  a gilded  throne 
for  the  Patriarch  stands  near  the  altar.  The  exterior,  however,  is  elabo- 
rately ornamented  with  friezes  and  broad  bands  of  sculptured  figures  and 
scroll  work,  the  upper  part  being  almost  covered  with  bas-reliefs,  giving  to 
the  whole  building  a very  striking  and  original  appearance.  The  conical 
roof  of  the  tower,  rising  over  the  centre  of  the  cross,  rests  upon  a frieze  of 
hares,  foxes,  and  other  animals.  Above  arched  windows  are  bands  of  rich 
foliage,  and  beneath  them,  at  the  base  of  the  tower,  a row  of  small  vault- 
ed recesses.  The  roof  of  the  transept  is  supported  by  human  heads.  Be- 
neath is  a frieze,  Assyrian  in  its  character,  and  resembling  the  embossed 
designs  on  some  of  the  bronze  dishes  described  in  a previous  chapter.^  It 
consists  of  lions  springing  upon  stags,  and  figures  of  wild  goats,  hares,  and 
deer.  Under  the  projecting  roof  of  the  aisle  is  a frieze,  formed  of  bunches 
of  grapes  mingled  with  grotesque  forms  of  men,  animals,  and  birds.  Next 
is  a row  of  the  heads  of  similar  figures,  projecting  in  high  relief  from  the 
wall.  They  are  succeeded  by  bas-reliefs  representing  Scripture  stories  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  divided  into  separate  subjects  by  medallions 
with  images  of  Armenian  saints.  An  elaborate  border  of  scroll  work  com- 
pletes the  exterior  decoration  about  half  way  up  the  building.  The  human 
form  is  rudely  portrayed  in  these  sculptures  ; but  the  general  design  is  far 
from  inelegant,  and  the  ornaments  rich  and  appropriate.  I know  of  no  sim- 
ilar specimen  of  Armenian  architecture,  and  I regret  that  time  would  not 
allow  me  to  make  detailed  drawings  of  the  edifice. f 

In  a grave-yard  outside  the  church  are  several  most  elaborately  carved 
tombstones  belonging  to  the  early  Armenian  patriarchs.  That  of  Zachu- 
riah,  who  died  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  who  was  for  one  year  patri- 
arch at  Echmiadsin  and  for  nine  years  at  Akhtamar,  is  especially  worthy 
of  notice  for  the  richness  and  elegance  of  its  ornaments. 

In  the  portico  is  a circular  black  stone,  like  a millstone,  with  short  cunei- 
form inscriptions  on  the  two  flat  sides.  They  contain  the  name  of  the  king 
who  carved  the  great  tablet  of  the  Meher  Kapousi  near  Wan,  which  Dr. 

* Chapter  VIII. 

t This  building  affords  another  clue  to  the  origin  of  the  early  Mussulman  architect- 
ure— Arab  and  Tatar  — of  which  remains  exist  in  many  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
particularly  at  Akhlat. 


356  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XIX. 

Hincks  reads  Minuas.  The  inscriptions  do  not  appear  to  record  any  events 
of  importance.* 

A library  of  manuscripts,  said  to  have  been  once  preserved  in  the  con- 
vent, no  longer  exists.  Kirikor  assured  me  that  many  works  of  value  had 
been  removed  some  years  ago  to  the  capital  by  order  of  the  Constantino- 
politan  Patriarch. 

The  Patriarchate  of  Akhtamar,  or  Aghtamar,  was  founded  in  1113  by 
an  archbishop  of  the  island,  who  declared  himself  independent  of  the  uni- 
versal Patriarch,  residing  at  Echmiadsin.  Its  jurisdiction  does  not  extend 
far  beyond  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Wan,  and  the  ecclesiastic  who 
fills  the  office  is  generally  even  more  ignorant  than  other  dignitaries  of  the 
Armenian  Church.  The  present  Patriarch,  I was  informed,  obtained  his 
nomination  by  bribing  the  celebrated  Kurdish  chief,  Khan  Mahmoud,  with- 
in whose  territories  his  followers  mainly  reside. 

The  convent  and  church  are  built  on  a small  rocky  island  about  five 
miles  from  the  shore.  On  an  adjacent  islet  are  the  ruined  walls  of  a castle 
partly  covered  by  the  rising  waters  of  the  lake.  Intercourse  with  the  main 
land  is  carried  on  by  the  one  crank  boat  which,  whenever  the  weather  per- 
mits, goes  backwards  and  forwards  daily  for  such  provisions  as  are  required 
by  the  inmates  of  the  monastery.  Khan  Mahmoud  took  the  place  by  col- 
lecting together  the  vessels  belonging  to  Wan  for  the  transport  of  his  troops. 

Late  in  the  afternoon,  accompanied  by  the  monk  Kirikor,  I was  rowed 
to  the  farm  and  garden  belonging  to  the  convent,  near  the  village  of  Ash- 
ayansk.  We  had  scarcely  reached  the  land  ere  a violent  storm  of  wind 
suddenly  arose,  and  lashed  the  waters  of  the  lake  into  high  waves  crowned 
with  foam.  The  monks  dragged  the  boat  high  on  the  beach  to  save  it 
from  being  dashed  to  pieces.  I was  well  satisfied  not  to  have  encountered 
the  gale,  with  which  our  frail  bark  could  scarcely  have  struggled.  It  was, 
however,  but  one  of  those  mountain  squalls  which  sometimes  sweep  down 
the  deep  valleys,  and  expend  their  fury  in  a short  hour.  By  sunset  the 
air  was  again  serene,  and  the  face  of  the  blue  lake  once  more  reflected, 
like  a mirror,  the  snow-white  gulls  and  black  cormorants  that  floated  on 
its  surface. 

A few  monks  live  on  the  farm,  and  tend  the  property  of  the  convent, 
supplying  the  Patriarch  with  the  produce  of  the  dairy  and  orchards.  They 
received  us  very  hospitably.  Kirikor  rode  with  me  on  the  following  morn- 
ing as  far  as  the  large  Armenian  village  of  Narek,  in  which  there  is  a 
church  dedicated  to  St.  George,  much  frequented  in  pilgrimage  by  the 
Christians  of  Wan  and  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  built  by  one  Ta- 
teos  Arakil,  in  the  ninth  century,  according  to  the  priest  of  the  place ; but. 
according  to  Kirikor,  by  a certain  Theodorus  in  the  time  of  King  Kakhik. 
It  has  probably  been  added  to  and  repaired  at  various  periods,  and  there 
are  parts,  such  as  the  belfry,  which  are  modern,  whilst  others  bear  evident 

* Nos.  xx.  and  xxi.  in  Schulz’s  collection.  One  inscription  contains  ten,  and  the 
other,  nine  short  lines. 


THE  DISTRICT  OF  MUKUS. 


357 


Chap.  XIX.] 

marks  of  antiquity.  It  is  a strong  solid  building,  of  the  same  red  sand 
stone  as  the  tombs  of  Akhlat. 

We  had  now  left  the  lake  of  Wan,  and  our  track  led  up  a deep  ravine, 
which  gradually  became  more  narrow  as  we  drew  nigh  to  the  high  mount- 
ains that  separated  us  from  the  unexplored  districts  of  Mukus  and  Bohtan. 
We  passed  a large  Armenian  village  named  Pagwantz,  near  which,  on  the 
summit  of  a precipitous  rock,  stands  the  ruined  castle  of  Khan  Mahmoud, 
the  rebel  chief.  He  was  the  eldest  of  seven  brothers,  all  of  whom  governed 
under  him  different  districts  on  the  borders  of  the  lake,  and  sorely  oppress- 
ed the  Christian  inhabitants.  Five  were  captured  and  are  in  banishment. 

On  both  sides  of  the  ravine  were  villages  and  ruined  castles.  Numer- 
ous streams  from  the  hill-sides  irrigated  plots  of  cultivated  ground.  Ere 
long  we  entered  a rocky  barren  tract,  patched  here  and  there  with  fragrant 
Alpine  flowers.  After  climbing  up  a steep  declivity  of  loose  stones  like  the 
moraine  of  a Swiss  glacier,  and  dragging  our  horses  with  much  difficulty 
after  us,  we  found  ourselves  amidst  eternal  snow,  over  which  we  toiled  for 
nearly  two  hours,  until  we  reached  the  crest  of  the  mountain,  and  looked 
down  into  the  deep  valley  of  Mukus.  This  is  considered  one  of  the  high- 
est passes  in  Kurdistan,  and  one  of  the  most  difficult  for  beasts  of  burden. 
The  flocks  of  the  nomade  Kurds  of  Bohtan  were  feeding  in  the  gullies,  crop- 
ping the  sweet  and  tender  herbs  nourished  by  the  snow.  The  descent  was 
even  more  rapid  and  precipitous  than  the  ascent,  and  we  could  scarcely 
prevent  our  weary  horses  from  rolling  down  into  the  ravine  with  the  stones 
which  we  put  into  motion  at  every  step.  At  the  foot  of  the  pass  is  a small 
Armenian  church  called  Khorous  Klissia,  or  “ the  church  of  the  cock,”  be- 
cause a black  cock  is  said  to  warn  the  traveller  when  the  snowdrifts  hide 
the  mountain  tracks. 

There  was  no  other  pathway  down  the  rocky  ravine  than  the  dry  bed 
of  the  torrent.  As  we  approached  the  widening  valley  the  springs  began 
to  collect  together  and  to  form  a considerable  stream,  through  which  we 
had  to  wade  as  we  best  could.  A track,  occasionally  followed  by  the  sol- 
itary foot-traveller,  and  by  the  shepherds  in  their  periodical  migrations  to 
the  uplands,  had  been  carried  here  and  there  over  the  foaming  water  by 
trunks  of  trees.  But  these  simple  bridges  had  been  washed  away  during 
a recent  storm.  Leaving  the  laden  horses  to  find  their  way  over  the  stones 
and  through  the  torrent,  I rode  onwards  with  Hormuzd.  We  passed  soon 
after  a deep  natural  cavern,  from  which  burst,  white  with  foam  and  strug- 
gling through  a bed  of  pink  flowers,  a most  abundant  spring.  This  was 
one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Tigris,  here  called 
the  river  of  Mukus,  which,  according  to  an  Armenian  tradition,  only  issued 
from  the  rock  for  about  five  hundred  years  ago. 

A ride  of  eight  hours  brought  us  to  the  large  scattered  village  of  Mukus, 
the  principal  place  of  the  district  of  the  same  name.  We  were  met,  as  we 
drew  near,  by  the  Mudir  or  governor,  an  active  bustling  Turk,  who  had  al- 
ready chosen,  with  the  usual  taste  of  an  Eastern,  the  prettiest  spot,  a lawn 


358 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


on  the  banks  of  the  river,  for  our  tents,  and  had  collected  provisions  for  our- 
selves and  our  horses.  The  good  Pasha  of  Wan  had  sent  to  the  different 
chiefs  on  our  way,  and  had  ordered  preparations  to  be  everywhere  made  for 
our  reception.  The  Tigris  is  here  a deep  stream,  and  is  crossed  by  a stone 
bridge.  The  houses  are  built  without  order,  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountain, 
each  family  choosing  some  open  place  more  free  from  stones  than  the  usual 
rocky  declivities  to  cultivate  a small  plot  of  ground.  There  is  no  room  for 
them  in  the  narrow  valley.  The  place  may  contain  altogether  about  two 
thousand  inhabitants. 

The  district  of  Mukus,  anciently  Mogkh,  and  one  of  the  provinces  of  the 
Armenian  kingdom,  had  only  lately  been  brought  under  the  authority  of  the 
Sultan.*  Like  the  rest  of  this  part  of  Kurdistan,  it  had  long  maintained 
its  independence  under  hereditary  chiefs,  the  last  of  whom,  Abdal  Bey, 
after  several  times  defeating  the  Turkish  troops  sent  against  him,  was  at 
length  captured  as  he  was  flying  into  Persia.  Of  its  sixty  villages  forty 
are  inhabited  by  Christian  Armenians.  The  revenues  amounted  the  year 
of  my  visit  to  little  more  than  100,000  piastres  (about  910Z.),  of  which  the 
village  of  Mukus  contributed  42,000.  The  garrison  consisted  of  only  forty 
regular  soldiers  and  forty  Albanians,  so  completely  had  the  seizure  of  their 
ehiefs  discouraged  the  wild  Kurdish  tribes  who  dwell  in  the  mountains,  and 
were  formerly  in  open  rebellion  against  the  Porte.  This  nomade  race  forms 
the  principal  part  of  the  Mussulman  population,  and  is  the  most  fierce  and 
independent  in  Kurdistan.  Mukus  was  anciently  celebrated  for  its  mines. 
None  are  now  worked,  and  even  the  site  of  the  greater  part  of  them  is  un- 
known. The  Pasha  of  Wan  had  sent  miners  from  Arghana  to  examine 
those  of  silver  and  copper,  but  their  report  being  unfavorable,  no  further  at- 
tempt was  made  to  explore  them.  The  Armenians  of  Mukus  weave  the 
striped  woollen  stuffs,  some  of  rich  color  and  fine  texture,  worn  by  the  Kurds, 
and  export  a little  honey  and  wax,  but  have  no  other  trade.  The  border  dis- 
tricts are  Karkar  (containing  about  eighteen  villages),  Khiawash,  Isparut, 
Bidar,  and  Shattak.f 

The  Mudir  showed  the  greatest  anxiety  for  our  welfare  during  the  night, 
continually  visiting  our  tents  to  see  that  the  Albanians  he  had  placed  as 

* The  ancient  Armenian  province  of  Mogkh  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  a part 
of  Assyria  called  by  the  Armenians  Arovasdan.  It  was  governed  by  Armenian 
princes,  whose  descendants  still  reigned  there  in  the  tenth  century.  (St.  Martin,  i. 
175.,  who  by  mistake  places  Mukus  on  the  Khabour.)  Ammianus  Marcellinus  men- 
tions the  district  under  the  name  of  Moxoene.  According  to  a tradition,  the  mount- 
ains to  the  south  of  the  lake  of  Wan  were  the  original  seat  of  the  Armenian  race. 
(St.  Martin,  i.  206.) 

t The  principal  villages  in  the  Mukus  district  are  Aughin,  Nouravos,  Kasr,  Achi- 
chos,  Kerkichos,  Aurenj,  Kotzabiloor,  Auveriss,  Parangos,  Mangoneh,  Komos,  Ket- 
choks,  Amaghus,  Marakos,  and  Berwar.  Of  the  nine  districts  into  which,  according 
to  the  Armenian  writers,  the  province  of  Mogkh  was  divided,  I could  recognize  no 
name  in  the  modern  villages  and  valleys.  From  Mukus  to  Jezireh  there  are  five  car- 
avan days’  journeys,  and  to  Sert  three,  by  difficult  mountain  roads. 


THE  DISTRICT  OF  SHATTAK. 


359 


Chap.  XIX.] 

guards  over  our  property  did  not  sleep,  as  the  village  swarmed  with  Boh- 
tan  thieves. 

The  principal  Armenians  of  Mukus  with  their  priests  spent  a morning 
with  me.  They  knew  of  no  ruins  or  inscriptions  in  the  district,  and  I found 
them  even  more  ignorant  than  their  fellow-countrymen  of  the  districts 
around  Wan,  whose  stupidity  has  passed  into  a Turkish  proverb.  Long 
subjection  to  the  Kurds  and  a constant  intercourse  with  Mussulmans,  have 
led  them  to  adopt  their  manners  and  dress  ; their  religion  at  the  same  time 
consists  of  mere  outward  profession,  and  the  punctual  performance  of  a few 
ceremonies  and  fasts. 

We  left  Mukus  early  in  the  afternoon,  accompanied  by  the  Mudir.  The 
path  following  the  course  of  the  river,  leads  to  Sert  Jezireh  and  the  Assyr- 
ian plains.  We  soon  turned  from  it,  and  entered  a valley  running  east- 
wards. On  the  mountain-sides  were  many  villages,  buried,  like  those  of 
.tiyari,  in  orchards  and  groves  of  walnuts.  We  forced  our  way  through 
thickets  and  through  matted  climbing  plants  hanging  from  the  branches 
of  trees,  the  track  being  continually  lost  in  rivulets  or  in  watercourses  for 
irrigation.  The  valley  soon  narrowed  into  a wild  gorge.  High  above  us, 
in  a cave  in  the  rock,  was  an  ancient  Christian  chapel,  which  I visited,  but 
without  finding  anything  of  interest  in  it.  The  ravine  ended  at  length  in 
the  gardens  of  Aurenj.  We  chose  amongst  them  a sheltered  nook  for  our 
night’s  resting-place. 

Next  day  we  crossed  a high  mountain  ridge  covered  in  some  places  with 
snow,  separating  the  district  of  Mukus  from  that  of  Shattak.  Its  northern 
and  western  slopes  are  the  summer  pastures  of  the  Miran  Kurds,  whose 
flocks  were  still  feeding  on  the  green  lawns  and  in  the  flowery  glens.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  pass  we  found  an  encampment  of  Hartushi  Kurds, 
under  one  Omar  Agha,  a noble  old  chieftain,  who  welcomed  us  with  un- 
bounded hospitality,  and  set  before  me  every  luxury  that  he  possessed.  I 
could  scarcely  resist  his  entreaties  that  we  should  pass  the  night  under  his 
tent.  I had  honored  it,  he  declared,  by  entering  into  it.  All  that  it  con- 
tained, his  children,  his  wives,  and  his  flocks,  were,  upon  his  head,  no  longer 
his  but  my  property.  I had  no  wish  to  profit  by  his  generosity,  and  at 
length  we  parted.  Resuming  our  journey  we  descended  by  a precipitous 
pathway  into  a deep  valley.  A broad  stream,  another  arm  of  the  eastern 
Tigris,  wound  through  it ; its  glittering  waters  had  been  just  visible  amidst 
the  gardens  of  Shattak,  from  the  mountain-top. 

Here  again  the  Mudir  had  been  apprised  of  our  coming,  and  was  ready 
to  receive  us.  He  had  collected  provisions  for  ourselves  and  horses  in  an 
open  space  on  the  river  bank.  Shattak  is  a small  town,  rather  than  a vil- 
lage. It  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Armenians,  an  industrious  and  hardy  race, 
cultivating  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  on  which  are  built  their  villages, 
and  weaving  in  considerable  quantities  the  gay-colored  woollen  stuffs  so 
much  esteemed  by  the  Kurds.  In  nearly  every  house  was  a loom,  and  the 
rattle  of  the  shuttle  came  from  almost  every  door.  The  large  and  flour- 


360 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


ishing  Armenian  communities  inhabiting  the  valleys  between  lake  Wan  and 
the  district  of  Jezireh,  appear  to  he  unknown  to  modern  geographers,  and 
are  unnoticed  in  our  best  maps.  The  difficulties  and  dangers  of  the  road 
have  hitherto  deterred  travellers  from  entering  their  mountains.  The  ex- 
istence of  this  people  in  the  very  heart  of  Kurdistan  might,  if  taken  ad- 
vantage of  by  the  Porte,  be  the  means  of  establishing  an  important  trade, 
and  of  quieting  and  civilising  a country  but  recently  brought  under  its  rule. 
The  mountains  produce  galls,  wool  (some  of  which  has  the  same  silky  text- 
ure as  that  of  Angora),  the  small  under-wool  of  the  goat  called  teftik  (a 
valuable  article  of  export),  and  minerals.  In  the  bazar  at  Shattak  I saw 
a few  English  prints,  and  other  European  wares  brought  for  sale  from  Wan. 

The  priests  and  principal  Armenians  of  the  place  came  to  me  soon  after 
my  arrival,  and  I learnt  from  them  that  efforts  had  already  been  made  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  Christian  community,  now  that  the  oppressive 
rule  of  the  Kurdish  hereditary  chiefs  had  been  succeeded  by  the  more  tol- 
erant government  of  the  Sultan.  A school  had  been  opened,  chiefly  by 
the  help  of  Sheran,  the  active  and  liberal  Armenian  banker  of  Wan. 

The  town  itself  is  called  by  the  Armenians  Tauk,  by  the  Kurds  Shokh, 
and  when  spoken  of  together  with  the  numerous  villages  that  surround  it, 
Shattak.  It  stands  near  the  junction  of  two  considerable  streams,  forming 
one  of  the  head- waters  of  the  eastern  Tigris,  and  uniting  with  the  Bohtan- 
Su.  The  largest  comes  from  the  district  of  Albagh.  These  streams,  as 
well  as  that  of  Mukus,  abound  in  trout  of  the  most  delicious  flavor.  The 
entire  district  contains  fifty  villages  and  numerous  mezras  or  hamlets. 
The  revenues  are  about  the  same  as  those  of  Mukus.  A few  Mussulmans 
live  on  the  right  bank  of  the  stream  opposite  Shokh,  round  the  ruins  of  an 
old  castle,  medresseh  (college),  and  mosque,  all  apparently  at  one  time 
handsome  and  well-built  edifices.  They  prove  that  the  place  was  once  a 
flourishing  Mohammedan  town.  The  castle  belonged  to  Nur-Ullah  Bey: 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Beder  Khan  Bey,  who  gave  it  to  Omar  Agha. 
a chief  of  the  Hartushi  Kurds,  the  last  independent  lord  of  the  place. 

We  left  Shokh  on  the  17th  August  by  a bridge  crossing  the  principal 
stream.  The  Mudir  rode  with  us  up  a steep  mountain,  rising  on  the  very 
outskirts  of  the  town.  After  a long  and  difficult  ascent  we  came  to  a bread 
green  platform  called  Tagu,  the  pastures  of  the  people  of  Shattak,  and  now 
covered  with  their  tents  and  flocks.  This  high  ground  overlooked  the  deep 
valleys,  through  which  wound  the  two  streams,  and  on  whose  sides  were 
many  smiling  gardens  and  villages.  We  stopped  at  an  encampment  of 
Miran  Kurds,  a large  and  wealthy  tribe,  pasturing  their  flocks  far  and  wide 
over  the  mountains  and  ravines  of  Shattak  and  Nourdooz.  Their  chief 
had  died  five  days  before.  We  had  passed  on  the  road  his  son,  a boy  cov- 
ered with  embroidery  and  gold,  and  surrounded  by  armed  servants.  He 
was  on  his  way  to  Wan  to  receive  a cloak  of  investiture  from  the  Pasha, 
who  had  recognised  him  as  lord  of  the  clan. 

Crossing  a high  mountain  pass,  on  which  snow  still  lingered,  we  de- 


A NESTORIAN  ENCAMPMENT. 


361 


Chap.  XIX.] 

scended  into  a deep  valley  like  that  of  Shattak,  chiefly  cultivated  by  Ar- 
menians. We  crossed  a small  stream,  and  ascended  on  the  opposite  side  to 
Ashkaun,  whose  inhabitants  were  outside  the  village,  near  a clear  spring, 
washing  and  shearing  their  sheep.  We  had  now  entered  Nourdooz,  a dis- 
trict under  a Mudir  appointed  by  the  Pasha  of  Wan,  and  living  at  a large 
village  called  Pir-bedelan. 

Our  ride  on  the  following  day  was  over  upland  pastures  of  great  rich- 
ness, and  through  narrow  valleys  watered  by  numerous  streams.  Here 
and  there  were  villages  inhabited  by  Kurds  and  Armenians.  We  were  now 
approaching  the  Nestorian  districts.  The  first  man  of  the  tribe  we  met 
was  an  aged  buffalo-keeper,  who,  in  answer  to  a question  in  Kurdish,  spoke 
to  me  in  the  Chaldee  dialect  of  the  mountains.  Hormuzd  and  my  serv- 
ants rejoiced  at  the  prospect  of  leaving  the  Armenian  settlements,  whose 
inhabitants,  they  declared,  were  for  stupidity  worse  than  Kurds,  and  for 
rapacity  worse  than  Jews.  Chilghiri  was  the  first  Nestorian  village  on 
our  way.  The  men,  with  their  handsome  wives  and  healthful  children, 
came  out  to  meet  us.  We  did  not  stop  there,  but  continued  our  journey  to 
Merwanen,  which  we  found  deserted  by  its  inhabitants  for  the  Zomas,  or 
summer  pastures.  The  Kiayah,  or  chief,  however,  with  one  or  two  of  his 
people,  had  ridden  down  to  examine  the  state  of  the  crops,  and  turning  his 
horse  he  led  us  up  the  steep  pathway  to  his  tents.  They  were  huddled  up 
in  a little  rocky  nook,  high  on  the  mountain,  and  in  the  midst  of  snow. 
Unlike  the  Kurds,  the  Nestorians  do  not  shift  their  encampments,  but  re- 
main on  one  spot  during  the  whole  time  they  are  in  the  Zomas.  They 
thus  live  for  some  months  in  the  midst  of  the  dung  of  animals  and  filth  of 
all  kinds,  whilst  vermin  abounds  as  plentifully  as  in  their  wretched  vil- 
lages. The  cattle  and  flocks  are  kept  during  the  night  in  folds,  formed  by 
a circular  wall  four  or  five  feet  high,  built  of  loose  stones.  The  dwellings 
indeed  consist  of  little  more  than  such  rude  inclosures,  with  coarse  black 
goat-hair  canvas  stretched  over  them.  As  the  nights  are  cold,  and  pro- 
tection from  the  high  winds  is  necessary  in  these  lofty  regions,  a shallow 
pit  is  dug  in  the  centre  of  the  hut,  in  which  the  family  crouches  for  warmth 
when  not  engaged  in  out-door  occupations.  Although  poor  and  needy,  the 
people  of  Merwanen  were  not  less  hospitable  than  other  Nestorians  I had 
met  with.  They  brought  us  as  the  sun  went  down  smoking  messes  of  mil- 
let boiled  in  sour  milk  and  mixed  with  mountain  herbs. 

The  Nestorian  Christians  of  these  Kurdish  districts  dress  like  their  Mus- 
sulman neighbours,  and  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  them.  They 
still  go  armed,  and  are  less  exposed  to  oppression  than  the  suffering  tribes 
of  Tiyari.  The  Kiayah  and  a party  of  musketeers  escorted  us  next  day  to 
a large  encampment  of  Hartushi  Kurds,  near  the  outlet  of  a green  valley, 
watered  by  many  streams,  forming  the  most  easterly  sources  of  the  Tigris.* 
Abd-ur-Rahman,  the  chief,  was  absent  from  his  tents  collecting  the  annual 

* The  several  streams  forming  the  headwaters  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Tigris 
mentioned  in  this  Chapter  were  not  before  known,  I believe,  to  geographers. 


362 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


salian  or  revenue  of  the  tribe.  In  his  absence  we  were  received  under  his 
capacious  goat-hair  tent  by  a conceited  mollah,  who,  being  the  spiritual 
adviser  of  its  master,  considered  himself  also  the  joint  owner  of  his  per- 
sonal property.  He  did  the  honors,  as  if  we  were  his  guests,  in  a very  pat- 
ronising fashion.  A scene  of  activity  rarely  witnessed  in  a Kurdish  com- 
munity reigned  around.  The  banks  of  a small  stream  running  through  the 
midst  of  the  camp  were  crowded  with  sheep  : some  being  washed  in  the 
pure  water,  others  being  under  the  scissors  of  the  shearers.  Groups  of  hoys 
and  women  were  already  heating  and  pressing  the  newly-cut  wool  into  felt, 
a manufacture  of  the  Hartushi  Kurds  much  prized  for  its  close  yet  soft  text- 
ure. In  the  tents  girls  were  seated  before  the  long  warps  stretched  over 
the  green-sward  for  the  woof  of  their  beautiful  carpets.  I was  not  un- 
known to  these  mountaineers,  who  wander  during  the  winter  in  the  plains 
to  the  east  of  the  Tigris,  below  Jezireh,  and  frequently  come  into  Mosul  to 
trade.  A group  of  chiefs,  gaily  dressed  in  the  striped  cloth  of  Bohtan, 
soon  collected  round  us.  The  wives  of  Abd-ur-Rahman  Agha  did  not  suf- 
fer their  husband’s  good  name  for  hospitality  to  he  forfeited.  Although 
Hormuzd  and  myself  were  the  only  partakers  of  the  feast,  a primitive  ta- 
ble-cloth formed  of  the  skins  of  the  wild  goat  was  spread  before  us,  and 
covered  with  a great  pile  of  the  white  and  delicate  mountain  bread. 

The  mountain  rising  above  us  was  the  boundary  between  the  pashalics 
of  Wan  and  Hakkiari  and  the  watershed  of  the  Tigris  and  Zab.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  streams  uniting  their  waters  flowed  towards  the  latter 
river.  The  first  district  we  entered  was  that  of  Lewen,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Nestorians.  The  whole  population  with  their  flocks  had  deserted  their 
villages  for  the  Zomas.  We  ascended  to  the  encampment  of  the  people  of 
Billi,  a wretched  assemblage  of  dirty  hovels,  half  tent  and  half  cabin,  built 
of  stones  and  black  canvas.  Behind  it  towered,  amidst  eternal  snows,  a 
bold  and  majestic  peak,  called  Karnessa-ou-Daoleh.*  Round  the  base  of 
this  mountain,  over  loose  stones  and  sharp  rocks,  and  through  ravines  deep 
in  snow,  we  dragged  our  weary  horses  next  day.  The  Kurdish  shepherds 
that  wander  there,  a wild  and  hardy  race,  have  no  tents,  hut,  during  the 
summer  months,  live  in  the  open  fields  with  their  flocks,  without  any  cov- 
ering whatever. 

After  a wearisome  and  indeed  dangerous  ride,  we  found  ourselves  on  a 
snowy  platform  variegated  with  Alpine  plants.  The  tiny  streams  which 
trickled  through  the  ice  were  edged  with  forget-me-nots  of  the  tenderest 
blue,  and  with  many  well-remembered  European  flowers.  I climbed  up 
a solitary  rock  to  take  hearings  of  the  principal  peaks  around  us.  A sight 
as  magnificent  as  unexpected  awaited  me.  Far  to  the  north,  and  high 
above  the  dark  mountain  ranges  which  spread  like  a troubled  sea  beneath 
my  feet,  rose  one  solitary  cone  of  unspotted  white  sparkling  in  the  rays  of 
the  sun.  Its  form  could  not  he  mistaken  ; it  was  Mount  Ararat.  My  Nes- 
torian  guide  knew  no  more  of  this  stately  mountain,  to  him  a kind  of  mythic 
* The  encampment  at  Billi  was  8612  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 


MOUNT  ARARAT. 


363 


Ohap.  XIX.] 

land  far  beyond  the  reach  of  human  travel,  than  that  it  was  within  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  Muscovites,  and  that  the  Christians  called  it  Bashut-tama- 
hamda.  From  this  point  alone  was  it  visible,  and  we  saw  it  no  more  dur- 
ing our  journey.* 

To  the  east  of  us  were  mountains  scarcely  less  imposing  or  picturesque 
in  form  than  Ararat,  but  more  rocky  and  more  naked.  We  were  again 
drawing  near  to  the  lofty  peaks  of  Jelu,  beneath  whose  eastern  precipices 
we  had  journeyed  in  the  plain  of  Graour.  But  the  Zab  divided  us  from 
them.  Into  the  deep  and  narrow  valley  through  which  this  river  flows 
we  gazed  from  the  top  of  the  Karnesseh-ou-Daoleh  Pass.  Over  against  us 
were  the  Nestorian  districts,  at  one  time  inhabited  by  the  only  independ- 
ent Christian  tribes  of  Asia,  and  still  the  dwelling-places  of  this  remnant 
of  a primitive  church. 

We  descended  rapidly  by  a difficult  track,  passing  here  and  there  en- 
campments of  Kurds  and  the  tents  and  flocks  of  the  people  of  Julamerik. 
To  the  green  pastures  succeeded  the  region  of  cultivated  fields,  and  we 
seemed  to  approach  more  settled  habitations.  Following  a precipitous 
pathway,  and  mounted  on  a tall  and  sturdy  mule,  we  spied  an  aged  man 
with  long  robes,  black  turban,  and  a white  beard  which  fell  almost  to  his 
girdle.  A few  lusty  mountaineers,  in  the  striped  dress  and  conical  felt  cap 
of  the  Christian  tribes,  walked  by  his  side  and  supported  him  on  the  ani- 
mal, which  with  difficulty  scrambled  over  the  loose  stones.  We  at  once 
recognized  the  features  of  Mar  Shamoun,  the  Patriarch  of  the  Nestorians, 
or,  as  he  proudly  terms  himself,  “ of  the  Chaldseans  of  the  East.”  He  had 
not  known  of  our  coming,  and  he  shed  tears  of  joy  as  he  embraced  us. 
Kochhannes,  his  residence,  was  not  far  distant,  and  he  turned  back  with  us 
to  the  village.  Since  I had  seen  him  misfortune  and  grief,  more  than  age, 
had  worn  deep  furrows  in  his  brow,  and  had  turned  his  hair  and  beard  to 
silvery  grey.  We  had  last  met  at  Mosul,  the  day  previous  to  his  escape 
from  confinement  into  Persia.  Since  that  time  he  had  been  wandering  on 
the  confines  of  the  two  border  countries,  but  had  now  sought  repose  once 
more  in  the  old  seat  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  mountain  tribes. 

We  soon  reached  his  dwelling.  It  is  solidly  built  of  hewn  stone,  and 
stands  on  the  very  edge  of  a precipice  overhanging  a ravine,  through  which 
winds  a branch  of  the  Zab.  A dark  vaulted  passage  led  us  into  a room, 
scarcely  better  lighted  by  a small  window,  closed  by  a greased  sheet  of  coarse 
paper.  The  tattered  remains  of  a felt  carpet,  spread  in  a corner,  was  the 
whole  of  its  furniture.  The  garments  of  the  Patriarch  were  hardly  less 
worn  and  ragged.  Even  the  miserable  allowance  of  300  piastres  (about 
21.  10s.),  which  the  Porte  had  promised  to  pay  him  monthly  on  his  return 
to  the  mountains,  was  long  in  arrears,  and  he  was  supported  entirely  by  the 
contributions  of  his  faithful  but  poverty-stricken  flock.  Kochhannes  was, 
moreover,  still  a heap  of  ruins.  At  the  time  of  the  massacre  Mar  Shamoun 

* The  bearing  I obtained  of  Mount  Ararat  (N.  15°.  30"  E.)  corresponds  correctly 
with  its  position  on  the  best  maps.  Our  distance  was  about  145  miles. 


364 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


scarcely  saved  himself  by  a precipitous  flight  before  the  ferocious  Kurds  of 
Beder  Khan  Bey  entered  the  village  and  slew  those  who  still  lingered  in 
it,  and  were  from  age  or  infirmities  unable  to  escape. 

Mar  Shamoun,  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  had  no  less  cause  to  bewail  the 
misfortunes  of  his  people  than  his  personal  sufferings.  The  latter  were 
perhaps  partly  to  he  attributed  to  his  own  want  of  prudence  and  foresight. 
Old  influences,  which  I could  not  but  deeply  deplore,  and  to  which  I do  not 
in  Christian  charity  wish  further  to  allude,*  had  been  at  work,  and  I found 
him  even  more  bitter  in  his  speech  against  the  American  missionaries  than 
against  his  Turkish  or  Kurdish  oppressors.  He  had  been  taught,  and  it  is 
to  he  regretted  that  his  teachers  were  of  the  Church  of  England,  that  those 
who  were  endeavoring  to  civilise  and  instruct  his  flock  were  seceders  from 
the  orthodox  community  of  Christians,  heretical  in  doctrine,  rejecting  all 
the  sacraments  and  ordinances  of  the  true  faith,  and  intent  upon  reducing 
the  Nestorians  to  their  own  hopeless  condition  of  infidelity.  His  fears  were 
worked  on  by  the  assurance  that,  ere  long,  through  their  means  and  teach- 
ing, his  spiritual  as  well  as  his  temporal  authority  would  be  entirely  de- 
stroyed. I found  him  bent  upon  deeds  of  violence  and  intolerant  persecu- 
tion, which  might  have  endangered,  for  the  second  time,  the  safety  of  this 
people  as  well  as  his  own.  I strove,  and  not  without  success,  to  calm  his 
unreasonable  violence.  I pointed  out  to  him  his  true  position  with  regard 
to  the  American  missions,  trying  to  remove  the  calumnies  which  had  been 
heaped  upon  them,  and  to  show  in  what  respects  they  could  benefit  and 
improve  the  condition  of  the  Nestorians.  I could  not  disguise  from  him 
that  in  education  and  the  free  circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  there  could 
alone  be  found  any  hope  for  his  people.  I showed  him  that,  if  he  wished 
to  foster  an  interest  which  had  been  naturally  felt  amongst  Protestants  for 
the  remains  of  a primitive  Church,  exposed  to  great  oppression  and  great 
sufferings,  he  must  reform  the  abuses  which  had  unfortunately  crept  into  it, 
and  endeavour  to  render  his  clergy  equal  to  the  task  of  instructing  and 
guiding  their  flocks.  He  answered,  as  might  have  been  expected,  that  he 
wished  to  be  helped  in  that  labor  by  priests  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of 
England,  whose  doctrines  and  discipline  were  more  in  conformity  with  the 
Nestorian,  than  those  of  the  American  missionaries.  If  such  men  would 
join  him,  he  was  ready,  he  declared,  to  co-operate  with  them  in  reforming 
abuses,  and  educating  the  community.  It  was  almost  in  vain  I observed 
to  him  that,  as  the  Church  of  England  had  hitherto  not  listened  to  his  ap- 
peals, and  as  there  was  no  immediate  prospect  of  help  from  her,  it  was  his 
duty,  as  well  as  his  true  interest,  to  assist  in  the  good  work  so  zealously  and 

* Those  who  wish  to  have  a painful  picture  of  the  nature  of  the  interference 
amongst  the  Nestorians,  to  which  I allude,  may  read  Mr.  Badger’s  Nestorians  and 
their  Rituals,  and  Mr.  Fletcher’s  Travels  in  Assyria.  Although  Mr.  Badger  natural- 
ly gives  his  own  version  of  these  transactions,  the  impartial  reader  will  have  no  dif- 
ficulty in  seeing  the  misfortunes  to  which  the  unfortunate  opposition  to  the  American 
missions  naturally  led. 


THE  NESTORIAN  PATRIARCH. 


365 


Chap.  XIX.] 

disinterestedly  begun  by  the  American  missionaries,  and  which  they  were 
desirous  of  carrying  on  with  his  sanction  and  .support. 

The  Nestorian  community  had  greater  wrongs  to  complain  of  than  their 
Patriarch.  The  Turkish  government,  so  far  from  fulfilling  the  pledges  given 
to  the  British  embassy,  had  sent  officers  to  the  mountains  who  had  griev- 
ously ill-treated  and  oppressed  the  Christian  inhabitants.  The  taxes,  which 
the  Porte  had  promised  to  remit  for  three  years,  in  consideration  of  the  losses 
sustained  by  the  unfortunate  Nestorians  during  the  massacres,  had  not  been, 
it  is  true,  levied  for  that  time,  but  had  now  been  collected  altogether,  whole 
districts  being  thus  reduced  to  the  greatest  misery  and  want.  Every  man- 
ner of  cruelty  and  torture  had  been  used  to  compel  the  suffering  Christians 
to  yield  up  the  little  property  they  had  concealed  from  the  rapacity  of  the 
Turkish  authorities.  The  pastures  and  arable  lands  around  their  villages 
had  Been  taken  away  from  them  and  given  to  their  Kurdish  tyrants.  Taxes 
had  been  placed  upon  every  object  that  could  afford  them  food,  and  upon 
their  mills,  their  looms,  and  their  hives,  even  upon  the  bundles  of  dried 
grass  for  their  cattle,  brought  with  great  labor  from  the  highest  mountains. 
There  was  no  tribunal  to  which  they  could  apply  for  redress.  A deputa- 
tion sent  to  the  Pasha  had  been  ill-treated,  and  some  of  its  members  were 
still  in  prison.  There  was  no  one  in  authority  to  plead  for  them.  They 
had  even  suffered  less  under  the  sway  of  their  old  oppressors,  for,  as  a 
priest  touchingly  remarked  to  me,  “The  Kurds  took  away  our  lives,  but 
the  Turks  take  away  wherewith  we  have  to  live.” 

My  tents  were  pitched  on  a lawn  near  Mar  Shamoun’s  dwelling.  Near 
to  us  was  a small  church,  built  about  150  years  ago,  on  an  isolated  rock. 
The  only  entrance  to  it  is  by  a low  door,  high  up  from  the  ground,  and 
reached  by  a ladder.  The  interior  consists  of  a yard  in  which  service  is 
performed  during  summer,  and  an  inner  chamber  for  winter.  Mar  Sha- 
moun  officiated  every  evening  about  sunset  in  the  open  air,  reading  the 
whole  service  himself,  dressed  in  his  usual  robes.  A few  persons  from  the 
ruined  village  attended,  and  formed  his  congregation. 

We  remained  a day  with  the  Patriarch,  and  then  took  the  road  to  Jula- 
merik,  three  caravan  hours  distant  from  Kochhannes.  This  town  has  been 
more  than  once  visited  and  described  by  English  travellers.  Its  castle, 
strongly  built  and  defended  by  towers  and  bastions,  is  picturesquely  situa- 
ted upon  a bold  rock,  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  Zab.  It  was  until 
lately  held  by  the  celebrated  Kurdish  rebel  chief,  Nur-Ullah  Bey,  but, 
since  his  capture,  it  has  been  garrisoned  by  a small  force  of  Turkish  regu- 
lar troops.  The  town  and  bazars  are  far  below  it.*  They  were  almost 
deserted,  their  inhabitants,  as  is  the  custom  of  the  country,  living  in  tents 
with  their  flocks  amid  the  summer  pastures  on  the  mountains. 

Near  Julamerik  we  met  many  poor  Nestorians  flying,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  they  knew  not  whither,  from  the  oppression  of  the  Turkish 
governors. 

* Julamerik  is  5625  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 


366 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX 


The  direct  road  by  Tiyari  to  Mosul  is  carried  along  the  river  Zab: 
through  ravines  scarcely  practicable  to  beasts  of  burden.  It  issues  into  the 
lower  valleys  near  the  village  of  Lizan.  Instead,  however,  of  descending 
the  stream,  we  turned  to  the  north,  in  order  to  cross  it  higher  up  by  a 
bridge  leading  into  Diz.  I had  not  yet  visited  this  Nestorian  district. 
Mar  Shamoun,  as  well  as  the  people  of  Julamerik,  declared  that  the  mount- 
ain pathways  could  not  be  followed  by  beasts  of  burden ; hut  a man  of  Taal 
offering  to  show  us  a track  open  to  horsemen,  we  placed  ourselves  under  his 
guidance.  On  the  banks  of  the  Zab,  I found  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
road,  cut  in  many  places  in  the  solid  rock.  It  probably  led  from  the  As- 
syrian plains  into  the  upper  provinces  of  Armenia.  There  are  no  inscrip- 
tions or  ruins  to  show  the  period  of  its  construction ; but,  from  the  great- 
ness of  the  work,  I am  inclined  to  attribute  it  to  the  Assyrians. 

We  picked  our  way  over  the  slippery  pavement  as  long  as  we  could  find 
some  footing  for  ourselves  and  our  beasts,  but  in  many  places,  where  it  had 
been  entirely  destroyed,  we  were  compelled  to  drag  our  horses  by  main 
force  over  the  steep  rocks  and  loose  detritus,  which  sloped  to  the  very  edge 
of  the  river.  At  length,  after  many  falls,  and  more  than  once  turning  back 
from  the  polished  rocks,  across  which  the  track  was  carried,  we  found  our- 
selves before  a wicker  suspension  bridge.  This  primitive  structure  had 
been  almost  washed  away  by  recent  floods,  and  now  hung  from  the  totter- 
ing piers  by  a slender  rope  of  twisted  osiers.  It  seemed  scarcely  able  to 
bear  the  weight  of  a man.  However,  some  Nestorians,  who,  seeing  us  from 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  had  come  to  our  help,  undertook  to  carry  our 
baggage  across,  and  then  to  lead  the  horses  over  one  by  one.  After  some 
delay  this  dangerous  passage  was  effected  without  accident,  and  we  entered 
the  valley  of  Diz.  But  there  was  another  stream  between  us  and  the  first 
Nestorian  village.  We  had  to  ford  an  impetuous  torrent  boiling  and  foam- 
ing over  smooth  rocks,  and  reaching  above  our  saddle-girths.  One  of  the 
baggage  mules  lost  its  footing.  The  eddying  waters  hurried  it  along  and 
soon  hurled  it  into  the  midst  of  the  Zab.  The  animal  having,  at  length, 
relieved  itself  from  its  burden,  swam  to  the  bank.  Unfortunately  it  bore 
my  own  trunks  ; my  notes  and  inscriptions,  the  fruits  of  my  labors  at  Wan, 
together  with  the  little  property  I possessed,  were  carried  far  away  by  the 
stream.  After  the  men  from  the  village  had  long  searched  in  vain,  the 
lost  load  was  found  about  midnight,  stopped  by  a rock  some  miles  down 
the  river. 

We  passed  the  night  in  the  miserable  village  of  Rabban  Audishio.  Only 
two  families  dwelt  in  it ; the  other  inhabitants  had  been  slain  in  the  mas- 
sacre. The  church  was  large,  but  deserted,  for  there  was  no  priest  to 
serve  in  it.  Three  brothers,  who  owned  the  only  huts  still  standing  near, 
fed  a few  lamps  with  oil,  and  burnt  daily  before  the  altar  a little  incense, 
whose  grateful  perfume  scented  the  evening  breeze.  Near  the  church 
were  the  ruins  of  a former  dwelling-place  of  Mar  Shamoun,  who  once  re- 
sided in  this  village. 


VALLEY  OF  DIZ. 


367 


Chap.  XIX.] 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley,  but  high  in  the  mountains,  was  the 
village  of  Seramus.  The  pathway  to  it  being  precipitous,  and  inaccessible 
even  to  mules,  we  turned  to  Madis,  the  residence  of  the  Melek,  or  chief,  of 
the  district  of  Diz.  We  crossed  the  stream  by  a rude  bridge  consisting  of 
two  poles,  resting  on  opposite  rocks.  The  horses  and  mules  again  forded 
the  torrent,  but  this  time  without  mishap.  The  Melek  was  abroad  collect- 
ing the  taxes,  which  he  had  been  summoned  to  pay  to  the  governor  of  Ju- 
lamerik.  The  villages  of  Diz,  like  those  of  the  Nestorian  valleys  in  gen- 
eral, stand  in  the  midst  of  orchards  and  cultivated  terraces.  They  were 
laid  waste,  and  the  houses  burnt,  during  the  first  massacre.  Diz  was  the 
first  Christian  district  attacked  by  Beder  Khan  Bey.  The  inhabitants 
made  a long  and  determined  resistance,  but  were  at  length  overpowered  by 
numbers.  Those  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Kurdish  chieftain  were 
put  to  death  without  mercy,  none  being  spared,  as  in  Tiyari,  for  slaves. 
The  trees  were  cut  down,  and  the  villages  reduced  to  their  present  state 
of  misery  and  desolation.  They  might  slowly  have  recovered  had  not  the 
Turks,  by  an  unjust  and  oppressive  system  of  government  and  taxation, 
checked  all  the  efforts  of  these  poor  but  industrious  people  to  cultivate  their 
lands,  and  rebuild  their  ruined  dwellings. 

We  continued  our  journey  through  a deep  and  narrow  valley  hemmed  in 
by  high  mountains  and  by  perpendicular  cliffs.  The  Melek  met  us  on  the 
road  near  the  village  of  Cherichereh,  or  Klissa.  The  old  man  turning  back 
with  me,  I dismounted  and  sat  with  him  beneath  a walnut-tree.  He  had 
little  to  tell  but  the  usual  tale  of  misery  and  distress.  The  Turkish  gov- 
ernor had  called  upon  the  district  to  pay  about  150Z.,  a small  sum  certain- 
ly, but  more  than  he  could  collect  by  seizing  all  the  little  property  of  the 
inhabitants.  Even  the  seed  for  their  next  harvest  had  been  taken  from 
them,  as  well  as  the  very  millet  with  which  they  made  their  coarse  bread. 
The  valley  produces  nothing  but  a little  rice,  garas  (a  kind  of  millet),  and 
barley,  a few  walnut  and  apple  trees  and  hemp.  Scarcely  any  wheat  is 
raised,  and  the  taxes  levied  on  mills  almost  prevent  its  being  ground  into 
flour.  The  district  formerly  contained  thirteen  villages.  Only  one  hund- 
red and  twenty  families  with  three  priests  were  left.  Many  had  run 
away  to  avoid  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  the  rest  only  waited  until  they 
could  escape  the  vigilance  of  the  Turkish  authorities  to  follow  the  example. 
Melek  Beniamen  implored  me  to  help  him  in  his  difficulties  ; but  I could 
do  no  more  than  offer  words  of  sympathy  and  consolation. 

Leaving  the  Melek  to  pursue  his  tax-gathering,  we  rode  through  a mag- 
nificent valley,  now  narrowing  into  a wild  gorge  walled  with  precipitous 
cliffs,  then  opening  into  an  amphitheatre  of  rocks  encircling  a village  im- 
bedded in  trees.  A church,  called  Marshalita,  built  on  a natural  pinnacle, 
was  a conspicuous  object  as  we  journeyed  in  the  ravine  below.  It  was  far 
too  high  and  difficult  of  access  for  the  pious  wayfarer  to  turn  aside  to  it 
from  his  path  ; a cross  had,  therefore,  been  rudely  cut,  by  way  of  compro- 
mise, in  a stone  by  the  roadside  beneath  it,  and  the  Nestorians  who  weic 


368 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


with  us  kissed  it  reverentially  as  we  passed.  Another  lofty  rock  was  point- 
ed out  to  us  as  the  place  of  refuge  of  a few  of  those  who  escaped  the  mas- 
sacre : on  a third  could  be  seen  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  attributed, 
like  all  such  ruins  in  the  East,  to  the  Franks.  The  valley  at  length  was 
abruptly  closed  by  the  towering  peaks  and  precipices  of  the  Jelu  mountain. 
At  its  foot  is  the  village  of  Khouresin,  where  we  encamped  for  the  night. 
The  inhabitants  were,  for  the  most  part,  like  the  other  people  of  Diz,  in 
the  Zomas,  or  summer  pastures. 

The  next  morning,  after  with  difficulty  dragging  our  weary  beasts  up  a 
steep  and  even  dangerous  mountain  track,  we  found  the  Nestorian  families 
with  their  flocks  at  the  very  base  of  those  cliffs  of  naked  rock,  which,  rising 
far  above  the  surrounding  mountains  of  Hakkiari,  form  the  peak  of  Jelu, 
and  are  visible  even  from  Mosul.  On  all  sides  of  them  was  snow ; but 
the  small  recess  in  .which  they  had  built  their  miserable  hovels  of  loose 
stones,  mud,  and  dried  grass,  was  carpeted  with  Alpine  herbs  and  flowers. 
These  poor  people  were  in  extreme  wretchedness  and  want ; even  their 
clothing  had  been  taken  for  taxes. 

Not  far  from  the  Zomas  of  Diz  were  the  tents  of  the  villagers  of  Jelu. 
They  also  had  encamped  on  the  very  verge  of  eternal  snow,  but  within  the 
boundaries  of  Diz,  as  there  were  no  pastures  on  the  other  side  of  the  pass 
in  their  own  district.  They  were  better  clothed,  and  showed  more  signs 
of  comfort,  if  not  of  wealth,  than  their  unfortunate  neighbours.  Many  of 
the  men  spoke  a little  Arabic,  and  even  Turkish,  learnt  during  their  yearly 
visits  as  basket-makers  to  the  low  country. 

We  were  still  separated  from  the  valley  of  Jelu  by  a shoulder  jutting 
from  the  lofty  Soppa-Durek  mountain.  Before  reaching  this  rocky  ridge 
we  had  to  cross  a broad  tract  of  deep  snow,  over  which  we  had  much  dif- 
ficulty in  dragging  our  heavily-laden  mules.  When  on  the  crest  of  the 
pass  we  found  ourselves  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  rugged  peaks,  the  high- 
est being  that  known  as  the  Toura  Jelu,  of  which  we  had  scarcely  lost 
sight  from  the  day  we  had  left  Mosul.  It  is  probably  the  highest  mount- 
ain in  central  Kurdistan,  and  cannot  be  under,  if  it  be  not  indeed  above, 
15,000  feet.  On  its  precipitous  sides,  rising  like  an  artificial  wall  of  rock, 
the  snow  cannot  rest ; but  around  it  are  eternal  glaciers.  Some  Nestorian 
hunters  assured  me  that  they  had  followed  the  wild  goat  even  to  its  sum- 
mit, whence  they  gazed  upon  a view  of  sublime  extent  and  grandeur,  the 
Desert  stretching  like  a vast  sea  beneath  them,  and  the  city  of  Mosul  dis- 
tinctly visible  in  the  distance.  The  pass  we  crossed  before  descending  into 
the  valley  of  Jelu  is  considered  the  highest  in  the  Nestorian  country,  and 
is  probably  more  than  11,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.* 

These  mountains  abound  in  bears,  leopards,  wolves,  chamois,  wild  goats, 
and  sheep,  of  which  I was  assured  there  are  three  distinct  varieties.  The 

* According  to  observation  by  the  boiling  water  thermometer  the  encampment  of 
the  people  of  Jelu  was  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  consequently  the  crest 
of  the  pass  must  have  exceeded  11,000. 


THE  NESTORIANS  OF  JELU. 


369 


Chap.  XIX.] 

large  yellow  partridge,  as  well  as  the  red-legged,  are  also  found  in  great 
numbers. 

From  the  top  of  the  pass  we  looked  down  into  a deep  abyss.  The  flocks 
of  the  Jelu  villagers  had  worn  a small  pathway  in  its  almost  perpendicular 
sides  during  their  periodical  migrations  to  and  from  the  Zomas  ; but  fre- 
quently it  was  only  marked  by  a polished  line  across  flat,  slippery  rocks  of 
enormous  breadth,  or  by  a faint  streak  over  the  loose  stones.  Down  this 
terrible  descent  we  had  to  drag  our  jaded  horses,  leaving  our  track  marked 
in  blood.  I have  had  some  experience  in  bad  mountain  roads,  but  I do 
not  remember  to  have  seen  any  much  worse  than  that  leading  into  Jelu. 
After  numerous  accidents  and  great  labor  we  left  a rocky  gully,  and  found 
ourselves  on  a slope  ending,  at  a dizzy  depth,  in  a torrent  scarcely  visible 
from  our  path.  The  yielding  soil  offered  even  a more  difficult  footing  for 
our  beasts  than  the  polished  rocks.  One  of  our  mules  soon  fell,  and  rolled 
over  and  over  with  an  avalanche  of  stones  for  two  or  three  hundred  feet. 
We  fully  expected  to  find  the  animal  dashed  to  pieces  ; but  breaking  away 
from  the  broad  pack-saddle,  it  contrived  to  check  its  rapid  course  and  to 
regain  its  legs.  Its  load,  however,  was  hurled  into  the  valley,  and  we 
watched  it  as  it  bounded  from  rock  to  rock,  until  it  was  lost  to  sight  in  the 
depths  below.  We  continued  our  journey,  and  it  was  an  hour  or  two  be- 
fore the  active  mountaineers  succeeded  in  recovering  our  lost  baggage. 

The  wild  mountain  ravine  was  now  changed  for  the  smiling  valley  of  Je- 
lu. Villages,  embowered  in  trees,  filled  every  nook  and  sheltered  place.  We 
descended  to  Zerin  or  Zerayni,  the  principal  settlement,  and  the  residence 
of  the  Melek.  To  our  left  were  two  other  villages,  Alzan  and  Meedee. 

As  my  large  caravan  descended  the  hill-side,  the  inhabitants  of  Zerin 
took  us  at  once  for  Turks,  and  we  lacked  that  hospitable  reception  which 
two  or  three  years  before  would  have  awaited  a stranger  in  these  Christian 
communities.  Wherever  the  Osmanli  has  placed  his  foot,  he  has  bred  fear 
and  distrust.  His  visit  has  ever  been  one  of  oppression  and  rapine.  The 
scarlet  cap,  and  the  well-known  garb  of  a Turkish  irregular,  are  the  signals 
for  a general  panic.  The  women  hide  in  the  innermost  recesses  to  save 
themselves  from  insult ; the  men  slink  into  their  houses,  and  offer  a vain 
protest  against  the  seizure  of  their  property.  In  many  parts  of  Turkey  the 
new  system  and  the  better  discipline  of  the  army  have  placed  a check  upon 
these  scenes  of  injustice  and  violence,  and  the  villager  may  hope  to  get 
some,  if  not  adequate,  pay  for  the  supplies  he  furnishes  to  those  who  quar- 
ter themselves  upon  him.  But  in  the  Nestorian  valleys  the  old  habits  were 
still  in  vigor,  and  the  appearance  of  a stranger  caused  a general  hiding  and 
dismay.  When,  at  last,  we  had  satisfied  the  trembling  people  of  Zerin 
that  we  were  not  Mussulmans,  they  insisted  upon  our  being  Americans,  of 
whom  they  had  at  that  moment,  for  certain  religious  reasons,  almost  as 
great  a distrust.  At  length  they  made  out  that  I was  the  Balios*  of  Mo- 

* Consuls  are  so  called  in  Southern  Turkey  and  Persia,  and  all  European  strangers 
are  supposed  to  be  consuls. 


A ’A 


370 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


sul,  and  the  Melek  arriving  at  this  crisis  we  were  received  with  due  hos- 
pitality. Our  baggage  was  carried  to  the  roof  of  a house,  and  provisions 
were  brought  to  us  without  delay. 

Although,  during  his  expedition  into  Tiyari,  Beder  Khan  Bey  had  seized 
the  flocks  of  the  people  of  Jelu,  and  had  compelled  them,  moreover,  to  pay 
large  contributions  in  money  and  in  kind,  he  had  not  been  able  to  enter 
their  deep  and  well-guarded  valleys.*  The  blackened  walls,  the  roofless 
house,  the  plundered  church,  and  the  neglected  vineyard,  which  marked  in 
other  parts  of  the  mountains  the  once  flourishing  villages  of  the  Nestorian 
tribes,  did  not  disfigure  the  smiling  district  of  Jelu.  Its  inhabitants,  too, 
still  maintained  to  a certain  extent  the  appearance  of  their  former  prosper- 
ity, notwithstanding  the  rapacity  and  injustice  of  their  new  masters.  Both 
men  and  women  were  gaily  dressed  in  the  many-colored  garments  usually 
worn  by  their  Mussulman  neighbours. 

The  Nestorians  of  Jelu  have  no  trade  to  add  to  their  wealth.  Shut  out 
from  all  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  during  six  months  of  the 
year,  by  the  deep  snows  of  the  lofty  mountains  that  surround  them,  it  is 
only  in  summer  that  they  are  able  to  exchange  a few  loads  of  fruit  and  a 
little  honey  and  wax  in  the  districts  about  Amadiyah  for  such  supplies  of 
corn  as  may  serve  for  their  immediate  wants.  Many  of  the  men,  however, 
wander  during  the  winter  into  Asia  Minor,  and  even  into  Syria  and  Pal- 
estine, following  the  trade  of  basket-making,  in  which  they  are  very  expert. 
Thus  they  save  money,  and  are  able  in  the  summer  to  cultivate  the  land 
around  their  villages.  There  was  only  one  priest  in  Zerin,  and  there  ap- 
peared to  he  in  Jelu  less  of  that  earnest  religious  feeling  so  peculiar  to  the 
Nestorians  than  in  any  other  Christian  district  I had  visited.  The  travels 
of  the  men,  and  their  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world,  have 
not  improved  their  morals,  their  habits,  or  their  faith. f 

The  district  of  Jelu  is  under  a bishop  whose  spiritual  jurisdiction  also 
extends  over  Baz.  He  resides  at  Martha  d’Umra  (the  village  of  the 
church),  separated  by  a hold  rocky  ridge  from  Zerin.  It  was  Sunday  as 
we  descended  through  orchards,  by  a precipitous  pathway,  to  his  dwelling. 
The  bishop  was  away.  He  had  gone  lower  down  the  valley  to  celebrate 
divine  service  for  a distant  congregation.  The  inhabitants  of  the  village 
were  gathered  round  the  church  in  their  holiday  attire,  and  received  us 
kindly  and  hospitably.  From  a belfry  issued  the  silvery  tones  of  a bell, 
which  echoed  through  the  valley,  and  gave  an  inexpressible  charm  to  the 
scene.  It  is  not  often  that  such  sounds  break  upon  the  traveller’s  ear  in 
the  far  East,  to  awaken  a thousand  pleasant  thoughts,  and  to  recall  to 
memory  many  a happy  hour. 

* Beder  Khan  Bey  was  afterwards  troubled  by  a conscientious  scruple  for  not  hav- 
ing also  visited  Jelu  with  fire  and  sword,  and  massacred. the  Infidels.  He  was  pro- 
jecting an  invasion  of  the  district  the  year  that  he  was  captured  by  the  Turkish  troops. 

t The  villages  of  Jelu  are  Zerin,  Biri  Khanee,  Martha  d’Umra,  Nara,  Muta,  Tella- 
na,  Bokhrani  or  Be  Bukra,  Uri,  Nerik,  Zer,  Gubawa,  Serpilta,  Shemsiki,  Maturie, 
Bispira,  and  Bakshi  (Kurdish). 


CHURCH  IN  VALLEY  OF  JELU. 


371 


Chap.  XIX.] 

The  church  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  the  Nestorian  mountains,  and  is 
a plain,  substantial,  square  building,  with  a very  small  entrance.  To  me 
it  was  peculiarly  interesting,  as  having  been  the  only  one  that  had  escaped 
the  ravages  of  the  Kurds,  and  as  containing  therefore  its  ancient  furniture 
and  ornaments.  Both  the  church  and  the  dark  vestibule  were  so  thickly 
hung  with  relics  of  the  most  singular  and  motley  description,  that  the  ceil- 
ing was  completely  concealed  by  them.  Amongst  the  objects  which  first 
attracted  my  attention  were  numerous  China  bowls  and  jars  of  elegant  form 
and  richly  colored,  but  black  with  the  dust  of  ages.  They  were  suspend- 
ed, like  the  other  relics,  by  cords  from  the  roof.  I was  assured  that  they 
had  been  there  from  time  out  of  mind,  and  had  been  brought  from  the  dis- 
tant empire  of  Cathay  by  those  early  missionaries  of  the  Chaldsean  Church, 
who  bore  the  tidings  of  the  gospel  to  the  shores  of  the  Yellow  Sea.  If  such 
were  really  the  case,  some  of  them  might  date  so  far  back  as  the  sixth  or 
seventh  centuries,  when  the  Nestorian  Church  flourished  in  China,  and  its 
missions  were  spread  over  the  whole  of  Central  Asia.  The  villagers  would 
not,  in  the  absence  of  their  bishop,  allow  me  to  move  any  of  these  sacred 
relics.  The  sister  of  the  Patriarch,  they  said,  had  endeavored  to  wash  one 
some  years  before,  and  it  had  been  broken.  Hung  with  the  China  vases 
was  the  strangest  collection  of  objects  that  could  well  be  imagined:  innu- 
merable bells,  of  all  forms  and  sizes,  many  probably  Chinese,  suspended  in 
long  lines  from  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  church,  making  a loud  and  dis- 
cordant jingle  when  set  in  motion ; porcelain  birds  and  animals,  grotesque 
figures  in  bronze,  remains  of  glass  chandeliers,  two  or  three  pairs  of  old  bull- 
ion epaulets,  and  a variety  of  other  things,  all  brought  at  various  periods 
by  adventurous  inhabitants  of  the  village,  who  had  wandered  into  distant 
lands,  and  had  returned  to  their  homes  with  some  evidence  of  their  trav- 
els to  place  in  their  native  church.  The  walls  were  dressed  in  silks  of 
every  color  and  texture,  and  with  common  Manchester  prints.  Notwith- 
standing the  undoubted  antiquity  of  the  church  and  its  escape  from  plun- 
der, I searched  in  vain  for  ancient  manuscripts. 

We  followed  the  valley  to  the  village  of  Nara,  where  the  bishop  was 
resting  after  his  morning  duties.  A young  man  of  lofty  stature  and  hand- 
some countenance,  dressed  in  the  red-striped  loose  garments  of  the  Kurds, 
and  only  distinguished  by  a turban  of  black  silk  from  those  around  him, 
came  out  to  meet  us.  A less  episcopal  figure  could  scarcely  be  imagined ; 
but,  although  he  seemed  some  Kurdish  hunter  or  warrior,  he  gave  us  his 
benediction  as  he  drew  near.  We  seated  ourselves  together  beneath  the 
shade  of  a gigantic  tree ; and  whilst  the  good  people  of  the  village  were 
preparing  a simple  repast  of  yaghourt  and  garas,  we  discussed  the  affairs 
of  the  church  and  the  political  condition  of  the  tribe. 

It  was  difficult  to  determine  whom  the  poor  bishop  feared  most,  the 
Turks  or  the  American  missionaries  ; the  first,  he  declared,  threatened  his 
temporal,  the  others  his  spiritual,  authority.  I gave  him  the  best  advice  I 
was  able  on  both  subjects,  and  urged  him  not  to  reject  the  offer  that  had 


372 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XIX. 


been  made  to  instruct  his  people,  but  to  identify  himself  with  a progress  on 
which  might  be  founded  the  only  reasonable  hope  for  the  regeneration  of 
his  creed  and  race.  Unfortunately,  as  in  the  case  of  Mar  Shamoun,  strange 
influences  had  been  at  work  to  prejudice  the  mind  of  the  bishop. 

A broad  and  rapid  torrent  crossed  by  a bridge,  and  a steep  mountain 
wooded  with  oak,  over  which  we  climbed  by  a rugged  pathway,  separate 
the  districts  of  Jelu  and  Baz.  The  first  village  we  came  to  was  Shouwa, 
but  we  rested  for  the  night  at  Martha  Akhtayiah,*  adjoining  Ergub,  the 
furthest  limits  of  my  journey  to  the  Nestorian  districts  in  1846.  Our  re- 
ception here  was  far  different  from  that  we  had  experienced  in  Jelu.  We 
were  at  once  recognised  by  the  villagers.  The  men  and  women  crowded 
round  us,  vieing  with  each  other  in  offers  of  hospitality.  We  alighted  at 
the  clean  and  spacious  house  of  the  Melek,  who  was,  however,  away  at  the 
time  of  our  arrival.  The  inhabitants  had  been  shamefully  ill-used  and 
over-taxed  by  the  Turkish  authorities,  and  were  driven  to  a state  of  de- 
spair. I had,  as  usual,  to  listen  to  sad  tales  of  misery  and  misfortune, 
without  having  it  in  my  power  to  offer  either  consolation  or  relief. 

We  were  now  in  the  track  I had  followed  during  my  former  visit  to  the 
mountains.!  Crossing  the  precipitous  pass  to  the  west  of  Baz,  which,  since 
my  first  visit,  had  been  the  scene  of  one  of  the  bloodiest  episodes  of  the 
Nestorian  massacre,  we  entered  the  long  narrow  ravine  leading  into  the 
valley  of  Tkhoma.  We  stopped  at  Gunduktha,  where,  four  years  before, 
I had  taken  leave  of  the  good  priest  Bodaka,  who  had  been  amongst  the 
first  victims  of  the  fury  of  the  Kurdish  invaders.  The  Kasha,  who  now 
ministered  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  people,  the  Rais  of  the  village,  and 
the  principal  inhabitants,  came  to  us  as  we  stopped  in  the  churchyard. 
But  they  were  no  longer  the  gaily  dressed  and  well-armed  men  who  had 
welcomed  me  on  my  first  journey.  Their  garments  were  tattered  and 
worn,  and  their  countenances  haggard  and  wan.  The  church,  too,  was  in 
ruins  ; around  were  the  charred  remains  of  the  burnt  cottages,  and  the  neg- 
lected orchards  overgrown  with  weeds.  A body  of  Turkish  troops  had 
lately  visited  the  village,  and  had  destroyed  the  little  that  had  been  restored 
since  the  Kurdish  invasion.  The  same  taxes  had  been  collected  three 
times,  and  even  four  times,  over.  The  relations  of  those  who  had  ran  away 
to  escape  from  these  exactions  had  been  compelled  to  pay  for  the  fugitives. 
The  chief  had  been  thrown,  with  his  arms  tied  behind  his  back,  on  a heap 
of  burning  straw,  and  compelled  to  disclose  where  a little  money  that  had 
been  saved  by  the  villagers  had  been  buried.  The  priest  had  been  torn 
from  the  altar,  and  beaten  before  his  congregation.  Men  showed  me  the 
marks  of  torture  on  their  body,  and  of  iron  fetters  round  their  limbs.  For 
the  sake  of  wringing  a few  piastres  from  this  poverty-stricken  people,  all 
these  deeds  of  violence  had  been  committed  by  officers  sent  by  the  Porte  to 
protect  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan,  whom  they  pretended  to  have 
eleased  from  the  misrule  of  the  Kurdish  chiefs. 

* J.  e.  The  lower  village,  corrupted  into  Makhtaiyah. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  209. 


VALLEY  OF  BERWARI. 


373 


Chap.  XIX.] 


The  smiling  villages  described  in  the  account  of  my  previous  journey 
were  now  a heap  of  ruins.  From  four  of  them  alone  770  persons  had 
been  slain.  Beder  Khan  Bey  had  driven  off,  according  to  the  returns 
made  by  the  Meleks,  24,000  sheep,  300  mules,  and  10,000  head  of  cat- 
tle ; and  the  confederate  chiefs  had  each  taken  a proportionate  share  cf 
the  property  of  the  Christians.  No  flocks  were  left  by  which  they  might 
raise  money  wherewith  to  pay  the  taxes  now  levied  upon  them,  and  even 
the  beasts  of  burden,  which  could  have  carried  to  the  markets  of  more 
wealthy  districts  the  produce  of  their  valley,  had  been  taken  away.* 

We  remained  a night  in  Tkhoma  to  see  the  Meleks  who  came  to  us  from 
Tkhoma  Gowaia.  On  the  following  morning,  it  being  the  Feast  of  the  Vir- 
gin, the  people  assembled  for  prayers — a crowd  of  miserable,  half-naked 
men,  women,  and  children.  Leaving  the  valley,  we  crossed  the  high  mount- 
ain inclosing  Tkhoma  to  the  south,  and  passed  through  Pinianish  into 
Chaal,  a district  inhabited  by  Mussulmans,  and  which  had  consequently 
not  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the  Kurdish  chiefs.  It  presented,  with  its 
still  flourishing  villages  surrounded  by  gardens  and  vineyards,  a vivid  con- 
trast to  the  unfortunate  Christian  valley  we  had  just  left. 

A rapid  descent  through  a rocky  gorge  brought  us  to  the  Zab,  over  which 
there  were  still  the  remains  of  a bridge,  consisting  of  two  poles  fastened  to- 
gether by  osier  bands  placed  across  the  stone  piers.  It  almost  required  the 
steady  foot  and  practised  head  of  a mountaineer  to  cross  the  roaring  stream 
by  this  perilous  structure.  The  horses  and  mules  were  with  much  trouble 
and  delay  driven  into  the  river,  and  after  buffeting  with  the  whirlpools  and 
eddies  reached,  almost 
exhausted,  the  oppo- 
site bank. 

We  now  entered  the 
valley  ofBerwari,  and, 
crossing  the  pass  of 
Amadiyah,  took  the 
road  to  Mosul,  through 
a country  I had  al- 
ready more  than  once 
visited.  Leaving  the 
caravan  and  our  jaded 
horses,  I hastened  on- 
wards with  Hormuzd, 
and  travelling  through 
a night  reached  Mosul 
in  the  afternoon  of  the 
30th  Aug.,  after  an  ab- 


sence of  seven  weeks. 


Summer  Sleeping-Place  in  the  Hills. 


On  my  return  to  Mosul  I sent  to  Constantinople  a report  of  the  exactions  and 
cruelties  to  which  the  Nestorians  had  been  subjected  by  their  Turkish  rulers ; but 
nothing,  I fear,  has  been  done  to  amend  their  condition. 


Arabs  and  Nestorians  moving  a Slab  at  Kouyunjik. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

DISCOVERIES  AT  KOUYUNJIK  DURING  THE  SUMMER. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SCULPTURES 

CAPTURE  OF  CITIES  ON  A GREAT  RIVER. POMP  OF  ASSYRIAN  KING. PASSAGE  OF  A RIVER. 

ALABASTER  PAVEMENT. CONQUEST  OF  TRIBES  INHABITING  A MARSH. THEIR  WEALTH. 

CHAMBERS  WITH  SCULPTURES  BELONGING  TO  A NEW  KING. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE 

SCULPTURES. CONQUEST  OF  THE  PEOPLE  OF  SUSIANA. PORTRAIT  OF  THE  KING. HIS 

GUARDS  AND  ATTENDANTS. THE  CITY  OF  SHUSHAN. CAPTIVE  PRINCE. MUSICIANS. 

CAPTIVES  PUT  TO  THE  TORTURE. ARTISTIC  CHARACTER  OF  THE  SCULPTURES. AN  IN- 
CLINED PASSAGE. TWO  SMALL  CHAMBERS. COLOSSAL  FIGURES. MORE  SCULPTURES* 

Whilst  I had  been  absent  in  the  mountains  the  excavations  had  been 
continued  at  Kouyunjik,  notwithstanding  the  summer  heats.  Nearly  all 
the  Arabs  employed  in  the  spring  at  Nimroud  had  been  removed  to  these 
ruins,  and  considerable  progress  had  consequently  been  made  in  clearing  the 
earth  from  them.  Several  chambers,  discovered  before  I left  Mosul,  had 
been  emptied,  and  new  rooms  with  interesting  sculptures  had  been  explored. 

It  has  been  seen*  that  the  narrow  passage  leading  out  of  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  great  hall  containing  the  bas-reliefs  representing  the  moving 

* See  page  287. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 


375 


Chap.  XX.] 

of  the  winged  bulls  turned  to  the  left,  and  by  another  gallery  connected 
this  part  of  the  edifice  with  a second  hall  of  even  larger  proportions  than 
that  first  discovered. # It  was  not  quite  square,  the  longest  sides,  those 
from  west  to  east,  being  rather  more  than  140  feet,  and  the  others  126  feet. 
It  had  four  grand  entrances,  formed  by  colossal  human-headed  bulls,  one  oil 
each  side.f 

The  sculptures  panelling  the  western  wall  were  for  the  most  part  still 
entire.  They  recorded,  as  usual,  a campaign  and  a victory,  and  were  prob- 
ably but  a portion  of  one  continuous  subject  carried  round  the  entire  hall. 
The  conquered  country  appeared  to  have  been  traversed  by  a great  river, 
the  representation  of  which  took  up  a third  of  the  bas-relief.  It  was  filled 
with  crabs  and  fish  of  various  kinds,  and  its  banks  were  wooded  with  date- 
bearing palms.  On  one  side  of  the  stream  was  the  king  in  his  chariot,  sur- 
rounded by  his  bodyguard  and  followed  by  his  led  horses.  On  the  opposite 
bank  the  Assyrian  army  laid  siege  to  a detached  fort,  forming  an  outwork 
to  a city  surrounded  by  high  baltlemented  walls,  and  defended  by  lofty 
towers  rising  one  above  the  other  in  stages.  Five  square  gateways  opened 
upon  a small  stream  or  canal.  The  city  walls  seem  deserted  by  the  in- 
habitants, but  the  fort  was  defended  by  archers.  Drawn  up  before  it  were 
warriors  variously  armed,  and  cavalry  discharging  their  arrows  without  dis- 
mounting from  their  horses.  A kneeling  Assyrian  protecting  himself  by  a 
broad  wicker  shield,  was  forcing  the  stones  from  the  lower  part  of  the  for- 
tifications with  an  instrument  probably  of  iron. 

When  the  Assyrian  warriors  had  taken  and  plundered  this  city,  they 
brought  human  heads  to  the  registrars,  according  to  their  military  laws,  to 
show  the  numbers  of  the  slain.  The  spoil  consisting  of  furniture,  arms,  and 
vessels  of  elegant  form,  was  registered  by  the  scribes,  to  be  divided  amongst 
the  victorious  troops,  whilst  the  captives  were  either  to  be  apportioned  as 
slaves,  or  settled  as  colonists  in  some  distant  part  of  the  dominions  of  the 
great  king.  The  women  with  their  children  were  seen  riding  in  carts 
drawn  by  oxen.  The  dress  of  the  male  prisoners  consisted  of  a short  tunic 
encircled  at  the  waist  by  a broad  belt,  that  of  the  women  of  an  inner  shirt 
and  an  outef  fringed  robe  falling  to  the  ankles  : the  hair  of  both  was  con- 
fined by  a simple  band  or  fillet  round  the  temples. 

Next  came  the  siege  and  capture  of  a city  standing  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  same  great  river,  and  surrounded  by  a ditch  edged  with  lofty  reeds. 
The  Assyrian  footmen  and  cavalry  had  already  crossed  this  dike,  and  were 
closely  pressing  the  besieged,  who,  no  longer  seeking  to  defend  themselves, 
were  asking  for  quarter.  A warrior,  covering  himself  with  his  large  cir- 
cular shield,  was  attempting  to  set  fire  to  one  of  the  gates  with  a torch. 
Part  of  the  city  had  already  been  taken,  and  the  conquerors  were  driving 
away  captives  and  cattle.  Carts  drawn  by  oxen  were  laden  with  furniture 

* Nos.  XII.,  XLII.,  and  XIX.  Plan  I. 

t That  to  the  east  has  already  been  described,  p.  196.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
neither  of  these  entrances  are  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  sides  of  the  hall. 


376 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 


and  large  metal  vessels.  On  the  other  side  of  the  river,  Sennacherib  in 
his  gorgeous  war  chariot,  and  surrounded  by  his  guards,  received  the  cap- 
tives and  the  spoil.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  is  almost  the  only  figure  of 
the  king  which  had  not  been  wantonly  mutilated,  probably  by  those  who 
overthrew  the  Assyrian  empire,  burned  its  palaces,  and  levelled  its  cities 
with  the  dust.* 

In  this  bas-relief  the  furniture  of  the  horses  was  particularly  rich  and 
elaborate.  Above  the  yoke  rose  a semicircular  ornament,  set  round  with 
stars,  and  containing  the  image  of  a deity.  The  chariot  of  the  Assyrian 
monarch,  his  retinue,  and  his  attire,  accurately  corresponded  with  the  de 
scriptions  given  by  Xenophon  of  those  of  Cyrus,  when  he  marched  out  of 
his  palace  in  procession,  and  by  Q,uintus  Curtius  of  those  of  Darius,  when 
he  went  to  battle  in  the  midst  of  his  army.  The  Greek  general  had  seen 
the  pomp  of  the  Persian  kings,  and  could  describe  it  as  an  eye-witness. 
After  the  sacred  bulls  and  horses,  he  says,  came  a white  chariot  with  a 
perch  of  gold  adorned  with  a crown  or  wreath  sacred  to  Jove.  Cyrus  wore 
a tiara  or  turban  raised  high  above  his  head,  and  a vest  of  purple,  half 
mixed  with  white.  By  him  was  his  driver.  Four  thousand  guards  led 
the  way,  and  two  thousand  walked  on  each  side.  The  principal  officers 
were  on  horseback  richly  attired,  and  behind  them  were  the  royal  led 
horses,  with  bridles  of  gold,  and  coverings  wrought  with  raised  work,  pre- 
cisely as  we  see  them  in  the  sculptures.  The  procession  was  finished  by 
the  troops  of  various  nations,  horse  and  foot,  who  were  in  the  pay  of  the 
monarch.!  The  description  of  Q,uintus  Curtius  is  no  less  illustrative  of 
the  Assyrian  monuments.  “ The  doryphori  (a  chosen  body  of  spearmen) 
preceded  the  chariot,  on  either  side  of  which  were  the  effigies  of  the  gods 
in  gold  and  silver.  The  yoke  was  inlaid  with  the  rarest  jewels.  From 
it  'projected  two  golden  figures  of  Ninus  and  JBelus,  each  a cubit  in 
length The  king  was  distinguished  from  all  those  who  sur- 

rounded him,  by  the  magnificence  of  his  robes,  and  by  the  cidaris  or  mitre 
upon  his  head.  By  his  side  walked  two  hundred  of  his  relations.  Ten 
thousand  warriors  bearing  spears,  whose  staffs  were  of  silver  and  heads  of 
gold,  followed  the  royal  chariot.  The  king’s  led  horses,  forty  in  number, 
concluded  the  procession.”!  Allowing  for  a little  exaggeration  on  the  part 
of  the  historian,  and  for  the  conventional  numbers  used  by  the  Assyrian 
sculptor  to  represent  large  bodies  of  footmen  and  cavalry,  we  might  suppose 
that  Quintus  Curtius  had  seen  the  very  bas-reliefs  I am  describing,  so  com- 
pletely do  they  tally  with  his  description  of  the  appearance  and  retinue  of 
the  Persian  king. 

* This  bas-relief  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

t Cyrop.  lib.  viii.  c.  3.  The  bas-reliefs  in  Chamber  XXXVIII.  (Plan  I.)  very  ac- 
curately corresponded  with  this  description. 

t Quint.  Curt.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  I have  quoted  this  description  in  my  Nineveh  and  its 
Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  365.  The  Persian  king,  although  represented  on  the  walls  of 
Persepolis  with  a crown,  also  wore  a high  cap  or  upright  turban,  as  we  learn  from 
Xenophon  (Anab.  lib.  ii.  c.  5.) 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 


377 


Chap.  XX.] 

The  usual  spoil,  the  elegantly-shaped  bed  and  throne,  the  bundle  of 
spears,  the  swords,  and  the  graceful  vase,  were  brought  to  the  victorious 
monarch,  and  heaped  up  before  him  with  the  gory  heads  of  the  slain.  The 
captives,  bearing  skins  probably  containing  water  and  flour  to  nourish  them 
during  a long  and  harassing  march,  were  fettered  in  pairs,  and  urged  on- 
wards by  their  guards.  The  women  were  partly  on  foot,  and  partly  with 
their  children  on  mules  and  in  carts  drawn  by  oxen.  Mothers  were  repre- 
sented holding  the  water-skins  for  their  young  ones  to  quench  their  thirst, 
whilst  in  some  instances  fathers  had  placed  their  weary  children  on  their 
shoulders,  for  they  were  marching  during  the  heat  of  a Mesopotamian  sum- 
mer, as  the  sculptor  had  shown  by  introducing  large  clusters  of  dates  on 
the  palms.  Thus  were  driven  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria  through  the 
Desert  to  Halah  and  Habor,  by  the  river  of  Gozan  and  the  cities  of  the 
Medes,*  and  we  may  see  in  these  bas-reliefs  a picture  of  the  hardships  and 
sufferings  to  which  the  captive  people  of  Israel  were  exposed  when  their 
cities  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Assyrian  king,  and  their  inhabitants  were 
sent  to  colonise  the  distant  provinces  of  his  empire.! 

On  the  south  side  of  the  hall,  parts  of  four  slabs  only  had  been  pre- 
served; the  sculpture  upon  the  others  had  been  so  completely  destroyed, 
that  even  the  subject  could  no  longer  be  ascertained.  The  fragments  still 
remaining,  graphically  depicted  the  passage  of  the  river  by  the  great  king. 
His  led  horses  had  been  partly  stripped  of  their  costly  furniture,  and  the 
grooms  were  taking  them  to  the  water’s  edge.  One  horse  had  already 
been  detached  from  the  royal  chariot,  and  a groom  was  removing  the  yoke 
from  the  second.  A charioteer  still  held  the  reins,  and  an  eunuch  raised 
a parasol  above  the  monarch’s  head.  Men  were  represented  making  ready 
the  skins  probably  to  form  a raft  for  the  king  to  cross  the  stream.  Some 
carried  such  as  had  already  been  inflated,  others  were  blowing  into  those 
that  were  still  empty,  and  tying  up  the  orifice  after  they  had  been  filled. 
The  bas-relief  represented  very  accurately  a scene  that  may  be  daily  wit- 
nessed, without  the  royal  warrior,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

Many  warriors,  supporting  their  spears  and  heavy  shields  on  their  backs 
by  cords,  had  already  commenced  crossing  the  stream  on  their  skins,  and 
horses  led  by  their  grooms  were  swimming  to  the  opposite  bank.! 

Not  a fragment  of  inscription  remained  to  identify  the  country  repre- 
sented in  the  bas-reliefs  I have  just  described.  From  the  size  of  the  river, 
far  exceeding  that  of  any  other  seen  in  the  sculptures  of  Kouyunjik,  I am 
inclined  to  believe  that  it  must  have  been  the  combined  waters  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  now  known  as  the  Shat-el-Arab.  The  broad  canals 

* 2 Kings,  xvii.  6. 

f See  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plates  42  and  43,  for  part  of  the  se- 
ries described  in  the  text. 

% Plate  41.  of  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh.  These  interesting  bas-re- 
liefs were  unfortunately  on  the  raft,  which,  after  my  return  to  Europe,  was  plundered 
by  the  Arabs  on  its  passage  to  Baghdad. 


378 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 


derived  from  the  main  stream,  and  the  banks  clothed  with  palms,  are  the 
present  characteristics  of  the  same  district.  Dr.  Hincks  has  conjectured 
that  the  “ Bartu  Marratu,”  literally  the  “ Bitter  or  Salt  River”  of  the  in- 
scriptions on  the  Kouyunjik  bulls,  was  not  the  Persian  Gulf  as  supposed  by 
Colonel  Rawlinson,*  but  the  great  stream  formed  by  the  united  waters  of 
the  rivers  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  opposite  sides  of  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
were  two  cities  of  the  name  of  N aghit,  taken  by  Sennacherib  in  the  sixth 
year  of  his  reign. f The  bas-reliefs  correspond  with  sufficient  accuracy  to 
the  account  in  the  annals  to  make  this  conjecture  not  improbable.  No 
country  visited  by  the  Assyrians,  except  that  watered  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course,  or  after  their  confluence,  pos- 
sesses the  natural  features  represented  in  these  sculptures. 

In  the  south  side  of  the  hall  a centre  portal  flanked  by  winged  bulls, 
and  two  small  entrances,  formed  by  gigantic  figures,  opened  into  a long 
chamber, $ whose  sculptured  walls  had  been  burnt  to  lime.  On  the  cal- 
cined slabs,  however,  could  still  be  traced  Assyrian  warriors  mounting  by 
ladders  to  the  assault  of  besieged  cities,  battering-rams,  long  lines  of  arch- 
ers, slingers,  and  spearmen,  a sea  with  double-banked  galleys  similar  to 
those  frequently  described,  and  a fortified  camp,  containing  pavilions  and 
tents,  in  which  were  men  engaged  in  various  domestic  occupations.  The 
king,  as  usual,  superintended  the  operations  from  his  chariot.  To  judge 
from  the  fragments  that  remained  of  this  series  of  sculptures,  the  most  skil- 
ful artist  of  the  day  must  have  been  employed  in  its  execution.  At  both 
ends  of  the  chamber,  doors,  guarded  by  colossal  figures,  led  into  smaller 
apartments,  in  which  the  bas-reliefs  had  been  almost  entirely  destroyed. § 
Facing  the  great  portal  was  a corresponding,  but  still  wider,  entrance, 
formed  by  a pair  of  human-headed  lions.  Between  them  was  an  enormous 
alabaster  pavement  slab,  sculptured  in  relief,  with  a very  elegant  design, 
consisting  of  a border  of  alternate  tulips  or  lotus  flowers  and  cones,  inclos- 
ing similar  ornaments  arranged  in  squares  and  surrounded  by  rosettes. || 

On  either  side  of  this  grand  portal  were  doors,  guarded  by  colossal  fig- 
ures, amongst  which  was  the  fish-god. 

Little  remained  of  the  chamber  into  which  these  three  entrances  led.TT 
A few  fragments,  with  part  of  a procession  of  captives  and  warriors,  were 
alone  left  on  the  walls.  We  were  now  upon  the  very  brink  of  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  mound,  and  had  consequently  reached  the  furthest  chamber 
in  this  part  of  the  palace.  There  were  no  traces  of  an  exterior  wall. 

Returning  to  the  great  hall  we  found  an  entrance  formed  by  colossal  fig- 
ures leading  into  a long  narrow  chamber,**  about  70  feet  by  12,  whose  walls 
had  partly  escaped  the  general  wreck.  It  appeared  to  be  the  remains  of 
an  entrance  into  the  palace,  like  that  on  the  western  face,  or  a gallery  lead- 

* Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xxxviii.  t See  p.  123. 
t No.  XXIV.  Plan  I.,  98  by  27  feet.  $ Nos.  XXV.  and  XXVI.  Plan.  I. 

||  Plate  56.  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh, 
f No.  XXVII.  Plan  I.  **  No.  XXVIII.,  same  Plan. 


✓ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 


379 


Chap.  XX.] 

ing  to  the  outer  terrace,  which  probably  surrounded  the  building.  On  its 
alabaster  panels  were  sculptured  the  conquest  of  some  of  those  tribes  which 
inhabited,  from  the  remotest  period,  the  vast  marshes  formed  by  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  in  Chaldsea  and  Babylonia.  The  swamps  of  Lemlun 
are  still  spread  over  this  low  land,  and  are  the  place  of  refuge  of  a wild  and 
barbarous  race  of  Arabs,  not  improbably,  as  I have  already  observed,  the 
descendants  of  the  very  people  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Kouyunjik. 
With  these,  or  similar  tribes,  the  Assyrians,  during  the  time  of  Sennacherib, 
appear  to  have  been  in  frequent  war,  and  expeditions  against  them  were 
recorded  on  the  walls  of  more  than  one  chamber  of  his  palace.*  Unfortu- 
nately there  were  no  remains  of  epigraphs  or  other  inscriptions  on  the  bas- 
reliefs.  They  may,  perhaps,  represent  part  of  that  campaign  against  Mer- 
odach-Baladan,  king  of  Kar-Duniyas,  recorded  in  the  first  year  of  the  an- 
nals of  Sennacherib  on  the  great  bulls  of  Kouyunjik  and  at  Bavian.  This 
king  appears  to  have  ruled  over  all  the  tribes  inhabiting  Chaldsea,  includ- 
ing, therefore,  those  that  dwelt  in  the  great  marshes  at  the  confluence  of 
the  rivers. 

In  these  bas-reliefs  the  swamps  with  the  jungles  of  lofty  reeds,  the  nar- 
row passages  cut  through  them  like  streets,  and  the  shallow  stagnant  wa- 
ter abounding  in  fish,  were  faithfully,  though  rudely,  portrayed.  Men  and 
women,  seated  on  rafts,  were  hiding  themselves  in  the  thick  brakes,  whilst 
the  Assyrian  warriors  followed  the  fugitives  in  light  boats  of  wicker  work, 
probably  taken  from  the  enemy,  and  such  as  are  used  to  this  day  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  same  marshes.  Some  had  overtaken  and  were  killing 
their  victims.  Others  were  returning  to  the  banks  with  captives,  and  with 
the  heads  of  the  slain.  In  the  water  were  the  bodies  of  the  dead  already 
food  for  the  fishes.  The  fighting  men  of  the  conquered  tribes  were  armed 
with  bows,  and  wore  short  tunics  ; the  women  had  long  fringed  robes  ; the 
hair  of  both  was  confined  round  the  temples  by  a fillet.  This  dress  ap- 
pears from  the  sculptures  to  have  been  common  to  all  the  nations  inhabit- 
ing the  country  watered  by  the  lower  part  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

Although  the  people  represented  in  these  bas-reliefs  dwelt  in  the  swampy 
districts  of  Chaldsea,  unless,  indeed,  they  had  only  taken  refuge  in  them  to 
escape  the  vengeance  of  the  Assyrian  king,  they  appear  to  have  been  as 
rich,  if  not  richer,  than  any  others  conquered  by  Sennacherib.  With  the 
exception  of  three  slabs  and  part  of  a fourth,  containing  the  battle  in  the 
marsh,  the  entire  walls  of  the  chamber  were  sculptured  with  the  captives 
and  spoil  brought  by  the  victorious  troops  to  their  king.  Unfortunately  the 
image  of  Sennacherib  himself  in  his  chariot,  which,  to  judge  from  a frag- 
ment or  two  found  in  the  rubbish,  must  have  exceeded  all  others  in  the  pal- 
ace, both  in  size  and  in  the  finish  and  richness  of  the  details,  had  been  en- 
tirely destroyed.  Women  and  children  on  foot,  on  asses,  and  in  carts  drawn 
by  oxen,  waggons  laden  with  furniture,  ealdrons  and  vessels  in  metal,  oxen, 
mules,  camels,  sheep  and  goats,  vases  and  jars  of  the  most  elegant  forms, 
* Two  campaigns  into  Babylonia  are  recorded  in  the  bull  inscriptions. 


380 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 


spears,  swords,  and  shields,  curiously  carved  couches,  chairs,  and  tables, 
were  included  in  the  booty  with  which  the  Assyrian  conquerors  returned 
in  triumph  to  Nineveh.  Amongst  the  objects  in  metal  was  an  elegant 

casket  or  vessel,  probably  of  gold  or  silver,  the. 
upper  part  of  which,  shaped  like  the  walls  of 
a castle  with  battlements  and  towers,  rested 
upon  a column  whose  capital  was  formed  by 
Ionic  volutes  (another  instance  of  the  early 
use  of  this  order  of  architecture  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tigris).  The  whole  was  supported  by 
projecting  curved  feet  ending  in  the  hoofs  of 
bulls,  and  stood  on  the  cone-shaped  orna- 
ment so  frequently  seen  in  Assyrian  furniture. 
Some  of  the  captives  carried  on  their  shoul- 
ders wicker  baskets,  such  as  are  still  made  in 
Babylonia,  and  large  bottles,  probably  of  leath- 
er. The  country  through  which  they  passed 
abounded  in  the  date-bearing  palm.  The  As- 
syrian warriors,  hungry  after  their  long  march, 
were  represented  before  a fire  roasting  the 
limbs  of  a sheep.  Drawings  from  this  highly 
interesting  series  of  bas-reliefs,  so  illustrative 
of  the  wars  of  the  Assyrians,  will  be  found  in 
the  second  series  of  my  work  on  the  Monu- 

Metal  Vessel  or  Casket  (Kouyunjik). 

ments  ot  Nineveh.* 

Returning  to  the  great  hall,  from  which  this  gallery  led,  I found  on  its 
western  side  three  other  entrances,  corresponding  with  those  on  the  south- 
ern, the  centre  formed  by  a pair  of  winged  bulls  in  a fossiliferous  limestone. f 
They  led  into  a chamber  58  feet  by  34,  panelled  with  unsculptured  slabs 
of  the  same  material  as  the  colossi  at  the  principal  portal.  Three  similar 
doorways  opened  into  a parallel  chamber  of  the  same  length,  though  rather 
narrower. J Its  walls  had  been  ornamented  with  carved  alabaster  slabs, 
of  which  a few  fragments  remained.  A fortified  camp,  containing  the  usual 
pavilions  and  tents  ; priests  sacrificing  a sheep  before  a fire  altar ; a castle 
on  the  sea-shore  ; double-banked  galleys  hung  round  with  shields  ; and  long 
lines  of  captives  (the  women  wearing  hoods  fitting  close  over  their  heads, 
and  falling  to  their  feet  behind  ; the  men  turbans  of  several  folds,  such  as 
are  frequently  represented  at  Khorsabad),  were  amongst  the  bas-reliefs 
still  preserved. 

Three  doorways  on  the  western  side  of  this  chamber,  similar  to  those  on 
the  eastern,  led  into  as  many  distinct  rooms,  unconnected  with  each  other. 
There  were  thus  three  magnificent  portals,  one  behind  the  other,  each 
formed  by  winged  bulls  facing  the  same  way,  and  all  looking  towards  the 

* Plates  25,  26,  and  35.  t No.  XXIX.  Plan  I. 

t No.  XXXIV.  same  Plan.  About  29  feet  wide. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 


381 


Chap.  XX.] 

great  hall ; the  largest  colossi,  those  in  front,  being  above  18  feet  high,  and 
the  smallest,  those  leading  into  the  inner  chamber,  about  12.*  It  would  be 
difficult  to  conceive  any  interior  architectural  arrangement  more  imposing 
than  this  triple  group  of  gigantic  forms  as  seen  in  perspective  by  those  who 
stood  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  dimly  lighted  from  above,  and  harmoniously 
colored  or  overlaid,  like  the  cherubims  in  the  temple  of  Solomon,  with  gold. 

The  inner  centre  portal  led  into  the  chamber  containing  the  sculptured 
records  of  Sennacherib’s  memorable  campaign  against  Lachish,  already  de- 
scribed.! Of  the  apartments  on  each  side  of  it,!  the  walls  of  that  to  the 
right  had  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  that  to  the  left  had  not  been 
explored  before  my  departure. 

At  the  upper  or  southern  ends  of  the  two  parallel  chambers  just  described 
were  entrances  opening  into  a room  82  feet  by  24,  whose  walls  were 
of  the  same  unsculptured  limestone.  § From  it  a portal,  formed  by  winged 
lions  in  the  same  material,  led  into  an  apartment  76  feet  by  26,  standing 
on  the  edge  of  the  mound,  and  consequently  one  of  the  last  on  this  side  of 
the  palace. ||  Only  six  slabs,  neither  of  them  entire,  remained  against  its 
walls ; the  rest  had  been  purposely  destroyed,  and  the  fragments  used  for 
the  foundations  of  a building  raised  over  the  Assyrian  ruins.  These  slabs, 
like  the  sphinxes, IT  were  of  a limestone  abounding  in  fossils,  probably  “ the 
polished  stone,  full  of  shells,”  noticed  by  Xenophon  in  the  plinth  of  the 
walls  of  Mespila.**  It  is  harder  and  more  difficult  to  work  than  the  usual 
alabaster  or  gypsum,  yet  it  admits  of  high  finish.  The  six  slabs,  still 
standing,  were  covered  from  top  to  bottom  with  small  figures,  most  elabo- 
rately carved,  and  designed  with  great  spirit.  Although  bearing  a general 
resemblance  to  the  bas-reliefs  of  Kouyunjik,  there  was  sufficient  in  the 
style  of  art  and  in  the  details  to  show  that  they  were  not  of  exactly  the 
same  period.  Fortunately,  several  epigraphs  still  remained  over  the  prin- 
cipal groups,  and  enable  us  to  determine  to  what  monarch  the  sculptures 
belong,  and  to  identify  the  events  and  incidents  they  portray. 

The  three  slabs  to  the  right  of  the  winged  lions  on  entering  were  occu- 
pied by  a highly  curious  representation  of  a battle.  The  subject  was  in*- 
complete,  and  could  not  be  restored.  The  Assyrians,  having  besieged  and 
captured  some  great  city,  appeared  to  be  pursuing  the  flying  enemy.  On 
the  first  remaining  slab  was  part  of  a mound,  on  which  a castle  was  proba- 
bly built.  Down  the  side  of  the  artificial  elevation  ran  the  defeated  war 
riors,  no  longer  attempting  defence,  but  giving  themselves  up  to  despair 
One  was  plucking  out  his  beard,  a common  action  amongst  easterns  to  de- 
note grief ; some  tearing  their  hair,  and  others  turning  round  to  ask  for 
quarter  from  their  merciless  pursuers.  On  the  sides  of  the  mound  were 

* These  were  entrances  l and  h,  No.  XXIX.  and  b.  No.  XXXVI.  same  Plan, 
t No.  XXXVI.  same  Plan ; see  p 126.  t No.  XXXVII.  No.  XXXV.  same  Plan 
$ No.  XXX.  same  Plan.  ||  No.  XXXIII.  Plan  I. 

IT  This  limestone,  being  full  of  shells  and  other  fossils,  has,  when  polished,  a verv 
pleasing  appearance.  **  Anab.  c.  iii.  lib.  4. 


382 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 


the  dead  and  dying,  and  the  hows  and  quivers  of  the  slain.  A wounded 
mule  was  falling  to  the  ground,  whilst  his  rider,  pierced  by  an  arrow,  raised 
his  hands  to  implore  for  mercy.  An  Assyrian  soldier,  or  ally,  distinguished 
by  a low  round  cap,  and  a kind  of  belt  or  shawl  twisted  round  his  breast, 
was  dragging  a body  towards  him,  probably  with  the  intention  of  cutting 
off  the  head.  Beneath  the  mound  a horseman  was  piercing  with  his  spear 
a flying  enemy,  and  two  warriors  in  a car  drawn  by  a mule,  were  hastening 


from  the  battle-field. 

The  remainder  of  the  subject  was  di- 
vided by  horizontal  parallel  lines  into 
six  parts  or  friezes,  of  which,  however, 
only  three  were  entire.  From  the  num- 
ber of  figures  introduced,  and  the  com- 
plicated nature  of  the  action,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  describe  these  important  bas-re- 
liefs intelligibly.  In  the  lowest  com- 
partment, archers  and  spearmen,  some 
on  horses,  were  represented  in  close  com- 
bat with  the  enemy,  whose  armies,  like 
those  of  the  Assyrians,  were  composed 
of  footmen  and  cavalry.  The  battle- 
field was  strewn  with  the  slain,  and 
with  their  scattered  arms ; but,  as  usual, 
the  sculptor,  to  flatter  the  vanity  of  his 
countrymen,  had  not  portrayed  a single 
Assyrian  either  dead  or  wounded.  In 
the  second  frieze  the  enemy  were  seen 
fighting  in  carts  drawn  by  mules.  In 
the  next  compartment  were  Assyrian 
warriors  bearing  the  heads  of  the  slain, 
and  leaving  the  field  of  battle  in  a cart 
captured  from  the  foe.  Above  this 
group  was  an  epigraph,  unfortunately 
much  mutilated,  which  recorded  the 
slaughter  of  a king,  whose  name  was 

— I (?  Tiranish),  and 

who,  we  learn  from  other  inscriptions 
on  the  same  sculptures,  reigned  over 
Elam,  or  Susiana.  The  lines  being  in- 
complete, the  meaning  of  the  whole 
inscription  is  not  quite  clear. 

Behind  the  cart  with  the  Assyrian 


* The  name  is  defective  in  this  inscription,  but  can  be  restored  from  others  in  the 
same  series  of  bas-reliefs. 


Assyrian  Warriors  in  a Cart,  captured  from  the  Elamites  (Kouyunjik). 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 


383 


Chap.  XX.] 

warriors,  was  the  tent  of  the  registrar,  to  which  had  been  led  a captive  chief 
and  his  two  attendants.  Within  were  collected  a heap  of  human  heads, 
whilst  warriors  were  bringing  more  of  these  bloody  trophies  to  the  appoint- 
ed scribes.  In  another  part  of  the  battle  was  seen  the  chariot  of  one  of 
the  princes  of  the  Elamites.  Four  spirited  horses,  wounded  by  arrows,  were 
plunging  and  rearing  and  the  chief  with  his  charioteer  were  falling  from 
the  overturned  chariot.  Beneath  was  a group  representing  an  Assyrian 
warrior  holding  his  horse  by  the  bridle,  and  advancing  towards  a fallen  en- 
emy, who,  turning  towards  his  conqueror,  placed  one  hand  upon  his  throat, 
a gesture  either  of  entreaty,  or  to  indicate  his  approaching  fate.  Above 
him  was  an  epigraph,  commencing  apparently  with  his  name,  of  which  only 
one  letter  remained,  and  declaring  that  he  was  a general  of  the  Susianian 
king  (?).  Around  these  groups,  Assyrians,  armed  with  battle-axes  and 
maces,  were  slaying  the  unresisting  foe.  In  this  part  of  the  bas-relief  were 
two  short  epigraphs,  which  appeared  to  state  that  the  slaughtered  warriors 
were  sons  of  the  king  of  Elam.  These  princes  were  distinguished  by  a pe- 
culiar round  cap,  to  which  was  attached  a long  feather  falling  down  the 
back,  a head-dress  subsequently  worn  by  Persian  kings.  They  were  clothed 
in  embroidered  and  fringed  robes,  and  their  chariots  were  drawn  by  four 
horses. 

Crows  and  vultures  were  represented  feasting  upon  the  carcases  of  the 
slain.  Adjoining  the  field  of  battle  was  a broad  river,  into  which  the  As- 
syrians were  driving  the  retreating  enemy : it  was  filled  with  the  dead 
bodies  of  men  and  horses,  and  with  bows  and  quivers. 

Above  the  battle  scenes  were  the  conquerors  torturing,  and  leading  into 
captivity,  their  prisoners.  They  were  divided  into  three  rows  ; parts  of  two 
only  had  been  preserved. 

Several  of  the  captives  were  apparently  about  to  undergo  some  dreadful 
torture  ; with  their  hands  manacled  in  iron  fetters,  they  knelt  over  an  ob- 
ject which  might  be  a chafing-dish  with  hot  coals  or  a vessel  to  receive 
their  blood.  One  of  the  torturers  held  his  victim  by  a collar  round  his 
neck ; whilst  a second,  seizing  the  unfortunate  prisoner  by  the  hair,  was 
about  to  strike  him  with  an  iron-headed  mace. 

The  epigraphs  declare  that  the  war  recorded  by  these  sculptures  was 
undertaken  by  an  Assyrian  king,  whose  image  was  represented  on  a slab 
not  yet  described,  against  the  people  of  Elam  or  Susiana.  It  is  of  consid- 
erable importance  thus  to  identify  the  conquered  people,  and  to  be  able  to 
ascertain  the  costume,  the  arms,  and  the  mode  of  warfare  of  a nation  well 
known  in  ancient  history.  The  Elamites,  we  find  from  these  bas-reliefs, 
used  even  in  war,  besides  chariots,  a kind  of  cart  drawn  by  mules,  and  con- 
sisting of  a flat  stage  raised  upon  lofty  wheels,  which  had  as  many  as 
twelve  and  even  sixteen  spokes.  The  largest  of  these  cars  could  hold  five 
or  six  persons,  and  were  adorned  with  a fringed  or  embroidered  cloth.  The 
smallest,  it  would  appear,  contained  only  two,  the  warrior  and  the  chariot- 
* This  group  of  horses  is  remarkable  for  its  spirit  and  correct  delineation. 


384 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 


eer,  who  sat  on  a kind  of  raised  seat.  Such  carts  are  probably  alluded  to 
by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  when  he  speaks  of  “ the  chariots,  waggons,  and 
wheels,”  belonging  to  “ the  Babylonians,  and  all  the  Chaldaeans,  Pekod, 
and  Shoa,  and  Koa,  and  all  the  Assyrians,”  who  should  come  up  against 
Jerusalem.* * * §  The  harness  of  the  mules  consisted  of  a simple  band  round 
the  chest,  hung  with  rosettes  and  tassels,  probably  of  colored  wool.  They 
were  guided  either  by  reins,  or  by  a long  rod  held  by  the  charioteer  in  his 
right  hand.  Mules  were  also,  it  would  seem,  ridden  by  this  people  in  bat- 
tle, and  were  then  caparisoned  like  horses. f The  dress  of  the  fighting  men 
consisted  chiefly  of  a tunic,  or  single  shirt,  falling  to  the  knee,  and  bound 
at  the  waist  by  a narrow  girdle.  Some  of  them  had  round  their  shoulders 
a kind  of  band  knotted  in  front.  This  appears  to  have  been  a contrivance 
to  support  the  quiver  suspended  at  the  back.  Their  hair  was  long,  and 
was  confined  by  a fillet,  or  riband  tied  behind  the  head  in  a kind  of  bow. 
The  captive  chief  arid  his  attendants  in  the  tent  wore  robes  falling  to  the 
knee  in  front,  and  to  the  ankles  behind.  Those  who  fought  on  foot  were 
armed  with  the  bow,  but  the  cavalry  used  the  spear.  The  archers  carried 
at  their  backs  quivers  of  peculiar  form,  and  ornamented  at  the  sides  and  on 
the  top  with  rosettes.  I have  already  described  the  peculiar  dress  of  the 
princes  ; it  was  completed  by  high  boots  or  greaves  laced  up  in  front,  and 
probably  of  yellow  leather.! 

Amongst  the  captives  were  men  clothed  in  fringed  robes  and  a short 
under-tunic  : these  were  probably  the  lords  of  the  land.  The  women  wore 
their  hair  in  curls,  falling  on  their  shoulders,  and  bound  above  the  tem- 
ples by  a band  or  fillet.  Some  had  one  long  ringlet  on  each  side  of  the 
face.  Their  children  were  either  naked  or  clothed  in  simple  shirts. 

The  Assyrian  troops  were  divided  into  cavalry  and  foot.  The  horse- 
men carried  the  bow  and  spear,  and  wore  coats  of  mail,  high  greaves,  and 
the  pointed  helmet,  that  characteristic  part  of  the  Assyrian  military  cos- 
tume from  the  earliest  period.  Their  horses  were  covered  with  clothes, 
and  even,  it  would  seem,  with  a kind  of  leather  armour,  reaching  from  the 
head  to  the  tail,  to  protect  them  from  the  arrows  of  the  enemy.  § It  con- 
sisted of  several  separate  pieces  fastened  together  by  buttons  or  loops. 
Over  it  was  thrown  an  ornamented  saddle-cloth  or  a leopard’s  skin,  upon 

* Ezek.  xxiii.  23,  24. 

t Susiana  is  still  celebrated  for  its  mules.  These  animals  were  evidently  much 
esteemed  by  the  ancients.  They  were  even  used  by  kings.  When  David  sent  for 
Solomon  to  be  anointed  king  over  Israel,  he  caused  him  to  ride  on  his  mule.  (1  Kings, 
i.  33.)  They  were  also  noted  for  their  swiftness  and  endurance  (2  Sam.  xiii.  2.), 
were  used  for  posts  (Esther,  viii.  10.),  and  were  amongst  objects  of  tribute  and  spoil, 
as  we  see  them  represented  in  the  sculptures.  (1  Kings,  x.  25.  2 Chron.  ix.  24.) 

t Boots  of  yellow  leather  formed  a part  of  the  dress  of  the  Persian  kings.  (Cyrop. 
lib.  viii.  c.  3.)  It  appears  from  Ezekiel  (xvi.  10.)  that  the  skins  of  badgers  were  much 
esteemed  for  boots. 

§ Cyrus  covered  his  chariot-horses,  all  but  the  eyes,  with  armour.  (Xenophon, 
Inst.  1.  vi.) 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BAS-RELIEFS. 


385 


Chap.  XX.] 

which  the  rider  sat.  Under  the  head  of  the  horse  was  hung  a hell  or  a 
tassel.  The  reins  appear  to  have  been  tightened  round  the  neck  of  the  an- 
imal by  a sliding  button,  and  then  dropped  when  the  warrior  was  engaged 
in  the  fight.  Between  the  horse’s  ears  was  an  arched  crest,  and  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  harness  were  richly  embroidered  and  ornamented  with 
rosettes.  These  trappings,  it  will  be  perceived,  differed  from  those  repre- 
sented in  sculptures  of  an  earlier  epoch.  The  costumes  of  the  footmen,  as 
in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Sennacherib,  varied  according  to  their  arms.  The 
archers,  probably  auxiliaries  from  different  tribes  in  alliance  with  the  As- 
syrians, were  dressed  in  very  short  tunics  scarcely  covering  the  thigh.  A 
broad  belt,  with  the  fringed  ornament  peculiar  to  the  later  Assyrian  pe- 
riod, encircled  their  waist,  and  over  their  shoulders  they  wore  a cross  belt, 
of  chequered  cloth  resembling  a Scottish  plaid,  to  support  the  quiver. 
Their  hair,  confined  by  a plain  fillet,  was  rolled  up  behind  in  one  large 
curl.  All  the  spearmen  had  the  pointed  helmet ; but  some  wore  coats  of 
mail  and  metal  greaves,  and  others  a simple  tunic,  without  any  covering 
to  their  legs.  Their  shields  protected  nearly  the  whole  person,  and  were 
rounded  at  the  top  and  straight  at  the  bottom.  Some  appear  to  have  been 
faced  with  small  square  pieces  of  leather,  others  to  have  been  made  entire- 
ly of  metal,  with  embossed  edges.  For  the  first  time  we  see  in  these  bas- 
reliefs  the  Assyrians  using  the  battle-axe  and  the  mace  in  battle. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  lion-entrance  were  also  three  slabs,  hut  bet- 
ter preserved  than  those  I have  just  described.  They  formed  part  of  the 
same  subject,  which  had  evidently  been  carried  round  the  four  walls  of  the 
chamber.  They  represented  the  triumph  of  the  Assyrian  king,  and,  like 
the  battle  scenes,  were  divided  by  horizontal  lines  into  several  bands  or 
friezes.  The  monarch  stood  in  his  chariot,  surrounded  by  his  body-guard. 
Unfortunately,  his  face,  with  those  of  the  charioteer  and  the  eunuch  bear- 
ing the  parasol,  had  been  purposely  defaced,  like  that  of  Sennacherib  on 
his  monuments,  probably  when  the  united  armies  of  the  Medes  and  Baby- 
lonians destroyed  the  palace.  The  royal  robes  were  profusely  adorned  with 
rosettes  and  fringes ; the  attendant  eunuch  was  dressed  in  a chequered  gar- 
ment resembling  a Scotch  plaid.  The  parasol  was  embroidered  with  ro 
settes,  and  ornamented  with  tassels,  and  to  it  was  hung  the  long  piece  of 
cloth  or  silk  as  a protection  from  the  side  rays  of  the  sun.  The  chariot, 
part  of  which  had  been  destroyed,  was  most  elaborately  decorated.  The 
body  was  carved  with  an  elegant  pattern  of  intersecting  circles  and  ro- 
settes, and  edged  by  a tasteful  border.  In  a circular  panel  was  a kneeling 
figure  drawing  a how,  probably  the  protecting  deity  of  the  Assyrian  king. 
A round  boss  projected  from  the  fore  part  of  the  chariot,  and  beneath  it  was 
a case  to  receive  the  arrows  and  how.  The  chariot  was  more  lofty  than 
that  seen  in  the  earlier  Assyrian  sculptures.  The  wheels  were  unusually 
large,  and  had  eight  spokes,  encircled  by  an  ornamental  border.  The  har- 
ness of  the  horses  consisted  of  a band  under  the  chest,  with  rosettes  and  tas- 
sels, a cluster  of  large  tassels  hanging  over  the  shoulder  from  the  yoke,  an 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


386 


[Chai\  XX. 


embroidered  or  ivory  studded  breast-band,  and  head-pieces  similarly  adorn- 
ed. Two  lofty  plumes,  or  panaches,  rose  between  their  ears. 

In  front  of  the  chariot  were  two  warriors  or  guards  in  embroidered  robes 
and  greaves.  Their  long  hair  was  bound  by  a fillet,  whose  tasselled  ends 
fell  loose  behind.  They  were  preceded  by  two  remarkable  figures,  both 
eunuchs,  and  probably  intended  for  portraits  of  some  well-known  officers  of 
the  royal  household.  One  was  old  and  corpulent : his  forehead  was  high 
and  ample  ; his  nose  curved  and  small,  and  his  chin  round  and  double. 
The  wrinkles  of  the  brow,  the  shaggy  eyebrows,  and  the  bloated  cheeks, 
with  the  stubble  beard  peculiar  to  beings  of  his  class,  were  very  faithfully 
represented.  His  short  hair  was  tied  with  a fillet.  His  companion  was 
younger,  and  had  not  the  same  marked  features.  He  carried  before  him 
a square  object  resembling  a closed  box  or  book,  perhaps  a clay  tablet  con- 
taining some  decree  or  register,  such  as  were  discovered  in  the  ruins.  Both 
wore  long  plain  shirts,  and  round  their  waists  a simple  cord,  in  which  was 
fixed  a whip,  probably  a sign  of  their  office. 

Above  this  remarkable  group  was  an  inscription  in  eight  linqs  for- 
tunately almost  entire.  From  it  we  learn  that  the  name  of  the  king, 
whose  deeds  were  thus  recorded,  was  written  in  cuneiform  characters 


>-*f  A ££  Tb 


We  know  from  relics  found  at  Nimroud  and  Kou- 


yunjik  that  he  was  the  son  of  Essarhaddon,  and  the  grandson  of  Sennache- 
rib, and  the  conqueror  of  Susiana.  He  was  the  Assordanes  of  the  chron- 
ological tables,  and  his  name  begins  with  the  monogram  for  the  Assyrian 
deity,  Asshur.* 


These  bas-reliefs  record  his  conquest  of  the  country  of  ~t  el  er 


(Nuvaki  ?),  a name  by  which  Susiana  or  Elymais  was  anciently  known  ; 
as  we  also  find  from  the  inscriptions  at  Khorsabad,  as  well  as  from  those 
of  Bisutun.f  In  the  same  inscription  a king  of  Armenia  is  also  mentioned ; 
and  it  would  appear  that  the  great  men  of  that  country  were  sent  to  the 
Assyrian  monarch  whilst  in  Susiana.  They  may  have  been  taken  prison- 
ers by  his  generals,  or  may  have  brought  him  their  allotted  tribute. 

Above  the  royal  chariot  was  a row  of  trees,  and  beneath  a procession  of 
mace-bearers  and  led  horses,  richly  caparisoned.  A lower  compartment 
contained  a curious  ground  plan  of  a city.  In  it  were  the  following  char- 


acters, ^ £?[  PfFf?  *T>  reading  “the  district  of  Madaktu”  (?).  It 

will  be  seen  from  an  inscription  to  be  subsequently  noticed,  that  Susa  or 
Shushan  actually  stood  in  a district  of  this  name  ; and  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that  we  have,  in  the  bas-relief,  a representation  of  the  city.  Its  posi- 
tion between  two  rivers  well  agrees  with  that  of  existing  ruins  generally 


* Dr.  Hincks  reads  the  name  Assaracbal. 

t Rawlinson’s  Memoir,  Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  xiv.  p.  16.  In  the 
Khorsabad  inscriptions  we  find  the  better-known  name  of  “ Elam”  interchangeable 
with  Nuvaki 


Chap.  XX.] 


THE  CITY  OF  SHUSHAN 


387 


believed  to  mark  its  site.  The  smaller  stream  would  be  the  Sliapour,  and 
the  larger  the  Eulceus  or  river  of  Dizful.*  The  city  was  surrounded  by  a 
wall,  with  equidistant  towers  and  gateways.  The  houses  were  flat  roofed, 
and  some  had  one  tower  or  upper  chamber,  and  others  two.  They  had  no 
windows,  and  their  doors  were  square.  Thus,  in  general  form,  and  prob- 
ably in  the  interior  arrangements,  they  closely  resembled  the  common 
dwellings  of  the  Egyptians,  of  which  a very  interesting  model  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum. f Nor  were  they  unlike  the  meaner  houses  of  the 
modern  town  of  Shushter,  the  representative  of  ancient  Susa.  Unfortu- 
nately, part  of  the  slab  containing  the  city  had  been  destroyed,  and  many 
of  the  more  important  edifices  were  probably  wanting.  Outside  the  walls 
were  groves  of  palms  and  other  trees,  and  a kind  of  suburb  of  houses  scat- 
tered amongst  the  gardens  as  around  Baghdad  and  Busrah.  On  the  river 
bank  stood  two  forts  with  towers,  one  raised  on  an  artificial  mound.  Near 
the  large  river,  at  the  bottom  of  the  slab,  was  either  a pond  in  the  midst 
of  palm  trees,  or  the  source  of  a rivulet  which  fell  into  the  main  stream.]: 
The  adjoining  slab  was  divided  into  eight  bands  or  friezes,  by  parallel 
lines,  and  the  next  slab  into  seven.  On  both  were  represented  the  Assyr 
ian  army  returning  from  its  victorious  campaign,  and  bringing  to  the  king 
the  captives  and  the  spoil.  The  prisoners,  who  were  probably  considered 
rather  rebels  to  his  authority  than  enemies,  were  being  cruelly  tortured  in 
his  presence.  The  principal  group  was  that  of  the  eunuch  general,  or  Tar- 
tan, leading  a chief  or  prince  of  the  conquered  people.  With  one  hand  he 
grasped  his  captive  by  the  wrist,  and  raised  in  the  other  a long  and  massy 
spear.  At  his  back  was  hung  a quiver  and  bow,  and  an  embossed  belt  en- 
circled his  mailed  vest.  The  prisoner  wore  a simple  robe  falling  to  his  an- 
kles, and  a knotted  fillet  round  his  head.  Above  him  was  an  inscription 
unfortunately  much  mutilated.  It  appears  to  have  declared  that  he  was 
one  of  the  sons  or  chiefs  of  the  Susianian  monarch,  defeated  and  slain  in 
battle  near  the  district  of  Madaktu  (the  name,  it  will  be  remembered,  over 


Shushan  ; and  that  the  Assyrian  king  had  placed  one  of  his  own  generals 
on  the  conquered  throne. § 

* A full  account  of  these  rivers,  and  a description  of  the  ruins  upon  them,  will  be 
found  in  my  Memoir  on  the  Province  of  Khuzistan,  in  vol.  xvi.  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society. 

t Wilkinson’s  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  ii.  p.  109. 

t It  is  possible  that  the  two  rivers  above  and  the  two  below  may  represent  but 
two  streams  ; and  that  the  spring  or  pool  may  be  the  sources  of  the  Shapour,  which 
are  in  the  plain  not  far  distant  from  Susa.  (See  my  Memoir,  Geog.  Soc.  Journal,  vol 
xvi.  p.  56.) 

$ So  many  characters  are  unfortunately  wanting  in  this  epigraph,  that  the  inscrip- 
tion cannot  be  satisfactorily  translated.  It  commences,  it  would  appear,  with  the 
name  of  the  Susianian  king,  although  written  without  the  first  character  found  on 
the  other  slabs.  The  captive,  however,  was  not  the  monarch  himself,  who  was  slain, 
as  it  has  been  seen,  in  the  battle.  The  name  of  Shushan,  written,  as  in  the  book  of 


the  city  on  the  adjoining  slab),  and  near 


388 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XX. 

Before  the  captive  prince  were  gathered  a number  of  the  Susianians, 
probably  the  subjects  of  the  slaughtered  king,  who  had  come  to  surrender 
to  the  Assyrian  general,  for  they  still  carried  their  arms,  and  were  not  led 
by  the  victorious  warriors.  Some  of  them  knelt,  some  bowed  to  the  ground, 
and  others,  stretched  at  full  length,  rubbed  their  heads  in  the  dust,  all  signs 
of  grief  and  submission  still  practised  in  the  East.  They  were  followed  by 
a led  horse,  and  by  a cart  drawn  by  a mule,  resembling  those  represented  in 
the  battle  scenes.  Another  Tartan  of  the  Assyrian  army,  holding  his  war- 
horse  and  carrying  his  spear,  also  received  the  homage  of  the  conquered 
Susianians.  The  Assyrian  generals  were  welcomed  by  bands  of  men  and 
women,  dancing,  singing,  and  playing  on  instruments  of  music.  Thus, 

when  David  was  returned  from  the  slaughter  of  the  Philistines,  the  wom- 
en came  out  of  all  the  cities  of  Israel,  singing  and  dancing,  to  meet  Saul, 
with  tabrets,  with  joy,  and  with  instruments  of  music.”*  We  find  from 
various  passages  in  the  Scriptures,  that  the  instruments  of  music  chiefly 
used  on  such  triumphant  occasions  were  the  harp,  one  with  ten  strings  (ren- 
dered viol  or  lyre  in  some  versions,  but  probably  a kind  of  dulcimer),  the 
tabor  and  the  pipe,f  precisely  those  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs.  First 
came  five  men  ; three  carried  harps  of  many  strings,  which  they  struck 
with  both  hands,  dancing  at  the  same  time  to  the  measure ; a fourth  played 
on  the  double-pipes,  such  as  are  seen  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt, $ and 
were  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  were  blown  at  the  end  like 
the  flutes  of  the  modern  Yezidis,  which  they  probably  resembled  in  tone 
and  form.  The  fifth  musician  carried  an  instrument  not  unlike  the  mod- 
ern santour  of  the  East,  consisting  of  a number  of  strings  stretched  over  a 
hollow  case  or  sounding  board.  The  strings,  pressed  with  the  fingers  of 
the  left  hand  to  produce  the  notes,  were  struck  with  a small  wand  or  ham- 
mer held  in  the  right.  The  men  were  followed  by  six  female  musicians, 
four  playing  on  harps,  one  on  the  double-pipes,  and  the  sixth  on  a kind  of 
drum  beaten  with  both  hands,  resembling  the  tubbul  still  used  by  Eastern 
dancing-girls. 

The  musicians  were  accompanied  by  six  women  and  nine  boys  and  girls 
of  different  ages,  singing  and  clapping  their  hands  to  the  measure.  The 
first  were  distinguished  by  various  head-dresses.  Some  wore  their  hair  in 
long  ringlets,  some  plaited  or  braided,  and  others  confined  in  a net.§  One 

Daniel,  for  Susa,  is  highly  interesting.  It  places  beyond  a doubt  the  identification  of 
the  site  of  the  campaign.  * 1 Sam.  xviii.  6. 

+ Isaiah,  v.  12.  In  Daniel,  iii.  5.  we  have  mention  of  the  “ comet,  flute,  harp, 
sackbut,  psaltery,  and  dulcimer but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  determine  what  these 
instruments  really  were  : they  probably  resembled  those  represented  in  the  bas-re- 
liefs described  in  the  text.  The  instrument  of  ten  strings  mentioned  in  Ps.  xxxiii.  2., 
xlii.  3.,  and  cxliv.  9.,  may  have  been  the  harp  of  the  sculptures,  and  the  psaltery  the 
smaller  stringed  instrument.  t Wilkinson’s  Anc.  Egypt.,  vol.  ii.  p.  232-234,  &c. 

§ The  modern  fashion  appears,  therefore,  to  be  but  a revival  of  a very  ancient  one. 
Isaiah  includes  “ the  caps  of  net-work”  amongst  the  various  articles  of  dress  of  the 
Jewish  women  (ch.  iii.  v.  8.,  Rev.  Mr.  Jones’  version). 


Chap.  XX.] 


MUSICIANS. 


389 


held  her  hands  to  her  throat,  as  the  Arab 
and  Persian  women  still  do  when  they 
make  those  shrill  and  vibrating  sounds 
peculiar  to  the  vocal  music  of  the  East. 
The  whole  scene,  indeed,  was  curiously 
illustrative  of  modern  Eastern  customs. 
The  musicians  portrayed  in  the  bas-relief 
were  probably  of  that  class  of  public  per- 
formers who  appear  in  Turkey  and  Egypt 
at  marriages,  and  on  other  occasions  of  re- 
joicing. 

Behind  the  two  Assyrian  generals  were 
cavalry,  chariots,  led  horses,  and  armed 
warriors,  forming  two  friezes  of  consider- 
able beauty,  no  less  remarkable  for  the 
delicacy  of  the  execution  than  for  the 
very  spirited  and  correct  delineation  of  the 
animals. 

A long  line  of  warriors,  some  bearing 
maces,  bows,  spears,  and  shields,  and  oth- 
ers crossing  their  hands  before  them  in  the 
common  Eastern  attitude  of  respect,  form- 
ed a frieze  across  the  centre  of  the  slabs. 
They  were  the  attendants  and  body-guard 
of  the  king,  and  were  represented  of  dif- 
ferent heights,  being  probably  picked  men 
formed  into  companies  or  regiments  ac- 
cording to  their  size  and  strength.  They 
walked  in  front  of  a row  of  trees. 

Above  the  Assyrian  warriors  were  the 
captives  and  their  torturers.  The  former 
differed  in  costume  from  the  Susianian 
fighting  men  represented  in  the  adjoining 
bas-reliefs.  They  were  distinguished  by 
the  smallness  of  their  stature,  and  by  a 
very  marked  Jewish  countenance  — a 
sharp,  hooked  nose,  short  bushy  beard,  and 
long  narrow  eyes.  Could  they  have  be- 
longed to  the  Hebrew  tribes  which  were 
carried  away  from  Samaria  and  Jerusa- 
lem, and  placed  by  Shalmaneser,  Senna- 
cherib, or  Essarhaddon,  as  colonists  in  the 
distant  regions  of  Elam,  and  who,  having 
become  powerful  in  their  new  settlements, 
had  revolted  against  their  Assyrian  rulers, 


Musicians  and  Singers  coining  out  to  meet  the  Conquerors  (Kouyunjik). 


390 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap  XX 


and  were  once  again  subdued  ? 
They  wore  a kind  of  conical  cap, 
to  which  were  attached  two  or 
more  tails  or  ribands,  an  inner 
garment  reaching  a little  below 
the  knee,  an  outer  fringed  robe 
falling  down  the  back  to  the 
ankles,  and  boots  turned  up  at 
the  toes  and  laced  in  front.  A 
band  hanging  over  their  shoul- 
ders  ended  in  a tassel.  Some 
in  iron  fetters  were  being  led 
before  the  king,  for  judgment  or 
pardon.  Others  had  been  con- 
demned to  the  torture,  and  were 
already  in  the  hands  of  the  ex- 
ecutioners. Two  were  stretch- 
ed naked  at  full  length  on  the 
ground,  and  whilst  their  limbs 
were  held  apart  by  pegs  and 
cords  they  were  being  flayed 
alive.  Beneath  them  were  oth- 
er unfortunate  victims  under- 
going abominable  punishments. 
The  brains  of  one  were  appar- 
ently being  beaten  out  with  an 
iron  mace,  whilst  an  officer  held 
him  by  the  beard.  A torturer 
was  wrenching  the  tongue  out 
of  the  mouth  of  a second  wretch 
who  had  been  pinioned  to  the 
ground.  The  bleeding  heads  of 
the  slain  were  tied  round  the 
necks  of  the  living,  who  seemed 
reserved  for  still  more  barbarous 
tortures. 

Above  these  groups  was  a 
short  epigraph,  commencing  by 
two  determinative  signs  of  prop- 
er names,  each  followed  by  a 
blank  space,  which  the  sculptor 
probably  left  to  be  filled  up  with 
the  names  of  the  principal  vic- 
tims. It  then  declares  that 
these  men,  having  spoken  bias- 


AflsyrianH  torturing  their  Captives  (Kouyunjik). 


Assyrians  flaying  their  Prisoners  alive,  and  carrying  away  Heads  of  the  Slain  (Kouyunjik). 


392 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 


phemies  (?)  against  Asshur,  the  great  god  of  the  Assyrians,  their  tongues 
had  been  pulled  out  ( Lishaneshunu  eshlup,  both  words  being  almost  pure- 
ly Hebrew),  and  that  they  had  afterwards  been  put  to  death  (or  tortured). 
The  inscription,  therefore,  corresponds  with  the  sculpture  beneath.  It  is 
by  such  confirmatory  evidence  that  the  accuracy  of  the  translations  of  the 
cuneiform  characters  may  he  tested. 

The  only  spoil  represented  in  these  bas-reliefs  as  carried  away  by  the 
Assyrians  consisted  of  horses  and  bundles  of  precious  woods.  At  the  top 
of  each  slab  was  a frieze  of  warriors  drawn  up  in  array,  and  at  the  bottom 
a broad  river  filled  with  those  killed  in  the  fight,  and  horses,  mules,  char- 
iots, carts,  bows,  and  quivers. 

These  highly  interesting  bas-reliefs  had  been  exposed,  like  all  the  other 
sculptures  of  Kouyunjik,  to  the  fire  which  had  destroyed  the  palace.  Al- 
though each  slab  was  cracked  into  many  pieces,  the  sculptures  themselves 
had  suffered  less  injury  than  any  others  discovered  in  the  same  ruins,  the 
hard  fossiliferous  limestone  not  having  become  calcined  by  the  heat  like 
the  alabaster.  The  outline  was  still  sharp  and  the  details  perfectly  pre- 
served. Considerable  care  was  required  to  move  them.  But  the  pieces 
were  at  length  packed,  and  since  their  arrival  in  England  have  been  ad- 
mirably restored,  with  the  rest  of  the  bas-reliefs  now  in  the  British  Muse- 
um, by  Mr.  Sumsion.  The  whole  series  has  been  given  from  my  drawings 
in  the  second  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh.* 

Unfortunately  no  slabs  hut  those  I have  described  remained  against  the 
walls  of  this  apartment,  nor  were  there  any  other  bas-reliefs  of  the  same 
king  found  in  the  ruins.  Several  detached  slabs  of  limestone,  covered  on 
both  sides  with  inscriptions  recording  certain  events  of  the  reign  of  this 
monarch,  have,  however,  been  discovered  both  at  Kouyunjik  and  Nebbi 
Yunus.  Amongst  other  conquests  they  relate  that  of  Susiana,  and  describe 
the  overthrow  of  its  king  as  represented  in  the  sculptures.  The  Susianians 
appear  to  have  recently  rebelled  ; for  they  were  subject  to  the  Assyrians  in 
the  time  of  the  predecessors  of  this  king,  and  are  mentioned  amongst  the  al- 
lies fighting  in  the  armies  of  Sennacherib.  These  inscriptions  were  prob- 
ably votive  tablets  placed  in  temples  and  other  public  buildings  to  celebrate 
this  victory.! 

Although  the  bas-reliefs  were  carved  by  a later  king,  the  chamber  itself, 
like  the  rest  of  the  edifice,  was  built  by  Sennacherib,  and  on  the  back  of 
each  slab  were  inscribed  his  name  and  usual  titles.  The  inscriptions  be- 
hind the  winged  lions  at  the  entrance  also  contained  his  name,  but  were 
especially  interesting  as  describing  the  cutting  of  those  sculptures  and  their 
transport  to  Nineveh.  They  will,  consequently,  enable  us  to  determine  the 
Assyrian  word  both  for  the  colossi  and  for  the  stone  of  which  they  were 
made.  The  slabs  round  the  room  appear,  therefore,  to  have  been  originally 

* Plate  45.  to  49. 

t One  of  these  inscriptions  is  published  in  the  British  Museum  Series,  p.  85.  Many 
of  the  tablets  from  the  chamber  of  archives,  in  Kouyunjik,  bear  the  name  of  this  king. 


DISCOVERIES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. 


393 


Chap.  XX.] 

plain,  as  in  the  adjoining  chambers,  and  to  have  been  subsequently  sculp- 
tured by  order  of  the  son  and  successor  of  Essarhaddon. 

These  bas-reliefs  prove  that  many  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  arts 
and  dress  of  the  people  of  Assyria  between  the  reign  of  Sennacherib  and 
that  of  his  grandson.  The  later  sculptures  are  principally  distinguished  by 
their  minute  finish,  the  sharpness  of  the  outline,  and  the  very  correct  delin- 
eation of  the  animals,  and  especially  of  the  horses.  "We  now  approach  the 
period  of  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  of  the  rise  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Babylon  and  Persia.  The  arts  passed  from  Assyria  to  the  sister  nations 
and  to  Ionia.  There  is  much  in  the  bas-reliefs  I have  just  described  to  re- 
mind us  of  the  early  works  of  the  Greeks  immediately  after  the  Persian 
war,  and  to  illustrate  a remark  of  the  illustrious  Niebuhr,  that  “ a critical 
history  of  Greek  art  would  show  how  late  the  Greeks  commenced  to  prac- 
tise the  arts.  After  the  Persian  war  a new  world  opens  at  once,  and  from 
that  time  they  advanced  with  great  strides.  But  everything  that  was  pro- 
duced before  the  Persian  war — a few  of  those  works  are  still  extant — was, 
if  we  judge  of  it  without  prejudice,  altogether  barbarous.”* 

The  chamber  containing  these  sculptures  had  an  entrance  opening  upon 
the  edge  of  the  mound.  Of  this  doorway  there  only  remained,  on  each  side, 
a block  of  plain  limestone,  which  may,  however,  have  been  the  base  of  a 
sphinx  or  other  figure.  The  outer  walls  to  which  it  ledf  had  been  panelled 
with  the  usual  alabaster  slabs,  with  bas-reliefs  of  a campaign  in  a country 
already  represented  in  another  part  of  the  palace, $ and  distinguished  by  the 
same  deep  valley  watered  by  a river,  the  vineyards  and  wooded  mountains. 
Over  one  of  the  castles  captured  and  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians  was  writ- 
ten, “ Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria.  The  city  of  Bit-Kubitalmi  I took, 
the  spoil  I carried  away,  (the  city)  I burned.” 

Whether  these  walls  belonged  to  a chamber  or  formed  part  of  the  south- 
ern face  of  the  palace  could  not  now  be  determined,  as  they  were  on  the 
very  brink  of  the  platform.  At  right  angles  to  them,  to  the  west,  a pair  of 
winged  bulls  opened  upon  another  wall,  of  which  there  were  scarcely  any 
remains,  and  midway  between  the  two  entrances  was  a deep  doorway,  § 
flanked  on  both  sides  by  four  colossal  mythic  figures,  amongst  which  were 
the  fish-god  and  the  deity  with  the  lion’s  head  and  eagle’s  feet.  It  led  to 
an  inclined  or  ascending  passage,  nine  feet  wide  in  the  narrowest  part  and 
ten  in  the  broadest,  and  forty-four  feet  in  length  to  where  it  turned  at  right 
angles  to  the  left.  It  was  paved  with  hard  lime  or  plaster  about  an  inch 
and  a half  thick.  The  walls  were  built  of  the  finest  sun-dried  bricks,  ad- 
mirably fitted  together,  and  still  perfectly  preserved.  Three  rows  of  square 
projections,  each  formed  by  two  bricks,  were  carried  along  both  sides  of  the 
passage.  Here  and  there  were  circular  holes  purposely  cut  into  the  brick- 
work. I can  offer  no  other  conjecture  as  to  the  original  use  of  either  of 
these  projections  or  of  the  holes,  except  that  they  supported  shelves  on 

* Niebuhr’s  Thirty-fourth  Lecture  on  Ancient  History,  t No.  LX.  Plan  I. 

t In  No.  XXXVIII.,  same  Plan.  See  page  290.  $ Entrance  b,  No.  LX. 


Wall  of  ascending  Passage  in  the  Palace  of  Kouyunjik. 


REMOVAL  OF  TIIE  SCULPTURES. 


395 


Chap.  XX. 


which  the  archives  and  other  public  documents  were  deposited,  for  it  was 
in  this  passage  that  were  discovered  the  detached  seals  described  in  a for- 
mer chapter. 

This  inclined  way  probably  led  to  the  upper  chambers  of  the  palace,  or 
to  the  galleries  which  may  have  been  carried  round  the  principal  cham- 
bers and  halls. 

I have  only  to  describe  two  more  rooms  discovered  in  this  part  of  the 
ruins  during  the  summer.*  They  opened  into  the  chamber  parallel  with 

that  containing  the  sculptured  records 
of  the  son  of  Essarhaddon.  The  en- 
trances to  both  were  formed  by  two 
pairs  of  colossal  figures,  each  pair  con- 
sisting of  a man  wearing  the  horned 
cap  surmounted  by  a fleur-de-lis,  and  a 
lion -headed  and  eagle -footed  human 
figure  raising  a dagger  in 
one  hand,  and  holding  a 
mace  in  the  other.  These 
sculptures  were  remarka- 
ble for  the  boldness  of  the 
_ . . , , rehef  and  their  high  fin- 

Tunic  of  colossal  - ° 

Figures  on  oppo-  . ish. 

Colossal  Figures  at  an  Entrance  (Kouyunjik.)  site  Sculpture. 

The  bas-reliefs  on  the 

walls  of  the  two  chambers  recorded  the  same  campaign  against  a nation 
dwelling  amidst  a wooded  and  mountainous  country,  and  in  strongly  forti- 
fied cities,  which  the  Assyrians  took  by  assault,  using  battering-rams  to 
make  breaches  in  the  walls,  and  scaling  ladders  to  mount  to  the  assault. 
The  besieged  defended  themselves  with  arrows  and  stones,  but  their  strong- 
holds were  captured,  and  a vast  amount  of  spoil  and  captives  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conquerors.  The  men  had  short,  bushy  hair  and  beards,  and 
wore  an  inner  garment  reaching  to  the  knee,  an  outer  cloak  of  skins  or  fur, 
and  gaiters  laced  in  front.  The  robes  of  the  women  were  short ; their 
hair  hung  low  down  their  backs,  and  was  then  gathered  up  into  one  large 
curl.f 

Such  were  the  discoveries  made  at  Kouyunjik  during  the  summer.  At 
Nimroud  the  excavations  had  been  almost  suspended.  I have  already  de- 
scribed those  parts  of  the  high  mound  or  tower,  and  of  the  adjoining  small 
temples  which  were  explored  by  the  few  workmen  who  still  remained 
amongst  the  ruins,  rather  to  retain  possession  of  the  place  than  to  carry  on 
extensive  operations. 

I was  engaged  until  the  middle  of  October  in  moving  and  packing  bas- 
reliefs  from  Kouyunjik  ; a task  of  considerable  trouble,  and  demanding 
much  time  and  labour,  as  the  slabs,  split  into  a thousand  fragments  by  the 

* No.  XXXI.,  26  by  14  feet,  and  No.  XXXII.,  22  by  20  feet, 
t Plates  19  and  31.  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2d  series. 


396 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XX. 

fire,  had  to  be  taken  completely  to  pieces,  and  then  arranged  and  number- 
ed, with  a view  to  their  future  restoration.*  Nearly  a hundred  cases  con- 
taining these  remains  were  at  length  dragged  to  the  river  side,  to  await 
the  rafts  by  which  they  were  to  be  forwarded  to  Busrah,  where  a vessel 
was  shortly  expected  to  transport  them  to  England. 

* These  bas-reliefs  have'  been  admirably  put  together  under  the  superintendence 
of  Mr.  Sumsion  of  the  British  Museum. 


Cases  containing  Sculptures  ready  for  Embarkation. 


A Kellek  or  Raft  on  the  Tigris. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  LEAVING  NINEVEH. — DEPARTURE  FOR  BABYLON. THE  AWAI. DE- 
SCENT OF  THE  RIVER. TEKRIT. THE  STATE  OF  THE  RIVERS  OF  MESOPOTAMIA. 

COMMERCE  UPON  THEM. TURKISH  ROADS. THE  PLAIN  OF  DURA. — THE  NAHARWAN. 

SAMARRAH. KADESIA. PALM  GROVES. KATHIMAIN. APPROACH  TO  BAGHDAD. 

THE  CITY. ARRIVAL. DR.  ROSS. A BRITISH  STEAMER. MODERN  BAGHDAD. TEL  MO- 
HAMMED.  DEPARTURE  FOR  BABYLON. A PERSIAN  PRINCE. ABDE  PASHA’S  CAMP. 

EASTERN  FALCONRY. HAWKING  THE  GAZELLE. APPROACH  TO  BABYLON. THE  RUINS. 

ARRIVAL  AT  HILLAH. 

The  winter  was  now  drawing  near,  and  the  season  was  favorable  for 
examining  the  remains  of  ancient  cities  in  Babylonia.  The  Trustees  of 
the  British  Museum  had  partly  sanctioned  a plan  submitted  to  them  for 
excavations  amongst  ruins,  no  less  important  and  vast,  and  of  no  less  bib- 
lical and  historical  interest  than  those  of  Nineveh.  I had  included,  in  my 
original  scheme,  many  remarkable  sites  both  in  Chaldsea  and  Susiana,  but, 
as  I have  before  observed,  my  limited  means  did  not  permit  me  to  carry 
out  my  plan  to  its  fullest  extent.  As  the  operations  at  Nimroud  were  now, 
however,  suspended,  I determined  to  employ  fewer  men  at  Kouyunjik,  and 
to  devote  myself,  during  the  cold  weather,  to  researches  amongst  the  great 
mounds  of  Southern  Mesopotamia. 

My  Jebours  were  now  so  skilled  and  experienced  in  excavating,  that  1 
deemed  it  more  economical  to  take  a party  of  them  with  me  than  to  engage 
new  workmen  on  the  various  sites  that  I might  visit.  At  the  same  time, 
having  thus  my  own  men,  I should  be  independent  of  the  people  of  the 
country,  who  might  either  be  unwilling  to  labor,  or  might  require  exorbi- 
tant pay.  I accordingly  selected  about  thirty  of  the  best  Arabs  employed 
in  the  excavations  at  Nineveh,  to  accompany  me  on  the  rafts  which  bore 
the  sculptures.  Awad  and  LatifT  Agha,  having  charge  of  my  horses  and 
dromedary,  took  the  high  road  through  Arbil,  and  were  to  meet  me  at 


398 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXI. 


Baghdad.  They  left  Mosul  about  a week  before  me,  and  had  scarcely 
made  a day’s  journey  before  they  were  attacked  by  a party  of  Bedouin  ma- 
rauders. After  losing  the  deloul  and  one  of  the  horses,  they  fortunately 
succeeded  in  making  their  escape. 

Having  again  entrusted  Toma  Shisman  with  the  superintendence  of  the 
excavations,  and  given  him  all  necessary  directions  for  carrying  on  the 
work,  I quitted  Mosul  on  the  18th  of  October,  accompanied  by  Hormuzd 
and  Mr.  Romaine,  an  English  traveller,  on  his  way  to  India.  There  were 
cases  enough  containing  sculptures  from  Kouyunjik  to  load  a raft  of  con- 
siderable size.  My  Jebours,  well  armed  with  guns,  went  with  them  for  de- 
fence, as  the  banks  of  the  river  were  swarming  with  Bedouins,  who  had 
nearly  interrupted  all  intercourse  both  by  the  river  and  high  road  between 
Mosul  and  Baghdad.  Hormuzd,  who  had  met  with  a severe  accident,  was 
placed  in  a bed  on  a small  Jcellek  ; Mr.  Romaine  occupied  with  me  another 
of  the  same  size.  I have  already  described  these  primitive  vessels,  by 
which  the  trade  of  the  countries  watered  by  the  rivers  of  Mesopotamia  is 
now  mainly  carried  on.*  Ours  in  no  way  differed  from  those  in  ordinary 
use,  except  that  a wooden  framework  covered  with  thick  felt  was  raised 
upon  them,  to  shelter  us  during  the  night,  and  to  guard  us  during  the  day 
from  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun.  The  servants  and  cooking  apparatus 
were  on  the  large  raft,  and  we  all  kept  close  company  for  convenience  and 
mutual  protection. 

We  stopped  for  the  first  night  beneath  the  mound  of  Hammum  Ali,  in 
which  a party  of  my  workmen  had  opened  several  trenches  without  mak- 
ing any  discoveries.  On  the  following  morning  we  crossed  the  foaming 
rapids  of  the  Awai,  or  great  dam.  During  the  previous  three  years  the 
river  had  gained  much  ground  to  the  eastward,  washing  away  the  alluvial 
soil  of  the  plain,  and  gradually  seeking  its  ancient  bed  at  the  foot  of  the 
mound.  The  stone-work  which,  on  my  first  visit  to  Nimroud,  just  jutted 
from  the  high  bank,  now  stood,  like  a tower,  almost  in  the  centre  of  the 
Tigris,  dividing  the  impetuous  stream  into  two  roaring  cataracts.  Solid 
masonry  beneath  the  level  of  the  river  connected  this  isolated  mass  with 
the  opposite  bank.  I endeavored  to  trace  it  inland,  but  after  digging  for 
some  days  without  coming  to  the  end,  I relinquished  the  attempt.  I am 
inclined  to  believe,  from  the  result  of  this  experiment,  that  the  Awai  is 
rather  the  remains  of  foundations  of  a wall  and  towers,  gradually  concealed 
by  the  deposits  of  the  Tigris  during  the  constant  changes  in  its  bed,  than  of 
a dam  to  keep  up  the  level  of  the  river  for  irrigation.  The  stream,  now 
wearing  its  way  back,  will  again  uncover  these  ruins.  The  wall  may  orig- 
inally have  stood  on  the  western  bank,  and  its  position  may  have  been  re- 
versed by  the  change  in  the  course  of  the  river.  Whether  it  surrounded  a 
distinct  city,  or  whether  it  formed  part  of  the  inclosure  of  ancient  Nineveh,  1 
am  unable  to  say.  It  would  have  required  time  and  labor,  which  were  bet- 
ter employed,  to  trace  its  course,  deeply  buried  as  it  is  beneath  the  soil. 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  96. 


TEKRIT. 


399 


Chap.  XXI.] 

There  were  still  some  arrangements  connected  with  the  excavations  to 
be  made  at  Nimroud,  and  it  was  not  until  the  20th  that  we  fairly  began 
our  voyage.  The  navigation  of  the  river  as  far  as  Kalah  Sherghat  was  so 
insecure,  that  I deemed  it  prudent,  in  order  to  avoid  a collision  with  the 
Arabs,  to  engage  a Bedouin  chief  to  accompany  us.  The  tents  of  the  Ajel, 
a branch  of  the  Jebours,  being  pitched  near  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and 
the  Zab,  were  then  the  resort  of  parties  from  the  wandering  tribes  in  search 
of  provisions  or  news.  In  them  we  found  one  Awaythe,  a Sheikh  of  the 
Fedagha  Shammar,  who  agreed  to  give  us  his  protection  until  we  had 
passed  the  danger.  Placing  one  of  his  sons  on  his  mare,  and  ordering  him 
to  follow  us  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  he  stepped  upon  my  raft,  where 
he  spent  his  time  in  giving  us  accounts  of  wars  and  ghazous,  smoking  his 
pipe  and  pounding  coffee. 

The  waters  of  the  Tigris  were  at  this  season  of  the  year  too  low  to  per- 
mit our  travelling  after  dark  before  reaching  the  alluvial  plains  of  Baby- 
lonia. As  far  down  as  Tekrit  the  river  is  continually  crossed  by  reefs  of 
rocks,  and  interrupted  by  rapids,  which  are  now  impediments  to  its  free 
navigation,  although  offering  no  real  obstruction  to  European  skill.  Dur- 
ing the  freshes  and  in  the  spring  months  the  raftmen  float  fearlessly  on- 
wards through  the  night. 

We  reached  Tekrit  in  three  days  without  accident  or  adventure.  Be- 
douin tents  and  moving  swarms  of  men  and  animals  were  occasionally  seen 
on  the  river  banks,  but  under  the  protection  of  our  Sheikh  we  met  with 
no  hindrance.  Tekrit  is  almost  the  only  permanent  settlement  of  any  im- 
portance between  Mosul  and  Baghdad.  It  is  now  a small  town,  but  was 
once  a place  of  some  size  and  strength.  The  remains  of  an  ancient  castle, 
surrounded  by  a ditch,  crown  a high  sandstone  rock  rising  from  the  river, 
and  amidst  the  crumbling  hovels  of  the  present  inhabitants  are  seen  the 
ruins  of  mosques,  baths,  and  well-built  houses,  and  that  labyrinth  of  tombs 
which  invariably  marks  the  site  of  an  ancient  Mohammedan  city.  Tekrit 
is  chiefly  famous  as  the  birth-place  of  the  celebrated  Saleh-ed-din,  bettei 
known  to  the  English  reader  as  Saladin,  the  hero  of  the  Crusades,  and  the 
magnanimous  enemy  of  our  Richard  Cosur-de-Lion.  His  father,  Ayub,  a 
chief  of  a Kurdish  tribe  of  Rahwanduz,  was  governor  of  its  castle  for  the 
Seljukian  monarchs  of  Persia.  Mosul  itself  sustained  a siege  from  Saladin, 
who  was  repulsed  by  its  Atabeg,  or  hereditary  prince.*  Military  expedi- 
tions into  the  Sinjar  and  other  parts  of  Mesopotamia  were  amongst  the  ex- 
ploits of  this  great  Mussulman  hero. 

Tekrit  is  now  inhabited  by  a few  Arabs,  who  carry  on,  as  raftsmen,  the 
traflic  of  the  river  between  Mosul  and  Baghdad.  To  the  latter  city  much 

* In  the  year  of  the  Hegira  581.  The  name  of  the  Atabeg  was  Azz-ed-din.  Sal- 
adin is  said  to  have  endeavored  to  take  the  city  by  turning  the  waters  of  the  Tigris 
into  a canal  towards  Nineveh.  He  did  not,  however,  succeed,  but  the  Atabeg,  to  put 
an  end  to  the  siege,  consented  to  proclaim  him  in  the  mosques,  and  to  strike  money 
in  his  name. 


400 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXI, 


com  is  annually  sent  by  water  from  Shomamok  and  the  districts  on  the  less- 
er Zab.  The  people  of  Tekrit  also  levy  a baj,  or  tax,  upon  all  rafts  pass- 
ing their  town,  a privilege  farmed  to  them  by  the  Pasha  of  Baghdad.  It 
is  so  considerable,  and  the  mode  of  raising  so  oppressive,  that  it  is  a great 
impediment  to  trade. 

Nothing  marks  more  completely  the  results  of  the  unjust  and  injurious 
system  pursued  by  the  Porte  in  its  Arabian  territories  than  the  almost  en- 
tire absence  of  permanent  settlements  and  of  commercial  intercourse  on  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  Two  of  the  finest  rivers  of  Asia,  reach- 
ing into  the  very  heart  of  the  Turkish  dominions,  spreading  fertility  through 
districts  almost  unequalled  for  the  richness  of  their  soil  and  for  the  varied 
nature  of  their  produce,  and  navigable  one  for  nearly  850  miles  from  the 
sea,  the  other  for  nearly  600  miles,  are  of  no  account  whatever  to  the  State 
upon  which  nature  has  conferred  such  eminent  advantages.  The  depre- 
dations of  the  Arabs,  unchecked  by  the  government,  and  the  rapacity  and 
dishonesty  of  the  Turkish ^authorities,  who  levy  illegal  and  exorbitant  taxes 
upon  every  mode  of  transit,  whether  by  land  or  water,  and  who  make  mo- 
nopolies of  all  articles  of  produce  and  of  merchandize,  effectually  check  the 
efforts  of  the  natives  themselves,  by  no  means  deficient  in  commercial  act- 
ivity and  enterprise,  to  engage  in  trade,  or  to  navigate  the  rivers.  Even 
the  European  merchant,  with  privileges  secured  by  treaties  and  protection 
afforded  by  consuls  and  diplomatic  agency,  is  scarcely  able  to  struggle 
against  the  insecurity  of  the  country  through  which  he  must  convey  his 
goods,  and  against  the  black-mail  exacted  by  Arab  Sheikhs,  secretly  encour- 
aged or  abetted  by  the  Turkish  governors.  From  the  most  wanton  and  dis- 
graceful neglect,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course, 
are  breaking  from  their  natural  beds,  forming  vast  marshes,  turning  fertile 
districts  into  a wilderness,  and  becoming  unnavigable  to  vessels  of  even  the 
smallest  burden. 

The  very  highway  from  Mosul,  and,  consequently,  from  the  capital,  to 
Baghdad,  in  order  to  avoid  the  restless  Bedouin,  is  carried  along  the  foot 
of  the  Kurdish  hills,  leaving  the  river,  adding  many  days  to  the  journey, 
and  exposing  the  caravans  to  long  delays  from  swollen  streams.  Even  this 
road  is  no  longer  secure,  for  the  utter  negligence  and  dishonesty  that  have 
of  late  marked  the  conduct  of  the  Turkish  authorities  in  Southern  Turkey 
have  led  to  the  interruption  of  this  channel  of  commerce.  Many  villages 
which  once  offered  a safe  retreat  and  necessary  supplies  to  travellers  are 
now  deserted.  By  an  ancient  law  of  the  Turkish  empire,  a law  prevailing 
amongst  nearly  all  the  Tatar  tribes,  a local  governor  was  held  personally 
responsible  for  losses  from  open  robbery  on  the  highways  within  his  juris- 
diction. This  responsibility  has  been  removed,  and  no  other  remedy  sub- 
stituted by  the  Tanzimat,  or  reformed  system.  It  is,  of  course,  absurd  for 
a native  merchant  to  apply  for  protection  or  compensation  to  the  Turkish 
Grovernment,  or  to  seek  redress  in  a court  of  law  against  nomade  tribes  who 
defy  the  authority  and  arms  of  the  Sultan. 


THE  RIVERS  OF  MESOPOTAMIA. 


40] 


Chap.  XXL] 

The  direct  road  to  Baghdad  from  the  north  would  be  across  Mesopotamia, 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  through  a country  uninterrupted  by  a 
single  stream  of  any  size,  or  by  a single  hill.  Whilst  caravans  are  now 
frequently  nearly  six  weeks  on  their  way  from  Mosul  to  Baghdad,  they  would 
scarcely  he  as  many  days  by  the  Desert.  A few  military  posts  on  the  river, 
a proper  system  of  police,  encouragement  to  the  cultivating  tribes  to  settle 
in  villages,  and  the  construction  of  a common  cart-road,  would  soon  lead  to 
perfect  security  and  to  the  establishment  of  considerable  trade.  This  is  not 
the  place  to  discuss  the  relative  merits  of  the  various  routes  to  India,  but 
it  may  be  observed  that  the  time  is  probably  not  far  distant,  when  a more 
direct  and  speedy  communication  than  hitherto  exists  with  that  empire, 
will  be  sought  by  the  hanks  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  where  railways 
and  steam  navigation  can  both  be  advantageously  brought  into  operation. 
The  only  impediments  between  the  Syrian  coast  and  those  rivers  in  any 
part  of  their  course,  arise  from  the  want  of  proper  security  ; and  may,  con- 
sequently, with  a little  energy  and  a comparatively  small  outlay,  he  effect- 
ually removed.  The  navigation  of  the  Persian  Gulf  is,  at  all  times,  open 
and  safe ; and  a glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  a line  through  the  Med- 
iterranean, the  port  of  Suedia,  Aleppo,  Mosul,  Baghdad,  Busrah,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  to  Bombay  is  as  direct  as  can  well  be  desired.  This  must 
be  the  second  Indian  route  before  extended  civilisation  and  Christianity  can 
afford  a reasonable  basis  for  those  gigantic  schemes  which'  would  carry  a 
line  of  iron  through  countries  almost  unknown,  and  scarcely  yet  visited  by 
a solitary  European  traveller. 

With  these  prospects,  and  with  the  incalculable  advantages  which  a 
flourishing  commerce  and  a safe  and  speedy  transit  through,  perhaps,  the 
richest  portions  of  its  dominions  would  confer  upon  the  Turkish  empire,  it 
would  seem  that  more  than  Eastern  apathy  is  shown  in  not  taking  some 
steps  tending  to  restore  security  to  the  country  watered  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  and  to  encourage  the  peaceful  settlement  of  its  wandering  and 
predatory  inhabitants. 

Between  Tekrit  and  Baghdad  there  is  much  to  interest  the  traveller  who 
for  the  first  time  floats  down  a river  winding  through  the  great  alluvial 
plains  of  Chaldsea.  The  country  has,  however,  been  so  frequently  de- 
scribed,* that  I will  not  detain  the  reader  with  more  than  a general  sketch 
of  it.  Our  rafts  glided  noiselessly  onwards,  without  furrowing  with  a rip- 
ple the  quiet  surface  of  the  stream.  Leaving  Tekrit,  we  first  passed  a 
small  whitewashed  Mussulman  tomb,  rising  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank,  in 
a plain  that  still  bears  the  name  of  Dura.  It  was  here,  as  some  believe, 
that  “ Nebuchadnezzar  the  king  made  an  image  of  gold,  whose  height  was 
threescore  cubits  and  breadth  six  cubits,  and  called  together  the  princes, 
the  governors,  and  the  captains,  the  judges,  the  treasurers,  the  counsellors, 
the  sheriffs,  and  all  the  rulers  of  the  provinces  to  its  dedication,  and  that 

* See  especially  Narrative  of  a Residence  in  Koordistan,  &c.,  by  the  late  C.  J. 
Rich,  Esq.,  vol.  ii.  chap,  xviii. 


402 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXL 


certain  Jews  would  not  serve  his  gods,  nor  fall  down  and  worship  the  gold- 
en image  that  he  had  set  up.”*  It  is  now  a wilderness,  with  here  and 
there  a shapeless  mound,  the  remains  of  some  ancient  habitation.  The 
place  is  not  otherwise  unknown  to  history,  for  it  was  here  that,  after  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  his  successor  Jovian  concluded  a disgraceful 
peace  with  the  Persian  king  Sapores  (Shapour),  and  saved  the  Roman 
army  by  yielding  to  the  enemy  the  five  great  provinces  to  the  east  of  the 
Tigris.  It  was  here,  too,  that  he  crossed  the  Tigris,  a broad  and  deep 
stream,!  and  commenced  his  disastrous  retreat  through  Mesopotamia. 

Not  far  below,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  river,  the  great  canal  of  the 
Naharwan,  the  wonder  of  Arab  geographers,  robbed  the  Tigris  of  a large 
portion  of  its  waters.  Its  innumerable  arms  spread  fertility  over  many  dis- 
tricts, once  rich  in  villages  and  gardens,  hut  now  almost  a desert.  Lofty 
banks,  all  that  remains  of  this  mighty  work,  may  still  be  traced,  stretch 
ing,  like  natural  hills-,  far  across  the  plains,  here  crossed  by  the  remains  of 
a richly-decorated  bridge,  there  losing  themselves  amidst  a confused  heap 
of  mounds,  marking  the  site  of  some  ancient  town.$ 

Below  the  Naharwan,  ruins,  walls,  and  dwellings,  built  chiefly  of  large 
pebbles,  united  by  a strong  cement,  a mode  of  construction  peculiar  to  the 
Sassanian  and  early  Arab  periods,  stand  on  the  alluvial  cliffs.  They  are 
called  Eski,  or  old,  Baghdad ; the  Arabs,  as  usual,  assigning  a more  an 
cient  site  to  the  modem  city.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Tigris,  anothei 
mass  of  falling  masonry,  named  Ashek,  crowns  a projecting  ridge. 

A tower,  about  two  hundred  feet  high,  now  rises  above  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  river.  An  ascending  way  winds  round  it  on  the  outside  like  the 
spiral  of  a screw,  reminding  the  traveller  of  the  common  ideal  pictures  of 
the  Tower  of  Babel.  It  marks  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Samarrah. 
where  the  Roman  army  under  Jovian  rested  after  marching  and  fighting 
a long  summer’s  day.§  It  subsequently  became  the  capital  of  Motassem 
Billah,  the  eighth  caliph  of  the  Abbasside  dynasty.  Weary  of  the  frequent 
seditions  of  the  turbulent  inhabitants  of  Baghdad,  he  resolved  to  change 
the  seat  of  government,  and  chose  Samarrah  as  his  residence.  If  he  did 
not  build,  he  beautified,  the  city,  and  displayed  in  it  that  magnificence 
which  distinguished  the  successors  of  the  Prophet,  notwithstanding  the  ex- 
ample of  humility  set  by  the  founder  of  their  faith.  The  Arab  historians 
describe  his  stables  containing  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  pied  horses, 
each  of  which  daily  emptied  its  nosebag  filled  with  earth  oil  a certain  spot 

* Daniel,  iii. 

t It  will  be  remembered  that  Jovian  attempted  first  to  cross  the  river  on  the  same 
kind  of  bridge  as  the  Rhodian  proposed  to  construct  for  Xenophon  and  the  Ten  Thou- 
sand,— a floating  platform  of  inflated  skins  of  sheep,  oxen,  and  goats,  covered  with  a 
floor  of  earth  and  fascines.  (Gibbon’s  Decline  and  Fall,  vol.  iv.  c.  24.) 

t For  a very  full  and  highly  interesting  account  of  the  Naharwan,  see  a Memoir 
by  Captain  Jones  in  the  9th  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Geographical  Society 
of  Bombay. 

6 Gibbon’s  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  24. 


RUINS  ON  THE  TIGRIS. 


403 


Chap.  XXI.] 

in  the  city.  The  soil  thus  brought  together  formed  at  length  a terrace,  on 
which  the  Caliph  built  a hall  of  surpassing  splendor,  hut  known  as  “ the 
Palace  of  the  Nosebags”  from  its  singular  origin.  A half-ruined  mosque  is 
now  a place  of  pilgrimage  to  Mussulmans  of  the  Sheeah  sect,  for  it  is  said 
to  cover  the  tombs  of  the  last  Imaums  of  the  race  of  Ali,  and  to  be  the 
hiding-place  of  the  twelfth  prophet,  Mehdi,  who  is  to  appear  at  the  second 
coming  of  Christ.  The  modern  town,  inhabited  by  Arabs,  consists  of  a few 
falling  houses  surrounded  by  a mud  wall,  defended  by  bastions  and  towers. 

On  both  sides  of  the  river,  as  the  raft  is  carried  gently  along  by  the  now 
sluggish  current,  the  traveller  sees  huge  masses  of  brick- work  jutting  out 
from  the  falling  banks,  or  overhanging  the  precipice  of  earth  which  hems 
in  the  stream.  Here  and  there  are  more  perfect  ruins  of  buildings — walls 
of  the  solid  masonry  of  the  Sassanian  period,  and  cupolas  fretted  with  the 
elegant  tracery  of  early  Arab  architecture.  These  are  the  remains  of  the 
palaces  and  castles  of  the  last  Persian  kings  and  of  the  first  Caliphs.  The 
place  is  still  called  Gadesia  or  Kadesia,  and  near  it  was  fought  that  great 
battle  which  gave  to  the  new  nation  issuing  from  the  wilds  of  Arabia  the 
dominion  of  the  Eastern  world.* 

Remains  of  an  earlier  period  are  not  wanting.  A huge  mound  abutting 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  and  still  within  sight  of  Samarrah,  is  known 
to  the  Arabs  as  the  Sidd-ul-Nimroud,  the  wall  or  rampart  of  Nimroud. 
By  some  it  is  believed  to  be  part  of  the  Median  wall  which  guarded,  in 
the  days  of  old,  the  immediate  territory  of  Babylon  against  invasion  from 
the  north.  A few  heaps  of  earth  on  an  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Naharwan  and  another  great  canal  derived  from  the  Tigris,  may  rep- 
resent the  ancient  Chaldsean  city  of  Opis. 

The  current  becomes  more  gentle  at  every  broad  reach,  until  the  raft 
scarcely  glides  past  the  low  banks.  The  water  has  lost  its  clearness  and 
its  purity  ; tinged  by  the  alluvial  soil  it  has  turned  to  a pale  yellow  color. 
The  river  at  length  widens  into  a noble  stream.  Pelicans  of  snowy  plum- 
age and  colored  wildfowl  float  lazily  on  the  waters,  and  white  herons  stand 
motionless  on  the  margin.  A dark  line  now  bounds  the  southern  horizon. 
It  gradually  breaks  into  vast  groves  of  the  feathery  palm.  The  loud  creak- 
ing of  waterwheels  disturbs  the  silence  which  has  hitherto  reigned  over  the 
deserted  waters,  and  groups  of  half-naked  Arabs  gather  together  on  the 
banks  to  gaze  at  the  travellers.  A solitary  raft  of  firewood  for  Baghdad 
floats,  like  ourselves,  almost  imperceptibly  along. 

We  are  now  amidst  the  date  groves.  If  it  be  autumn,  clusters  of  golden 
fruit  hang  beneath  the  fan-like  leaves  ; if  spring,  the  odor  of  orange  blos- 
soms fills  the  air.  The  cooing  of  the  doves  that  flutter  amongst  the  branch 
es,  begets  a pleasing  melancholy,  and  a feeling  of  listlessness  and  repose. 

The  raft  creeps  round  a projecting  bank,  and  two  gilded  domes  and  foul 
stately  minarets,  all  glittering  in  the  rays  of  an  eastern  sun,  suddenly  rise 
high  above  the  dense  bed  of  palms.  They  are  of  the  mosque  of  Kathi- 
* Gibbon’s  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  51. 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


404 


[Chap.  XXI. 


main,  which  covers  the  tombs  of  two  of  the  Imaums  or  holy  saints  of  the 
Sheeah  sect. 

The  low  hanks  swarm  with  Arabs, — men,  women,  and  naked  children. 
Mud  hovels  screened  by  yellow  mats,  and  groaning  water-wheels  worked 
by  the  patient  ox,  are  seen  beneath  the  palms.  The  Tigris  becomes  wider 
and  wider,  and  the  stream  is  almost  motionless.  Circular  boats,  of  reeds 
coated  with  bitumen,  skim  over  the  water.  Horsemen,  and  riders  on  white 
asses,*  hurry  along  the  river  side.  Turks  in  flowing  robes  and  broad  tur- 
bans, Persians  in  high  black  caps  and  close-fitting  tunics,  the  Bokhara  pil- 
grim in  his  white  head-dress  and  wayworn  garments,  the  Bedouin  chief  in 
his  tasseled  keffieh  and  striped  aba,  Baghdad  ladies  with  their  scarlet  and 
white  draperies  fretted  with  threads  of  gold,  and  their  black  horsehair 
veils,  concealing  even  their  wanton  eyes,  Persian  women  wrapped  in  their 
sightless  garments,  and  Arab  girls  in  their  simple  blue  shirts,  are  all  min- 
gled together  in  one  motley  crowd.  A busy  stream  of  travellers  flows  with- 
out ceasing  from  the  gates  of  the  western  suburb  of  Baghdad  to  the  sacred 
precincts  of  Kathimain. 

A pine-shaped  cone  of  snowy  whiteness  rises  to  the  right ; near  it  are 
one  or  two  drooping  palms,  that  seem  fast  falling  to  decay,  like  the  build- 
ing over  which  they  can  no  longer  throw  their  shade.  This  is  the  tomb 
of  Zobeide,  the  lovely  queen  of  Haroun-al-Reshid,  a name  that  raises  many 
a pleasant  association,  and  recalls  to  memory  a thousand  romantic  dreams 
of  early  youth. 

A mosque  cut  in  two,  a singular  object,  next  appears  on  the  eastern 
bank.  The  river  has  gradually  undermined  and  carried  away  the  other 
part,  leaving  the  innermost  recesses  of  its  dome,  of  which  exactly  half  re- 
mains, its  places  of  prayer,  and  its  chapel-like  chambers  open  to  the  air. 
Colored  cupolas  and  minarets  rise  on  all  sides  above  the  palms,  until  the 
trees  are  succeeded  by  a long  line  of  mud-built  houses.  We  pass  the  pal- 
ace of  the  governor,  an  edifice  of  mean  materials  and  proportions.  At  its 
windows  the  Pasha  himself  and  the  various  officers  of  his  household  may 
be  seen  reclining  on  their  divans,  amidst  wreaths  of  smoke.  A crazy 
bridge  of  boats  crosses  the  stream,  and  appears  to  bar  all  further  progress. 
At  length  the  chains  are  loosened,  two  or  three  of  the  rude  vessels  are 
withdrawn,  and  the  rafts  glide  gently  through.  A few  minutes  more,  and 
we  are  anchored  beneath  the  spreading  folds  of  the  British  flag,  opposite  a 
handsome  building,  not  crumbling  into  ruins  like  its  neighbours,  but  kept 
in  repair  with  European  neatness.  A small  iron  steamer  floats  motionless 
before  it.  We  have  arrived  at  the  dwelling  of  the  English  Consul-general 
and  political  agent  of  the  East  India  Company  at  Baghdad. f 

* The  white  ass  of  Baghdad  is  much  esteemed  in  the  East.  Some  are  of  consid- 
erable size,  and,  when  fancifully  dyed  with  henna,  their  tails  and  ears  bright  red, 
and  their  bodies  spotted,  like  an  heraldic  talbot,  with  the  same  color,  they  bear  the 
chief  priests  and  the  men  of  the  law,  as  they  appear  to  have  done  from  the  earliest 
times.  (Judges  v.  10.) 

t I have  not  attempted  to  give  more  than  a mere  sketch  of  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 


STEAMERS  ON  THE  TIGRIS. 


405 


Chap.  XXI.] 

It  was  early  in  tlie  morning  of  the  26th  October  that  I landed  at  the 
well-remembered  quay  of  the  British  residency.  In  the  absence  of  Colonel 
Rawlinson,  then  in  England,  his  political  duties  had  been  confided  to  Cap- 
tain Kemball,  now  the  East  India  Company’s  Resident  at  Bushire.  He 
received  me  with  great  kindness,  and  I acknowledge  with  gratitude  the 
hospitality  and  effective  assistance  I invariably  experienced  from  him  dur- 
ing my  sojourn  at  Baghdad,  and  my  researches  in  Babylonia. 

More  than  ten  years  had  passed  since  my  first  visit  to  the  city.  Time 
had  worked  its  changes  amongst  those  who  then  formed  the  happy  and 
hospitable  English  society  of  Baghdad.  Dr.  Ross  was  no  more.  In  him 
Arab  as  well  as  European,  rich  as  well  as  poor,  Mohammedan  as  well  as 
Christian,  had  lost  a generous  and  faithful  friend.  His  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  country  and  its  various  inhabitants  ; his  long  intercourse  with 
the  Bedouins,  by  whom  he  was  universally  known  and  beloved,  and  the 
high  character  he  bore  amongst  the  people  of  the  city  itself,  rendered  him 
the  traveller’s  best  counsellor  ; whilst  his  ever  ready  hospitality  and  genial 
disposition  made  his  house  a pleasant  home  after  the  toils  of  eastern  travel. 
He  had  died  as  heroically  as  he  had  braved  a lingering  illness,  about  a year 
before. 

Twelve  years  ago  four  steamers  floated  on  the  Tigris,  and  were  engaged 
in  exploring  the  then  almost  unknown  rivers  of  Mesopotamia  and  Susiana. 
Their  officers  formed  a small  English  colony  in  Baghdad.  Three  of  those 
vessels  had  long  been  withdrawn,  one  alone  having  been  left  to  keep  up  a 
monthly  communication  between  this  city  and  Busrah.  Its  presence  was 
of  no  less  importance  to  British  merchants  and  residents  who  were  in  cor- 
respondence with  India  than  to  the  Turkish  authorities,  as  all  intercourse 
by  land  with  the  south  was  frequently  interrupted  for  months  together  by 
the  predatory  Arabs.  Other  reasons  make  it  equally  desirable  that  one 
steamer  should  still  remain  on  the  waters  of  southern  Turkey  which  flow 
into  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  results  of  her  presence,  both  politically  and 
scientifically,  have  fully  justified  the  confidence  that  the  East  India  Com- 
pany have  placed  in  Captain  Jones  as  her  commander.  It  is  only  to  be  re- 
gretted that  a vessel  better  suited  to  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  has  not 
been  selected. 

The  expedition  under  Col.  Chesney,  and  the  subsequent  ascent  of  the 
Euphrates,  by  far  the  most  arduous  undertaking  connected  with  its  nav- 
igation, but  accomplished  with  great  skill  by  Captain  Campbell  of  the  East 

between  Mosul  and  Baghdad.  It  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work  to  dwell  upon 
the  various  interesting  sites  near  a river  so  rich  in  historical  associations,  or  to  en- 
ter into  a geographical  account  of  the  country.  Captain  Jones,  of  the  Indian  navy, 
whose  accurate  surveys  of  the  lower  part  of  Mesopotamia,  including  Babylonia  and 
Chaldaea,  deserve  to  be  better  known  to  the  English  public,  and  to  whose  knowledge 
of  the  native  character,  and  tact  and  energy  as  a traveller  as  well  as  a public  officer, 
I cannot  bear  too  high  a testimony,  has  furnished  the  best  accounts  hitherto  pub- 
lished of  the  Tigris  in  this  part  of  its  course,  in  his  papers  communicated  to  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  Bombay. 


406 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXI. 


India  Company’s  service,  have  proved  that  for  ordinary  purposes  this  river 
in  its  present  condition  is  not  navigable  even  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course. 
The  neglect  to  keep  up  the  embankments  has  increased  the  obstacles,  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  a steamer  of  even  the  smallest  useful  size  could 
now  find  its  way  through  the  great  marshes  that  absorb  the  waters  of  the 
Euphrates  for  nearly  200  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Tigris  at 
Korna.  The  latter  river  is,  for  the  present,  navigable  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  vessels  drawing  from  three  to  four  feet  water  almost  as  far  as 
Tekrit,  and  probably,  for  vessels  purposely  constructed,  as  far  as  Nimroud. 
The  usual  negligence  and  indifference  of  the  Turkish  government  are, 
however,  bringing  about  the  same  changes  in  the  course  and  condition  of 
this  stream  as  in  those  of  the  Euphrates.  The  banks  were  formerly  kept 
in  repair  by  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  lower  part  of  Mesopotamia,  who  per- 
formed this  service  to  the  state*  in  place  of  the  payment  of  taxes  and  trib- 
ute. Of  late  years  the  Porte  has  taken  them  under  its  own  charge,  and 
they  have,  of  course,  been  allowed  to  fall  into  complete  decay.  The  tribes 
at  the  same  time  defy  the  government,  and  contribute  nothing  to  the  pub- 
lic revenues.  The  river  has  begun  to  desert  its  bed,  and  is  now  forming 
vast  swamps  over  the  low  country,  which  was  probably  rescued  by  the  an- 
cient Babylonians  from  the  Chaldcean  lake. 

Baghdad,  with  its  long  vaulted  bazars  rich  with  the  produce  and  mer- 
chandise of  every  clime,  its  mixed  population  of  Turks,  Arabs,  Persians,  In- 
dians, and  men  of  all  Eastern  nations,  its  palm  groves  and  gardens,  its 
painted  palaces  and  unsightly  hovels,  its  present  misery  and  its  former  mag- 
nificence, have  been  so  frequently  described,  that  I will  not  detain  the  read- 
er with  any  minute  account  of  this  celebrated  city.  Tyranny,  disease,  and 
inundations  have  brought  it  very  low.  Nearly  half  of  the  space  inclosed 
within  its  walls  is  now  covered  by  heaps  of  ruins,  and  the  population  is 
daily  decreasing,  without  the  hope  of  change.  During  my  residence  in 
Baghdad  no  one  could  go  far  beyond  the  gates  without  the  risk  of  falling 
into  the  hands  of  wandering  Arabs,  who  prowled  unchecked  over  the  plains, 
keeping  the  city  itself  almost  in  a continual  state  of  siege.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  drawbacks,  the  importance  of  its  position  is  so  great  that  Baghdad 
must  at  all  times  command  a considerable  trade.  It  is  a link  between  the 

* The  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course  were 
formerly  kept  in  repair  by  the  great  tribe  of  the  Montefik.  The  following  character- 
istic anecdote  is  related  of  Ajel,  its  celebrated  chief.  His  father  had  confided  certain 
dams  to  the  care  of  the  head  of  a dependent  tribe.  When  the  old  Sheikh  died,  his 
tributary,  taking  advantage  of  the  youth  and  inexperience  of  Ajel,  refused  to  obey  the 
orders-  sent  to  him,  and  allowed  the  embankments  to  fall  into  decay.  Ajel,  who  was 
already  distinguished  for  his  courage  and  resolution,  went  up  with  his  adherents  to 
the  tents  of  the  rebellious  chief.  At  an  interview  he  commanded  him  to  repair  the 
dams,  and,  on  his  refusal,  ordered  his  own  men  to  begin  the  work,  and  to  drive  the 
Sheikh  into  the  earth  with  the  first  stake.  His  directions  were  strictly  obeyed,  and 
the  Arab  was  forced  with  a stake  through  his  body  into  the  very  foundations  of  the 
embankment. 


CITY  OF  BAGHDAD. 


407 


OHAP.  XXI.] 

East  and  the  West ; it  is  the  store-house  from  which  the  tribes  of  the  Des- 
ert obtain  their  clothing  and  their  supplies,  and  it  is  the  key  to  the  holy 
places  annually  sought  by  thousands  upon  thousands  of  Persian  pilgrims  of 
the  Sheeah  sect. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
medresseh  or  college,  and  of  a few  foundations  of  edifices,  there  is  scarcely 
a trace  to  be  found  in  Baghdad  of  that  magnificent  city,  “ the  Abode  of 
Peace,”*  on  which,  according  to  the  general  testimony  of  Arab  historians 
and  geographers,  corroborated  by  Western  travellers,  the  Caliphs  lavished 
every  resource  of  Eastern  wealth  and  Eastern  taste.  The  stranger  will 
now  seek  in  vain  for  the  palaces  and  gardens  of  Haroun-al-Reshid,  and  the 
universities  and  mosques  of  A1  Mamoun.  Even  the  very  names  of  those 
great  princes,  the  glory  of  Islam,  are  almost  forgotten,  or  are  only  heard 
in  the  crowded  coffee-house,  when  the  Arab  storyteller  relates  his  fanciful 
tale. 

The  only  remains  of  the  Babylonian  period  hitherto  discovered  within 
the  city  walls  are  the  ruins  of  an  enormous  drain  or  subterranean  passage, 
built  of  large  square  bricks  bearing  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar ; the 
lofty  pile  of  sun-dried  bricks,  intermixed  with  layers  of  reeds,  called  Akker- 
Kuf,  which  now  rises  in  the  midst  of  a marsh  to  the  west  of  the  Tigris, 
about  four  or  five  miles  from  the  city  gates,  has  frequently  been  described. f 
During  my  visit  to  Baghdad  it  was  not  easy  to  reach  this  ruin  on  account 
of  the  swamp,  and  as  it  is  merely  a solid  mass  of  mud  masonry,  excava- 
tions in  it  would  scarcely  have  led  to  results  of  any  interest  or  importance. 

I found  the  country  around  Baghdad  so  overrun  with  Bedouins  and  other 
tribes  in  open  revolt  against  the  government,  that  it  was  some  time  before 
I could  venture  to  leave  the  city  for  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  Not  to  lose 
time,  I employed  the  Jebours  who  had  accompanied  me  from  Mosul  in  ex- 
cavating some  mounds  not  far  from  the  gates  of  the  city,  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Tigris.  The  largest  was  called  Tel  Mohammed,  and  was 
about  four  miles  from  Baghdad,  near  the  Arab  village  of  Gherara.  The 
only  objects  of  any  interest  discovered  there  were  several  hollow  bronze 
balls,  with  the  name  of  a king  engraved  upon  them  in  Babylonian  cunei- 

* Baghdad  was  named  by  A1  Mansour,  the  second  caliph  of  the  Abbasside  dynasty, 
and  the  founder  of  the  modern  city,  “ Dar-al-Salam,”  the  Abode  of  Peace,  a title  still 
used  in  official  documents  by  the  Porte.  The  Persian  historians  pretend  that  the 
original  city  was  built  by  the  first  kings  of  Persia,  and  that  it  was  named  “ Bagh 
Dad,”  the  Garden  of  Dad,  from  an  idol  previously  worshipped  there.  The  founda- 
tions of  the  second  city  were  laid  by  A1  Mansour  in  the  145th  year  of  the  Hejira  (a.  d. 
762).  It  was  captured  and  laid  waste  by  the  Tatar  conqueror,  Holaku  Khan,  who 
put  to  a cruel  death  Mostazem,  the  last  of  the  Caliphs.  From  that  time  it  has  been 
continually  a place  of  contention  between  the  Turks  and  Persians.  It  contained,  be- 
fore the  great  plague  of  1830,  110,000  inhabitants,  but  can  now  scarcely  hold  many 
more  than  50,000.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Tigris,  the  smaller  quarters 
forming  suburbs  on  the  western  bank. 

t See  particularly  Ker  Porter’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  275,  &c. 


408 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXI. 


form  characters  a few  rude  images 
of  the  Assyrian  Venus  in  baked  clay, 
such  as  are  found  in  most  ruins  of  the 
same  period ; a pair  of  bronze  ankle- 
rings,  some  terracotta  vases,  and  other 
relics  of  the  same  nature.  Foundations 


Bronze  Ball  from  Tel  Mohammed. 


Figures  of  Assyrian  Venus  in  baked  Clay. 


in  brick  masonry  were  also  uncovered,  but  there  were  no  traces  of  sculp- 
ture or  inscriptions. 

It  was  not  until  the  5th  of  December  that  I was  able  to  leave  Baghdad. 
I had  been  struggling  with  my  old  enemy,  intermittent  fever,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  two  reasons  for  re- 
maining within  the  gates.  At  length  Abde  Pasha,  the  governor  of  the 
province,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  and  marched  against  the 
rebellious  tribes.  Before  beginning  his  campaign,  however,  he  had  to  dam 
the  mouth  of  a large  canal  called  the  Hindiyah.  This  artificial  channel, 
gradually  widened  by  the  current  of  the  Euphrates  during  the  spring  floods, 
now  led  nearly  half  the  waters  of  the  river  into  vast  marshes  to  the  west 
of  Babylon.  Into  these  inaccessible  swamps  the  Arabs  had  driven  their 
buffaloes,  and  there  they  defied  the  Turkish  troops.  The  Pasha’s  first  ob- 
ject was  to  close  the  canal,  and  thus  in  time  to  drain  the  morasses. 

Before  going  to  Hillah  I determined  to  visit  the  governor,  and  to  make 
acquaintance  with  several  Sheikhs  of  the  southern  tribes  friendly  to  the 
Turkish  government  who  were  in  his  camp.  I accordingly  left  Baghdad, 
accompanied  by  M.  Aristarki,  an  accomplished  Greek  gentleman  in  the 
service  of  the  Porte,  and  by  one  Ahmed-al-Khod,  a highly  intelligent,  act- 
ive^, and  faithful  Arab  of  the  tribe  of  the  Agayl,  who  had  long  been  in  the 
service  of  Captain  Jones.  His  acquaintance  with  the  country,  and  his  con- 
nection by  marriage  with  Ferhan  the  Shammar  chief,  rendered  him  a very 
useful  guide  and  companion  in  a journey  through  the  Desert. 

The  marshes  formed  by  the  Saklawiyah,  a second  great  canal  derived 
from  the  Euphrates,  had  reached  almost  to  the  very  walls  of  the  western 
suburb  of  Baghdad,  interrupting  communication  by  land,  and  spreading  mi- 
asma and  disease  through  the  city.  To  get  into  the  highway  to  Hillah,  we 
were  obliged  to  make  a circuit  of  some  miles,  fording  ditches,  wading  through 

* Two  of  these  balls  weigh  respectively  1 lb.  5f  oz.  and  1 lb.  4f  oz.  Several  ob- 
jects of  the  same  kind  had  previously  been  discovered  in  this  ruin  by  the  crew  of 
the  steamer  under  Captain  Jones. 


ABDE  PASHA’S  CAMP. 


409 


Chap.  XXI.J 

■water  and  deep  mud,  and  crossing  wide  streams  by  crazy  bridges  of  boats. 
We  had  been  nearly  three  hours  on  horseback  before  we  rode  through  the 
vaulted  gateway  of  the  Khan-i-Zad,  the  first  habitable  caravanserai  on  the 
road.  In  the  middle  of  the  spacious  court-yard,  reclining  on  carpets  spread 
upon  a raised  platform,^  we  found  Timour  Mirza,  one  of  the  exiled  Persian 
princes.  He  was  surrounded  by  hawks  of  various  kinds  standing  on  perch- 
es fixed  into  the  ground,  and  by  numerous  attendants,  each  bearing  a fal- 
con on  his  wrist.  Amongst  his  own  countrymen  and  the  Arabs  the  prince 
held  the  first  place  as  a sportsman  ; his  gun  was  unerring  in  its  aim,  his 
falcons  were  unequalled  for  their  training,  and  he  knew  every  hunting- 
ground  within  many  days’  journey  of  Baghdad.  He  was  no  less  famed  for 
courage  in  war  than  for  skill  in  the  chase,  and  his  exploits  in  both  are 
equally  notorious  among  the  tribes  of  Mesopotamia. 

We  slept  in  one  of  the  arched  recesses  forming  a side  of  the  doorway  of 
the  caravanserai,  amidst  a crowd  of  pilgrims  and  travellers,  whose  beasts 
of  burden  of  every  description  completely  filled  the  yard.  Timour  Mirza 
had  not  forgotten  to  bring  his  Persian  cook,  who  prepared  us  several  sa- 
voury dishes  from  the  game  taken  by  his  master’s  hawks.  During  the 
evening  we  were  entertained  by  two  Arabs  of  the  Agayl  irregular  troops, 
who  played  with  extraordinary  skill  on  the  small  kettle  drums  which  they 
carried  before  their  company  in  war. 

The  plains  between  Khan-i-Zad  and  the  Euphrates  are  covered  with  a 
perfect  network  of  ancient  canals  and  watercourses  ; but  “ a drought  is 
upon  the  waters  of  Babylon,  and  they  were  dried. ”+  Their  lofty  embank- 
ments, stretching  on  every  side  in  long  lines  until  they  are  lost  in  the  hazy 
distance,  or  magnified  by  the  mirage  into  mountains,  still  defy  the  hand  of 
time,  and  seem  rather  the  work  of  nature  than  of  man.  The  face  of  the 
country,  too,  is  dotted  with  mounds  and  shapeless  heaps,  the  remains  of  an- 
cient towns  and  villages.  A long  ride  of  ten  hours  through  this  scene  of 
solitude  and  desolation  brought  us  to  the  tents  of  the  Pasha  of  Baghdad, 
pitched  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  below  the  village  of  Mussei- 
yib,  and  on  the  inlet  of  the  Hindiyah  canal.  A string  of  boats  had  been 
placed  across  the  river  to  connect  the  camp  of  the  governor  with  Baghdad. 
As  we  approached  we  heard  a loud  hum  of  human  voices  ; but  the  whole 
encampment  was  concealed  by  dense  clouds  of  dust.  Once  over  the  bridge 
we  found  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  a crowd  of  Turkish  soldiers,  Arabs,  and 
workmen  of  every  kind  hurrying  to  and  fro  in  wild  disorder  ; some  bearing 

* The  great  caravanserais  or  khans  on  the  high  roads  between  Baghdad  and  the 
sacred  places  are  handsome  and  substantial  edifices.  They  have  been  built  by  Per- 
sian kings,  or  by  wealthy  and  pious  men  of  the  same  nation  for  the  accommodation 
of  pilgrims.  A large  open  square,  in  which  are  generally  two  raised  platforms  of 
brickwork  for  travellers  to  sleep  on  during  summer,  is  surrounded  by  small  apart- 
ments or  cells,  two  deep,  for  winter  use.  Behind  them,  spacious  stables  for  horses 
run  round  the  whole  building,  and  within  these  stables,  on  both  sides,  are  other  cells 
for  travellers.  These  khans  are  chiefly  constructed  of  bricks  dug  out  of  the  ancient 
ruins  which  abound  in  the  country.  They  are  usually  about  six  miles  apart. 

Jeremiah,  1.  38. 


410 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XXI. 

earth  and  mud  in  baskets,  or  in  their  cloaks,  others  bending  under  the 
weight  of  bundles  of  brushwood,  mats,  and  ropes  Women  and  girls  were 
mingled  with  the  men,  and  as  they  labored  they  chanted  in  a monotonous 
tone  verses  on  the  Pasha  and  their  chiefs,  improvised  for  the  occasion. 

This  busy  throng  was  building  up  the  dam  which  was  to  shut  out  the 
waters  of  the  Euphrates  from  the  canal,  dry  the  marshes,  and  bring  the  re- 
bellious tribes  to  obedience.  The  nature  of  the  materials  and  of  the  work 
did  not,  however,  promise  a very  favorable  or  speedy  result.  They  had  in- 
deed no  sooner  raised  half  their  frail  barrier  of  earth  and  fascines,  than  the 
impetuous  current  washed  away  in  a night  the  fruits  of  a month’s  toil. 
The  Pasha  had  summoned  to  his  aid  all  the  tribes  that  still  owned  his  au- 
thority ; his  tents  were  crowded  with  Arab  Sheikhs  from  the  plains,  and 
Kurdish  Beys  from  the  mountains.  About  two  thousand  regular  troops  and 
a large  body  of  irregular  horse  and  foot  completed  the  motley  army  he  had 
gathered  round  him  at  the  Hindiyah. 

I spent  the  following  day  with  Abde  Pasha,  who  was  an  ardent  sports- 
man, and  entertained  me  with  hawking.  The  Arab  and  Kurdish  chiefs, 
who  were  in  his  camp,  were  summoned  at  dawn  to  accompany  him.  Most 
of  them  had  their  own  falcons  and  huntsmen — an  indispensable  part  of  the 
establishment  of  an  eastern  nobleman.  We  formed  altogether  a very  gay 
and  goodly  company.  Bustards,  hares,  gazelles,  francolins,  and  several  wild 
animals  abounded  in  the  jungle  and  the  plains,  and  before  we  returned  in 
the  afternoon  scarcely  a horseman  was  without  some  trophy  of  the  chase 
dangling  from  his  saddle. 

Two  of  the  hereditary  Pashas  of  Kurdistan,  claiming  descent  from  the 
ancient  Arab  tribe  of  Beni  Khaled,  were  with  us.  Deprived  of  their  fam- 
ily possessions,  and  living  as  exiles  in  Baghdad,  no  longer  able  to  wage  war 
or  to  go  on  marauding  expeditions,  their  chief  employment  was  hunting. 
They  were  formerly  renowned  for  their  well-trained  falcons. 

The  Bedouins,  too,  of  whom  there  were  many  in  the  camp,  are,  as  I have 
already  remarked,  much  given  to  the  chase,  and  especially  to  hawking. 
Unable  to  obtain  a variety  of  falcons,  they  generally  use  the  species  called 
Chark , a bird  found  in  the  Sinjar,  in  the  hills  near  Arbil,  and  in  the  rocky 
ravines  of  northern  Mesopotamia.  They  educate  them  with  care  ; but  the 
great  trainers  in  the  East  are  the  Persians  and  Kurds.  The  Turks  are  sel- 
dom sufficiently  active  to  engage  in  these  manly  pursuits. 

The  hawk  most  valued  by  Eastern  sportsmen  is  the  Shaheen , a variety 
of  the  northern  peregrine  falcon,  and  esteemed  the  most  noble  of  the  race. 
Although  the  smallest  in  size,  it  is  celebrated  for  its  courage  and  daring, 
and  is  constantly  the  theme  of  Persian  verse.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
Shaheen,  each  distinguished  by  its  size  and  plumage  ; those  from  the  Ge- 
bel  Shammar,  in  Nedjd,  are  the  most  prized,  but  being  only  brought  by  oc- 
casional pilgrims  from  Mecca,  are  very  rare.  The  next  best  are  said  to 
come  from  Tokat,  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Shaheep.  should  be  caught  and 
trained  when  young.  It  strikes  its  quarry  in  the  air,  and  may  be  taught 
to  attack  even  the  largest  eagle,  which  it  will  boldly  seize,  and,  checking 


Chap.  XXL] 


EASTERN  FALCONRY 


411 


its  flight,  fall  with  it  to  the  ground.  The  sportsman  should,  however,  be 
at  hand  to  release  the  falcon  immediately,  or  it  will  soon  fall  a victim  to 
its  temerity.  It  is  usually  flown  at  the  crane,  the  middle  bustard  (houba- 
ra),  geese,  and  francolins.  There  is  a variety  called  the  Bahree , found  on 
the  borders  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  can  be  taught  to  catch  geese,  ducks, 
and  all  manner  of  waterfowl ; but  it  is  difficult  to  keep  and  train. 

The  next  in  value  is  the  Baiaban , which  can  be  trained  to  strike  its 
quarry  either  in  the  air  or  on  the  ground.  It  is  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Baghdad  and  in  other  parts  of  Mesopotamia  ; is  caught  and  train- 
ed when  full  grown,  and  is  flown  at  gazelles,  hares,  cranes,  bustards,  par- 
tridges, and  francolins. 

The  Baz  and  Shah  Baz  (?  Astur  palumbarius,  the  goshawk,  and  the 
Falco  lanarius)  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  speckled  plumage  and 
for  its  size.  It  strikes  in  the  air  and  on  the  ground,  and,  if  well  trained, 
may  take  cranes  and  other  large  game.  The  Baiaban  and  Baz,  when  used 
by  the  Persians  for  hunting  hares,  are  sometimes  dressed  in  a kind  of 
leather  breeches  ; otherwise,  as  they  seize  their  prey  with  one  talon,  and 
a shrub  or  some  other  object  with  the  other,  they  might  have  their  limbs 
torn  asunder. 

The  Chark  (?  Falco  cervialis),  the  usual  falcon  of  the  Bedouins,  always 
strikes  its  quarry  on  the  ground,  except  the  eagle,  which  it  may  be  trained 
to  fly  at  in  the  air.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  gazelles  and  bustards,  but  will 
also  take  hares  and  other  game. 

The  bird  usually  hawked  by  the  Arabs  is  the  middle-sized  bustard,  or 
houbara.  It  is  almost  always  captured  on  the  ground,  and  defends  itself 
vigorously  with  wings  and  beak  against  its  assailant,  which  is  often  disa- 
bled in  the  encounter.  The  falcon  is  generally  trained  to  this  quarry  with 
a fowl.  The  method  pursued  is  very  simple.  It  is  first  taught  to  take  its 
raw  meat  from  a man,  or  from  the  ground,  the  distance  being  daily  in- 
creased by  the  falconer.  When  the  habit  is  acquired,  the  flesh  is  tied  to 
the  back  of  a fowl ; the  falcon  will  at  once  seize  its  usual  food,  and  re- 
ceives also  the  liver  of  the  fowl,  which  is  immediately  killed.  A bustard 
is  then,  if  possible,  captured  alive,  and  used  in  the  same  way.  In  a few 
days  the  training  is  complete,  and  the  hawk  may  be  flown  at  any  large 
bird  on  the  ground. 

The  falconry,  however,  in  which  Easterns  take  most  delight,  is  that  of 
the  gazelle.  For  this  very  noble  and  exciting  sport,  the  falcon  and  grey- 
hound must  be  trained  to  hunt  together  by  a process  unfortunately  some- 
what cruel.  In  the  first  place,  the  bird  is  taught  to  eat  its  daily  ration  of 
raw  meat  fastened  on  the  stuffed  head  of  a gazelle.  The  next  step  is  to 
accustom  it  to  look  for  its  food  between  the  horns  of  a tame  gazelle.  The 
distance  between  the  animal  and  the  falconer  is  daily  increased,  until  the 
hawk  will  seek  its  meat  when  about  half  a mile  off.  A greyhound  is  now 
loosed  upon  the  gazelle,  the  falcon  being  flown  at  the  same  time.  When 
the  animal  is  seized,  which  of  course  soon  takes  place,  its  throat  is  cut,  and 
the  hawk  is  fed  with  a part  of  its  flesh.  After  thus  sacrificing  three  ga 


412 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chai  XXI. 


zelles,  the  education  of  the  falcon  and  the  greyhound  is  declared  to  be 
complete.  The  chief  art  in  the  training  is  to  teach  the  two  to  signal  out 
the  same  gazelle,  and  the  dog  not  to  injure  the  falcon  when  struggling  on 
the  ground  with  the  quarry.  The  greyhound,  however,  soon  learns  to 
watch  the  movements  of  its  companion,  without  whose  assistance  it  could 
not  capture  its  prey. 

The  falcon,  when  loosed  from  its  tresses,  flies  steadily  and  near  the 
ground  towards  the  retreating  gazelles,  and  marking  one,  soon  separates  it 
from  the  herd.  It  then  darts  at  the  head  of  the  affrighted  animal,  throws 
it  to  the  ground,  or  only  checks  it  in  its  rapid  course.  The  greyhound 
rarely  comes  up  before  the  blow  has  been  more  than  once  repeated.  The 
falconer  then  hastens  to  secure  the  quarry.  Should  the  dog  not  succeed  in 
capturing  the  gazelle  after  it  has  been  struck  for  the  third  or  fourth  time, 
the  hawk  will  generally  sulk  and  refuse  to  hunt  any  longer.  I once  saw 
a very  powerful  falcon  belonging  to  Abde  Pasha  hold  a gazelle  until  the 
horseman  succeeded  in  spearing  the  animal.  The  fleetness  of  the  gazelle 
is  so  great,  that,  without  the  aid  of  the  hawk,  very  few  dogs  can  overtake 
it,  unless  the  ground  be  heavy  after  rain.* 

The  pursuit  of  the  gazelle  with  the  falcon  and  hound  over  the  boundless 
plains  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  is  one  o'f  the  most  exhilarating  and  graceful 
of  sports,  displaying  equally  the  noble  qualities  of  the  horse,  the  dog,  and 
the  bird. 

The  time  of  day  best  suited  for  hawking  is  very  early  in  the  morning, 
before  the  eagles  and  kites  are  soaring  in  the  sky.  The  falcon  should  not 
be  fed  for  several  hours  before  it  is  taken  to  the  chase.  When  not  hunting, 
the  Arabs  give  it  meat  only  once  a day.  Some  hawks  require  to  be  hood- 
ed, such  as  the  Chark  and  the  Shaheen ; others  need  no  covering  for  the 
eyes.  The  hood  is  generally  made  of  colored  leather,  with  eyes  worked  on 
it  in  beads,  and  gold  and  variegated  threads.  Tassels  and  ornaments  of 
various  kinds  are  added,  and  the  great  chiefs  frequently  adorn  a favourite 
bird  with  pearls  and  precious  stones.  To  the  legs  are  sometimes  fastened 
small  bells.  Few  hawks  will  return  to  the  falconer  without  the  lure, 
which  consists  of  the  wing  of  a bustard  or  fowl,  or  of  a piece  of  meat  at- 
tached to  a string,  and  swung  round  in  the  air.  The  Eastern  huntsman 
has  a different  call  for  each  variety  of  falcon.  A good  chark  will  some- 
times take  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  bustards  or  five  or  six  gazelles  in  the 
course  of  a morning. 

* The  gazelle  can  also  be  taken  immediately  after  it  has  drunk  water,  in  hot  wea- 
ther. The  Arabs  watch  for  them  with  their  dogs  at  the  pools.  The  Arab  greyhound 
is  small,  and  unlike  the  Persian,  has  short  hair.  It  is  a very  fleet  and  beautiful 
animal,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  the  English  greyhound  as  the  Arab  does  to  the 
English  horse.  From  the  Eastern  stock  our  breed  may  also  have  been  derived. 
They  are  much  prized,  and,  among  some  tribes,  the  race  is  as  carefully  preserved  as 
that  of  their  mares.  The  best  greyhounds  are  found  amongst  the  Obeid  and  Beni 
[jam.  I have  seen  dogs  from  those  tribes  which  could  capture  a gazelle  at  any  time 
of  the  year,  and  take  alone  as  many  as  six  or  seven  Desert  hares  in  a couple  of  hours 
They  are  very  tender,  and  even  in  Assyria  require  clothing  during  the  winter. 


THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON. 


413 


Chap.  XXI.] 

I have  introduced  these  remarks  on  falconry,  founded  on  personal  expe- 
rience, as  this  noble  science  is  probably  of  the  greatest  antiquity,  and  is  still 
the  favorite  pursuit  of  the  Eastern  warrior.* 

Before  leaving  the  camp  I obtained  letters  to  the  principal  chiefs  of  the 
southern  tribes  from  the  Pasha  as  well  as  from  Wadi,  the  Sheikh  of  the 
Zobeide,  and  other  influential  Sheikhs.  The  town  of  Hillah  was  about 
eighteen  miles  from  the  Turkish  tents  further  down  the  Euphrates.  We 
were  obliged  to  take  the  longest  road  by  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river,  as 
the  Arabs  infested  the  country  to  the  west.  Between  Musseiyib  and  the 
ruins  of  Babylon  the  country  abounds  in  dry  canals  and  ancient  mounds. 
A few  villages,  surrounded  by  palm  groves,  stand  on  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  on  the  channels,  which  still  carry  the  waters  of  the  river  into 
the  heart  of  Mesopotamia.  After  riding  about  four  hours  we  perceived  a 
huge  hill  to  the  south.  As  we  drew  nearer,  its  flat  table-like  top  and  per- 
pendicular sides,  rising  abruptly  from  an  alluvial  plain,  showed  that  it  was 
the  work  of  man,  and  not  a natural  elevation.  At  length  we  could  plainly 
distinguish  around  it  great  embankments,  the  remains  of  walls  and  canals. 
Gradually,  as  the  caravan  slowly  advanced,  the  ruin  assumed  a definite 
shape.  It  was  the  mound  of  Babel,  better  known  to  travellers  as  the  Mu- 
jelibe,  a name  not  now  given  to  it  by  the  Arab  inhabitants  of  the  surround- 
ing country. 

This  is  the  first  great  ruin  seen  on  approaching  ancient  Babylon  from 
the  north.  Beyond  it  long  lines  of  palms  hem  in  the  Euphrates,  which 
now  winds  through  the  midst  of  the  ancient  city.  To  the  vast  mound  of 
Babel  succeed  long  undulating  heaps  of  earth,  bricks,  and  pottery.  A sol- 
itary mass  of  brickwork,  rising  from  the  summit  of  the  largest  mound,  marks 
the  remains  known  to  the  Arabs  as  the  “ Mujelibe,”  or  the  “ overturned.”! 

Other  shapeless  heaps  of  rubbish  cover  for  many  an  acre  the  face  of  the 
land.  The  lofty  banks  of  ancient  canals  fret  the  country  like  natural 
ridges  of  hills.  Some  have  long  been  choked  with  sand  ; others  still  carry 
the  waters  of  the  river  to  distant  villages  and  palm  groves.  On  all  sides, 
fragments  of  glass,  marble,  pottery,  and  inscribed  brick  are  mingled  with 
that  peculiar  nitrous  and  blanched  soil,  which,  bred  from  the  remains  of 
ancient  habitations,  checks  or  destroys  vegetation,  and  renders  the  site  of 
Babylon  a naked  and  hideous  waste.  Owls  start  from  the  scanty  thickets, 
and  the  foul  jackall  skulks  through  the  furrows.  Truly  “ the  glory  of  king- 
doms and  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees’  excellency  is  as  when  God  over- 
threw Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  Wild  beasts  of  the  desert  lie  there ; and 
their  houses  are  full  of  doleful  creatures  ; and  owls  dwell  there,  and  satyrs 
dance  there.  And  the  wild  beasts  of  the  island  cry  in  their  desolate 
houses,  and  dragons  in  their  pleasant  palaces,”  for  her  day  has  come.$ 

* A falconer  bearing  a hawk  on  his  wrist  appeared  to  be  represented  in  a bas-ic- 
lief  which  I saw  at  Khorsabad  on  my  last  visit  to  those  ruins. 

t This  is  the  Kasr  of  Rich  and  subsequent  travellers. 

t Isaiah,  xiii.  19-22.,  and  compare  Jeremiah,  1.  39. : “ therefore  the  wild  beasts  ot 


414 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXL 


A few  black  tents  and  flocks  of  sheep  and  camels  were  scattered  over 
the  yellow  plain.  They  belonged  chiefly  to  the  Zobeide,  an  ancient  tribe, 
renowned  in  the  history  of  the  conquering  Arabs  under  their  first  caliphs, 
and  now  pasturing  their  flocks  in  the  wilds  of  Babylonia.*  From  Amran, 
the  last  of  the  great  mounds,  a broad  and  well-trodden  track  winds  through 
thick  groves  of  palms.  About  an  hour’s  ride  beneath  pleasant  shade  brings 
the  traveller  to  the  falling  gateway  of  the  town  of  Hillah.  A mean  bazar, 
crowded  with  Arabs,  camels,  and  asses,  leads  to  a bridge  of  boats  across 
the  Euphrates.  The  principal  part  of  the  town,  containing  the  fort  and 
the  residence  of  the  governor,  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  We  turn- 
ed off,  however,  to  the  left,  as  our  quarters  had  been  made  ready  on  the 
western  bank.  A party  of  irregular  troops  sent  out  to  meet  me,  conducted 
my  caravan  to  a spacious  house  standing  on  the  very  edge  of  the  stream, 
and  belonging  to  one  of  the  principal  families  of  the  place.  It  had  once 
contained  rich  furniture,  and  handsomely  decorated  rooms  in  the  Persian 
style,  but  was  now  fast  falling  into  utter  ruin.  The  cold  wind  whistled 
through  the  rotten  wooden  panels  of  the  windows,  for  there  was  no  glass, 
and  the  crumbling  ceiling  and  floor  threatened  to  give  way  together.  In 
this  frail  dwelling  we  prepared  to  pass  a part  of  our  winter  in  Babylonia 

the  desert  with  the  wild  beasts  of  the  island  shall  dwell  there,  and  the  owls  shall 
dwell  therein.”  A large  grey  owl  is  found  in  great  numbers,  frequently  in  flocks  of 
nearly  a hundred,  in  the  low  shrubs  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon. 

* From  this  tribe  was  the  celebrated  lady  of  Haroun-al-Reshid,  “the  Zobeide,” 
as  she  was  called  from  her  origin. 


A Hooded  Falcon  (Chark)  on  its  Stand. 


The  MujelibS  or  Kasr  (from  Rich). 


CHAPTER,  XXII. 

THE  CHIEFS  OF  HILLAH. PRESENT  OF  LIONS. THE  SON  OF  THE  GOVERNOR. — DESCRIPTION 

OF  THE  TOWN. ZAID. THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON. CHANGES  IN  THE  COURSE  OF  THE 

EUPHRATES. THE  WALLS. VISIT  TO  THE  BIRS  NIMROUD. DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RUIN. 

VIEW  FROM  IT. EXCAVATIONS  AND  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MOUND  OF  BABEL IN  THE 

MUJELIBE  OR  KASR. THE  TREE  ATHELE. EXCAVATIONS  IN  THE  RUIN  OF  AMRAN. 

BOWLS,  WITH  INSCRIPTIONS  IN  HEBREW  AND  SYRIAC  CHARACTERS. TRANSLATIONS  OF 

THE  INSCRIPTIONS. THE  JEWS  OF  BABYLONIA. 

My  first  care  on  arriving  at  Hillah  was  to  establish  friendly  relations 
with  the  principal  inhabitants  of  the  town  as  well  as  with  the  Turkish  offi- 
cer in  command  of  the  small  garrison  that  guarded  its  mud  fort.  Osman 
Pasha,  the  general,  received  me  with  courtesy  and  kindness,  and  during 
the  remainder  of  my  stay  gave  me  all  the  help  I could  require.  On  my 
first  visit  he  presented  me  with  two  lions.  One  was  nearly  of  full  size,  and 
was  well  known  in  the  bazars  and  thoroughfares  of  Hillah,  through  which 
he  was  allowed  to  wander  unrestrained.  The  inhabitants  could  accuse  him 
of  no  other  objectionable  habit  than  that  of  taking  possession  of  the  stalls 
of  the  butchers,  who,  on  his  approach,  made  a hasty  retreat,  leaving  him 
in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  stores,  until  he  had  satisfied  his  hunger 
and  deemed  it  time  to  depart.  He  would  also  wait  the  coming  of  the  large 
kuffas,  or  wicker  boats,  of  the  fishermen,  and  driving  away  their  owners. 


416 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XXII. 


would  help  himself  to  a kind  of  large  barbel,  for  which  he  appeared  to  have 
a decided  relish.  For  these  acts  of  depredation  the  beast  was  perhaps  less 
to  he  blamed  than  the  Pasha,  who  rather  encouraged  a mode  of  obtaining 
daily  rations,  which,  although  of  questionable  honesty,  relieved  him  from 
butcher’s  bills.  When  no  longer  hungry  he  would  stretch  himself  in  the 
sun,  and  allow  the  Arab  boys  to  take  such  liberties  with  him  as  in  their 
mischief  they  might  devise.  He  was  taller  and  larger  than  a St.  Bernard 
dog,  and,  like  the  lion,  generally  found  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  of  Meso- 
potamia, was  without  the  dark  and  shaggy  mane  of  the  African  species.* 
The  other  lion  was  but  a cub,  and  had  recently  been  found  by  an  Arab  in 
the  Hindiyah  marshes.  Unfortunately  it  fell  ill  of  the  mange,  to  which  the 
animal  when  confined  is  very  liable,  and  soon  after  died.  The  other  was 
too  old  to  be  sent  to  England  by  land,  and  I was  thus  unable  to  procure 
specimens  for  this  country  of  the  Babylonian  lion,  which  has  not,  I believe, 
been  seen  in  Europe.. 

The  Mudir,  or  governor  of  Hillah,  was  Shabib  Agha,  the  head  of  one  of 
the  principal  families  of  the  town.  He  claimed  a kind  of  hereditary  right 
to  this  office.  He  was  aged  and  infirm,  suffering  from  asthma,  and  little 
able  to  manage  public  affairs,  which  were  chiefly  confided  to  his  youngest 
and  favorite  son,  a boy  of  about  twelve  years  old.  It  was  with  this  child 
that,  in  common  with  the  inhabitants  of  Hillah,  I transacted  business.  He 
received  and  paid  visits  with  wonderful  dignity  and  decorum.  His  notes 
and  his  inquiries  after  my  health  and  wants  were  couched  in  the  most  elo- 
quent and  suitable  terms.  He  showed  a warm  and  affectionate  interest  in 
my  welfare  and  in  the  success  of  my  undertakings  which  was  quite  touch- 
ing. Every  morning  he  crossed  the  river  with  a crowd  of  secretaries,  slaves, 
and  attendants,  to  ascertain  by  personal  inspection  whether  I needed  any 
help.  His  salutations  were  expressed  with  the  greatest  gravity.  “ We 
trust  that  it  has  pleased  God  to  preserve  your  Excellency’s  health.  Our 
town  is  yours  as  well  as  our  house.  Our  harem  begs  your  Excellency’s 
acceptance  of  sour  milk  and  francolins.  May  we  show  that  we  are  your 
slaves,  by  ordering  the  irregular  troops  to  accompany  you  on  your  ride ; your 
person  is  more  precious  to  us  than  our  eyes,  and  there  are  evil  men,  enemies 
of  our  Lord  the  Sultan,  abroad  in  the  Desert,”  and  so  on.  He  then  gave 
me  his  usual  report  on  the  political  state  of  the  country,  and  related  the 
successes  of  the  Pasha  or  of  the  rebels ; I am  afraid  his  sympathies  were 
more  with  the  latter  than  with  the  legitimate  power.  At  the  same  time 
he  issued  orders  for  rations  to  be  collected  for  the  troops,  dictated  letters  to 
be  sent  to  the  Turkish  authorities,  summoned  levies  from  the  Arab  tribes, 
and  settled  disputes  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  the  town,  occasionally  di- 

* I have,  however,  seen  lions  on  the  river  Karoon,  with  a long  black  mane.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  country  make  a distinction  between  them  and  the  common  mane- 
less lion  ; the  former  are  Kafir,  or  infidels,  the  others  Mussulmans.  By  a proper  re- 
monstrance, and  at  the  same  time  pronouncing  the  profession  of  faith,  a true  believe i 
may  induce  the  one  to  spare  his  life,  but  the  unbelieving  lion  is  inexorable. 


HILL  AH. 


417 


Chap.  XXII.] 

verting  himself  with  a peep  into  a kaleidoscope,  in  which  he  took  great  de 
light,  and  which  I afterwards  presented  to  him.  He  was  a noble  boy,  with 
black  sparkling  eyes,  and  a bright  olive  complexion.  He  wore  the  long 
silken  robes  of  a town  Arab,  with  the  fringed  keffieh  or  striped  head-ker 
chief  of  the  Bedouin  falling  over  his  shoulders.  On  the  whole,  he  made  as 
good  and  active  a governor  as  I have  often  met  with  in  an  E astern  town, 
and  was  an  instance  of  that  precocity  which  is  frequently  seen  in  Eastern 
children.  A cordial  friendship  was  soon  established  between  us,  and,  dur- 
ing my  stay  at  Hillah,  Azeez  Agha,  for  such  was  his  name,  was  my  con- 
stant guest. 

From  the  principal  people  of  Hillah,  as  well  as  from  Shabib  Agha  (the 
father  of  Azeez),  I received  every  help.  The  day  after  my  arrival  they 
sent  me  presents  of  francolins,  gazelles,  and  other  game,  and  during  my 
stay  were  unremitting  in  their  attentions.  Hillah,  like  most  towns  in  this 
part  of  Turkey,  is  peopled  by  Arabs,  once  belonging  to  different  tribes,  but 
now  forgetting  their  clanships  in  a sedentary  life.  They  maintain,  how- 
ever, a friendly  intercourse  with  the  Bedouins  and  with  the  wild  inhabit- 
ants of  the  marshes,  being  always  ready  to  unite  with  them  in  throwing 
off  their  obedience  to  the  Sultan,  and  frequently  maintaining  for  some  time 
their  independence.  As  several  families  divide  the  authority  and  have  their 
private  feuds,  which  lead  to  constant  broils  and  bloodshed,  the  town,  thus 
weakened,  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the  Turks  when  regular  troops  are  sent 
against  it. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit,  its  inhabitants  were  anxiously  waiting  the  re- 
sult of  the  expedition  of  Abde  Pasha  against  the  rebellious  tribes.  Their 
allegiance  to  the  Turkish  governor  and  the  consequent  payment  of  taxes 
depended  upon  its  success.  If  the  Pasha  were  beaten  they  would  declare 
openly  in  favor  of  the  Arabs,  with  whom,  it  was  suspected,  they  were  al- 
ready in  communication.  The  Hindiyah  marshes  are  within  sight  of  the 
town,  and  the  Kazail  (the  tribe  that  dwell  in  them)  ravaged  the  country 
to  its  gates.  I was  consequently  unable  to  do  more  than  visit  the  celebra- 
ted ruins  of  the  Birs  Nimroud.  To  excavate  in  it  in  the  then  disturbed 
state  of  the  country  was  impossible. 

Hillah  may  contain  about  eight  or  nine  thousand  inhabitants.  A few 
half-ruined  mosques  and  public  baths  are  its  principal  buildings.  Its  ba- 
zar supplies  the  Desert  Arabs  with  articles  of  clothing,  arms,  dates,  coffee, 
and  corn,  and  contains  a few  common  Manchester  goods  and  English  cut- 
lery and  hardware.  The  Euphrates  flows  through  the  town,  and  is  about 
two  hundred  yards  wide  and  fifteen  feet  deep  ;*  a noble  stream,  with  a 
gentle  current,  admirably  fitted  for  steam  navigation.  The  houses,  chiefly 
built  of  bricks  taken  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylon,  are  small  and  mean. 
Around  the  town,  and  above  and  below  it  for  some  miles,  are  groves  and 
palm  trees,  forming  a broad  belt  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  In  the  plain 

* See  Col.  Chesney’s  Expedition  for  the  Survey  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  vol. 
i.  p.  57. 


Dd 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


418 


[Chap.  XXII. 


beyond  them  a few  canals  bear  water  to  plots  cultivated  with  wheat,  bar- 
ley, and  rice. 

Amongst  the  inhabitants  of  Hillah  with  whom  I became  acquainted  was 
one  Zaid,  a Sheikh  of  the  Agayl,  a very  worthy,  hospitable  fellow.  His 
tribe  had  migrated  from  the  Gebel  Shammar  when  he  was  still  a boy.  Its 
members  had  mostly  taken  service  under  the  Turkish  government,  and 
amongst  the  most  useful  troops  of  the  Pasha  of  Baghdad  are  these  brave 
and  active,  though  undisciplined,  musketeers.  Zaid  himself  was  one  of 
their  chiefs,  and  received  regular  pay,  small  enough  indeed,  from  the  Bagh- 
dad treasury.  He  lived  in  Hillah,  where  his  house,  open  to  every  traveller, 
was  a place  of  meeting  for  the  Arabs  of  the  Desert  from  Nejd  to  the  Sin- 
jar.  To  keep  up  this  unbounded  hospitality  he  had  a date  grove  and  a 
few  sheep,  and  cultivated  a little  land  outside  the  walls  of  the  town.  He 
was  thus  supplied  with  nearly  all  that  was  necessary  for  an  Arab  enter- 
tainment.* There  were  few  parts  of  northern  Arabia  that  he  had  not  vis- 
ited, and  few  Arab  tribes  with  whose  history  and  condition  he  was  not  ac- 
quainted. Constant  intercourse  with  the  chiefs  who  frequented  his  hospi- 
table museef  made  him  familiar  with  all  that  was  passing  in  the  Desert, 
and  rendered  him  an  amusing  and  instructive  companion.  He  usually  ac- 
companied me  in  my  expeditions, 
and  proved  an  invaluable  guide. 
With  one  Ali,  also  a chief  of  the 
Agayl,  a man  of  wit  and  anec- 
dote, though  somewhat  of  a buf- 
foon, and  with  other  Sheikhs,  he 
usually  spent  the  evening  with 
me,  relating  Arab  stories,  and  de- 
scribing distant  regions  and  tribes, 
until  the  night  was  far  spent. 

Having  thus  established  rela- 
tions with  the  principal  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town,  who  could  assist 
or  interrupt  me,  as  they  were  well 
or  ill  disposed,  I could  venture 
to  commence  excavations  in,  the 
most  important  ruins  on  the  site  of 
Babylon.  Half  concealed  among 
the  palm-trees  on  the  eastern 
banks  of 'the  Euphrates  above 
Hillah,  are  a few  hamlets  be- 
L:"sda  iiU  2ooD  -■  longing  to  Arabs,  who  till  the 

Plan  of  Part  of  the  Ruins  of  Babylon  on  the  Eastern  s°il-  From  them  I was  able  to 
Bank  of  the  Euphrates.  procure  workmen,  and  thus  to 

* The  generous  hospitality  frequently  shown  by  men  living,  like  Zaid,  upon  the 
smallest  means,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  Arab  character. 


RUIN  OF  BABEL. 


419 


Chap.  XXII.] 

make  up,  with  the  addition  of  my  Jebours,  several  parties  of  excavators. 
They  were  placed  under  the  superintendence  of  LatifF  Agha  and  an  intel- 
ligent Chaldsean  Christian  of  Baghdad,  who  had  entered  my  service.  The 
ruins  of  Babylon  have  been  so  frequently  described,*  that  I prefer  giving 
a general  sketch  of  them  to  entering  into  accurate  details  of  measurements 
and  distances ; at  the  same  time  referring  my  reader  to  the  accompanying 
plan,  which  will  enable  him  to  understand  the  position  of  the  principal 
mounds. 

The  road  from  Baghdad  to  Hillah  crosses,  near  the  village  of  Mohawill, 
a wide  and  deep  canal  still  carrying  water  to  distant  gardens.  On  tho 
southern  bank  of  this  artificial  stream  is  a line  of  earthen  ramparts,  which 
are  generally  believed  to  be  the  most  northern  remains  of  the  ancient  city 
of  Babylon.  From  their  summit  the  traveller  scans  a boundless  plain, 
through  which  winds  the  Euphrates,  with  its  dark  belt  of  evergreen  palms. 
Rising  in  the  distance,  high  above  all  surrounding  objects,  is  the  one  square 
mound,  in  form  and  size  more  like  a natural  hill  than  the  work  of  men’s 
hands.  This  is  the  first  great  ruin  to  the  east  of  the  river,  and  the  Arab, 
as  I have  said,  names  it  “ Babel.” 

The  traveller,  before  reaching  this  ruin,  still  about  four  miles  distant, 
follows  a beaten  track  winding  amidst  low  mounds,  and  crossing  the  em- 
bankments of  canals  long  since  dry,  or  avoiding  the  heaps  of  drifted  earth 
which  cover  the  walls  and  foundations  of  buildings.  Some  have  here 
traced  the  lines  of  the  streets,  and  the  divisions  between  the  inhabited 
quarters  of  ancient  Babylon.  They  believe  them  to  correspond  with  the 
descriptions  of  ancient  authors,  who  declare  that  the  city  was  divided  into 
a number  of  equal  squares  by  parallel  thoroughfares.  But  it  is  perhaps 
more  than  doubtful,  whether  existing  remains  warrant  any  such  supposi- 
tion, or  whether  any  definite  plan  could  be  restored  from  them.  As  yet 
no  traces  whatever  have  been  discovered  of  that  great  wall  of  earth  rising, 
according  to  Herodotus,  to  the  height  of  200  royal  cubits,  and  no  less  than 
fifty  cubits  broad ; nor  of  the  ditch  that  encompassed  it.  The  mounds 
seem  to  be  scattered  without  order,  and  to  be  gradually  lost  in  the  vast 
plains  to  the  eastward. 

But  southward  of  Babel,  for  the  distance  of  nearly  three  miles,  there  is 
almost  an  uninterrupted  line  of  mounds,  the  ruins  of  vast  edifices,  collected 
together  as  in  the  heart  of  a great  city.  They  are  inclosed  by  earthen 
ramparts,  the  remains  of  a line  of  walls  which,  leaving  the  foot  of  Babel, 
stretched  inland  about  two  miles  and  a half  from  the  present  bed  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  then  turning  nearly  at  right  angles  completed  the  defences 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  principal  buildings  that  mark  the  site  of  Baby- 

* The  most  accurate  and  careful  description  is  that  by  Mr.  Rich,  to  whom  I shall 
have  frequent  occasion  to  refer,  and  whose  valuable  memoirs  on  the  site  of  the  city 
were  my  text-books  during  my  researches  at  Babylon.  In  the  preface,  by  his  widow, 
to  the  collected  edition  of  his  memoirs  will  be  found  an  interesting  summary  of  the 
researches  and  discoveries  of  previous  travellers.  Ker  Porter,  Mr.  Buckingham,  and 
several  other  travellers,  have  given  accounts  more  or  less  full  of  the  ruins. 


420 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


Ion,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river.*  Between  its  most  southern  point 
and  Hillah,  as  between  Mohawill  and  Babei,  can  only  be  traced  low  heaps 
and  embankments  scattered  irregularly  over  the  plain. 

It  is  evident  that  the  space  inclosed  within  this  continuous  rampart 
could  not  have  contained  the  whole  of  that  mighty  city,  whose  magnifi- 
cence and  extent  were  the  wonder  of  the  ancient  world.  The  walls  of 
Babylon,  according  to  Herodotus,  measured  120  stadia  on  each  side,  and 
formed  a perfect  square  of  480  stadia,  or  nearly  sixty  miles.  Several  latei 
writers  have  repeated  his  statement.  Strabo  and  Diodorus  Siculus  have 
however  reduced  the  circuit  of  the  city  to  385  and  360  stadia ; and  such, 
according  to  Clitarchus,  were  its  dimensions  when  it  yielded  to  Alexander. 

The  existing  remains  within  the  rampart  agree  as  little  in  form  as  in  size 
with  the  descriptions  of  Babylon  ; for  the  city  was  a perfect  square.  Mr. 
Rich,  in  order  to  explain  these  difficulties,  was  the  first  to  suggest  that  the 
vast  ruin  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates,  called  the  Birs  Nimroud,  should  be 
included  within  the  limits  of  Babylon.  He  endeavored,  at  the  same  time, 
to  identify  it  with  the  temple  of  Belus,  which,  according  to  Herodotus, 
stood  in  one  of  the  western  divisions  of  the  city.  There  is  no  doubt  that, 
by  imagining  a square  large  enough  to  include  the  smaller  mounds  scat- 
tered over  the  plains  from  Mohawill  to  below  Hillah  on  one  side  of  the 
river,  and  the  Birs  Nimroud  at  its  southwestern  angle  on  the  other,  the  site 
of  a city  of  the  dimensions  attributed  to  Babylon  might  be  satisfactorily  de- 
termined. But  then  it  must  be  assumed,  that  neither  the  outer  wall  nor 
the  ditch  so  minutely  described  by  Herodotus  ever  existed. 

According  to  the  united  testimony  of  ancient  authors,  the  city  was  di- 
vided by  the  Euphrates  into  two  parts.  The  principal  existing  ruins  are 
to  the  east  of  the  river  ; there  are  very  few  remains  to  the  west,  between 
Hillah  and  the  Birs  Nimroud.  Indeed,  in  some  parts  of  the  plain,  there 
are  none  at  all.  This  fact  might,  to  a certain  extent,  be  explained  in  the 
following  manner.  To  this  day  the  Euphrates  has  a tendency  to  change 
its  course  and  to  lose  itself  in  marshes  to  the  west  of  its  actual  bed.  We 
find  that  the  low  country  on  that  side  was  subject  to  continual  inundations 
from  the  earliest  periods,  and  that,  according  to  a tradition,  Semiramis  built 
embankments  to  restrain  the  river,  whilst  a later  queen  seems  to  have 
taken  advantage  of  the  overflowing  of  its  waters  to  dig  a great  lake  outside 
the  walls.f  We  know,  too,  from  Arrian, :£  that  the  western  quarter  of  the 
city  was  surrounded  and  defended  by  enormous  marshes,  which  prevented 
all  access  to  it.  These  swamps  were  fed  by  the  Euphrates. 

The  changes  in  its  course  to  which  the  Euphrates  was  thus  liable,  ap- 
pear only  to  have  taken  place  to  the  west  of  its  present,  bed.  After  the 
most  careful  examination  of  the  country,  I could  find  no  traces  whatever 

* The  plan  in  the  text,  which  is  taken  from  Ker  Porter’s  work,  makes  the  lines  of 
these  ramparts  too  straight.  In  Rich’s  they  form  almost  a segment  of  a circle.  A 
correct  survey  of  the  ruins  is  much  wanted. 

t Herod.  1.  i.  c.  184, 185.  t Lib.  vii.  c.  17.  and  Diod.  Sic.  ii.  7. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  EUPHRATES. 


421 


Chap.  XXII.] 

of  its  having  at  any  time  flowed  much  further  than  it  now  does  to  the  east, 
although  during  unusual  floods  it  occasionally  spreads  over  the  plain  on 
that  side.  The  great  mounds  still  rising  on  the  eastern  bank  prove  this. 
Supposing,  therefore,  the  river  from  different  causes  to  have  advanced  and 
receded  during  many  centuries,  J>etween  the  Hindiyah  marshes  and  its  pres- 
ent channel,  it  will  easily  he  understood  how  the  ruins,  which  may  once 
have  stood  on  the  western  bank,  have  gradually  been  washed  away,  and 
how  the  existing  flat  alluvial  plain  has  taken  their  place.  In  this  man- 
ner the  complete  disappearance  of  the  principal  part  of  the  western  divi- 
sion of  the  city  may,  I think,  be  accounted  for. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  explain  the  total  absence  of  all  traces  of  the  ex- 
ternal wall  and  ditch  so  fully  and  minutely  described  by  Herodotus  and 
other  ancient  writers,  and,  according  to  their  concurrent  accounts,  of  such 
enormous  dimensions.  If  a vast  line  of  fortifications,  with  its  gates,  and 
equidistant  towers,  all  of  stupendous  height  and  thickness,  did  once  exist, 
it  is  scarcely  to  he  believed  that  no  part  whatever  of  it  should  now  remain. 
Darius  and  other  conquerors,  it  is  true,  are  said  to  have  pulled  down  and 
destroyed  these  defences  ; hut  it  is  surely  impossible  that  any  human  labor 
could  have  obliterated  their  very  traces. * Even  supposing  that  the  ruins 
around  Hillah  do  not  represent  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon,  there  are  no 
remains  elsewhere  in  Mesopotamia  to  correspond  with  those  great  ram- 
parts. If  there  had  been  they  could  not  have  escaped  the  researches  of 
modern  travellers. 

But  Herodotus  states  that,  in  the  midst  of  each  division  of  the  city,  there 
was  a circular  space  surrounded  by  a lofty  wall  : one  contained  the  royal 
palace;  the  other,  the  temple  ofBelus.  There  can  be  little  difficulty  in 
admitting  that  the  mounds  within  the  earthen  rampart  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  river  might  represent  the  first  of  these  fortified  inclosures,  which  we 
know  to  have  been  on  that  side  of  the  Euphrates.  It  is  not  impossible,  as 
Rich  has  suggested,  that  the  Birs  Nimroud,  around  which — as  it  will  be 
seen — there  are  still  the  traces  of  a regular  wall,  may  be  the  remains  of 
the  second  ; or  that  the  gradual  changes  in  the  course  of  the  river  just  de- 
scribed, may  have  completely  destroyed  all  traces  of  it. 

It  may  be  inferred,  I think,  from  the  descriptions  of  Herodotus  and  Di- 
odorus Siculus,!  that  Babylon  was  built  on  the  same  general  plan  as  Nin- 
eveh. More  than  one  fortified  inclosure,  formed  by  lofty  walls  and  towers, 
and  containing  the  royal  palaces  and  the  temples  with  their  numerous  de- 
pendent buildings,  courtyards,  and  gardens,  rose  in  different  quarters  of  the 
city.  They  were  so  built  and  guarded  as  to  be  able  to  resist  an  enemy 

* According  to  Berossus,  Cyrus  ordered  the  exterior  walls  of  Babylon  to  be  en- 
tirely destroyed,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  miglit  not  again  revolt.  (Josephus 
contra  Apion,  1.  i.  § 20.)  But  Herodotus  says  expressly  that  Cyrus  did  not,  but  that 
Darius  did  pull  down  the  fortifications  (1.  iii.  c.  159.). 

t Diodorus  Siculus  particularly  describes,  after  Ctesias,  the  two  fortified  palaces 
(1.  ii.  c.  8.). 


422 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 

and  stand  a protracted  siege.  Around  them  were  the  common  dwellings 
of  the  people,  with  their  palm  groves,  their  orchards,  and  their  small  plots 
of  corn-land. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  outer  walls  of  Nineveh  as  well  as  those 
of  Babylon  have  entirely  disappeared.  Are  we  to  suppose  that  the  histo- 
rians in  their  descriptions  confounded  them  with  those  surrounding  the 
temples  and  palaces  ; and  that  these  exterior  fortifications  were  mere  ram- 
parts of  mud  and  brushwood,  such  as  are  still  raised  round  modern  Eastern 
cities  ? Such  defences,  when  once  neglected,  would  soon  fall  to  dust,  and 
leave  no  traces  behind.  I confess  that  I can  see  no  other  way  of  account- 
ing for  the  entire  disappearance  of  these  exterior  walls.* 

I will  now  describe  the  results  of  my  researches  amongst  the  ruins  near 
Hillah.  Parties  of  workmen  were  placed  at  once  on  the  two  most  import- 
ant mounds,  the  Babel  of  the  Arabs  (the  Mujelibe  of  Rich)  and  the  Muje- 
libe  (the  Kasr  of  the  same  traveller).  I was  compelled,  as  I have  stated, 
to  abandon  my  plan  of  excavating  in  the  Birs  Nimroud.  This  great  pile 
of  masonry  is  about  six  miles  to  the  south-west  of  Hillah.  It  stands  on 
the  very  edge  of  the  vast  marsh,  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Hindiyah 
canal,  and  by  the  periodical  floods  of  the  Euphrates.  The  plain  between 
it  and  the  town  is,  in  times  of  quiet,  under  cultivation,  and  is  irrigated  by 
a canal  derived  from  the  Euphrates  near  the  village  of  Anana.  This  year, 
however,  in  consequence  of  the  rebellion  of  the  tribes  of  A1  Khazail  and  A1 
Maidan,  who  inhabit  the  morasses,  the  land  had  been  left  unsown. 

Shortly  after  my  arrival  at  Hillah  I visited  the  Birs  Nimroud,  accom- 
panied by  Zaid,  and  a party  of  well-armed  Agayls.  My  companions  did 
a little  business  on  their  own  account  on  the  way.  Spying  a party  of  the 
Khazail  Arabs  retreating  from  the  marshes  with  their  tents  and  cattle,  they 
fell  upon  them,  and,  “ under  my  shadow,”  carried  off  a few  cows  and  sheep, 
inflicting  at  the  same  time  some  severe  lance  wounds  upon  the  bwners, 
who  would  have  been  more  summarily  dealt  with  but  for  my  intercession. 
This  was  unfortunately  the  only  opportunity  I had  of  examining  these  re- 
markable ruins  during  my  residence  in  Babylonia. f The  country  became 
daily  more  disturbed,  and  no  Arabs  could  he  induced  to  pitch  their  tents 
near  the  mounds,  or  to  work  there. 

The  Birs  Nimroud,  “the  palace  of  Nimrod”  of  the  Arabs,  and  “the  pris- 
on of  Nebuchadnezzar”  of  the  Jews  ; by  old  travellers  believed  to  he  the 
very  ruins  of  the  tower  of  Babel ; by  some,  again,  supposed  to  represent  the 
temple  of  Belus,  the  wonder  of  the  ancient  world  ; and,  by  others,  to  mark 

* Abydenus  states  (ap.  Euseb.  Praep.  Evang.  1.  ix.  c.  41.)  that  the  first  wall  of  Bab- 
ylon, built  by  Belus,  had  disappeared,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  how  Ihuch  ancient  authors  copied  from  one  another.  Nearly  all  the 
descriptions  which  have  reached  us  of  Babylon  appear  to  have  been  founded  on  the 
account  of  Herodotus  and  the  uncertain  statements  of  Ctesias. 

t I had  visited  it  on  several  occasions  during  previous  journeys.  For  the  first 
time  in  1840,  with  Mr.  Mitford. 


THE  BIRS  NIMROUD. 


423 


Chap.  XXII.] 

the  site  of  Borsippa,  a city  celebrated  as  the  high-place  of  the  Chaldaean 
worship,  is  a vast  heap  of  bricks,  slag,  and  broken  pottery.  The  dry  nitrous 
earth  of  the  parched  plain,  driven  before  the  furious  south  wind,  has  thrown 
over  the  huge  mass  a thin  covering  of  soil  in  which  no  herb  or  green  thing 
can  find  nourishment  or  take  root.  Thus,  unlike  the  grass-clothed  mounds 
of  the  more  fertile  districts  of  Assyria,  the  Birs  Nimroud  is  ever  a bare  and 
yellow  heap.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  198  feet,  and  has  on  its  summit  a 
compact  mass  of  brickwork,  37  feet  high  by  28  broad,*  the  whole  being 
thus  235  in  perpendicular  height.  Neither  the  original  form  or  object  of 
the  edifice,  of  which  it  is  the  ruin,  have  hitherto  been  determined.  It  is 
too  solid  for  the  walls  of  a building,  and  its  shape  is  not  that  of  the  remains 
of  a tower.  It  is  pierced  by  square  holes,  apparently  made  to  admit  air 
through  the  compact  structure.  On  one  side  of  it,  beneath  the  crowning 
masonry,  lie  huge  fragments  torn  from  the  pile  itself.  The  calcined  and 
vitreous  surface  of  the  bricks  fused  into  rock-like  masses,  show  that  their 
fall  may  have  been  caused  by  lightning ; and,  as  the  ruin  is  rent  almost 
from  top  to  bottom,  early  Christian  travellers,  as  well  as  some  of  more  re- 
cent date,  have  not  hesitated  to  recognise  in  them  proofs  of  that  divine 
vengeance,  which,  according  to  tradition,  arrested  by  fire  from  heaven  the 
impious  attempt  of  the  first  descendants  of  Noah. 

Even  the  Jews,  it  would  appear,  at  one  time  identified  the  Birs  Nim- 
roud with  the  tower  of  Babel.  Benjamin  of  Tudela  gives  the  following 
curious  account  of  the  ruin.  “ The  tower  built  by  the  dispersed  generation 
is  four  miles  from  Hillah.  It  is  constructed  of  bricks,  called  Al-ajur  (the 
word  still  used  by  the  Arabs  for  kiln-burnt  bricks) ; the  base  measures  2 
miles,  the  breadth  240  yards,  and  the  height  about  100  canna.  A spiral 
passage,  built  into  the  tower  (from  ten  to  ten  yards),  leads  up  to  the  sum- 
mit, from  which  there  is  a prospect  of  twenty  miles,  the  country  being  one 
wide  plain,  and  quite  level.  The  heavenly  fire  which  struck  the  tower, 
split  it  to  its  very  foundation.”!  No  traces  whatever  now  remain  of  the 
spiral  passage  spoken  of  by  the  Jewish  traveller,  and  it  is  most  probable 
that  he  was  misled  in  describing  it  by  the  appearance  of  the  ruins. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  original  edifice,  of  which  the  Birs  Nim- 
roud is  the  ruin,  or  whoever  its  founder,  it  is  certain  that  as  yet  no  remains 
have  been  discovered  there  more  ancient  than  of  the  time  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Every  inscribed  brick  taken  from  it — and  there  are  thousands  and 
tens  of  thousands — bear  the  name  of  this  king.  It  must,  however,  be  re- 
membered, that  this  fact  is  no  proof  that  he  actually  founded  the  building. 
He  may  have  merely  added  to,  or  rebuilt  an  earlier  edifice.  Thus,  although 
it  would  appear  by  the  inscriptions  from  Nimroud,  that  the  north-west  pal- 
ace was  originally  raised  by  a king  who  lived  long  before  him  whose  name 
occurs  on  the  walls  of  that  monument,  yet  not  one  fragment  has  been  found 
of  the  time  of  that  earlier  monarch.  Such  is  the  case  in  other  Assyrian 

* These  dimensions  are  from  Rich.  I was  unable  to  take  any  measurements  dur- 
ing my  hurried  visit.  f Asher’s  Transl.  p.  107. 


424 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XXII. 

ruins.  It  is,  therefore,  not  impossible  that  at  some  future  time  more  an- 
cient remains  may  he  discovered  at  the  Birs. 

I will  now  describe  the  ruins.  It  must  first  be  observed,  that  they  are 
divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  undoubtedly  the  remains  of  two  different 
buildings.  A rampart  or  wall,  the  remains  of  which  are  marked  by  mounds 
of  earth,  appears  to  have  inclosed  both  of  them.  To  the  west  of  the  high 
mound,  topped  by  the  tower-like  pile  of  masonry,  is  a second,  which  is 
larger  but  lower,  and  in  shape  more  like  the  ruins  on  the  eastern  hank  of 
the  Euphrates.  It  is  traversed  by  ravines  and  watercourses,  and  strewed 
over  it  are  the  usual  fragments  of  stone,  brick,  and  pottery.  Upon  its  sum- 
mit are  two  small  Mohammedan  chapels,  one  of  which,  the  Arabs  declare, 
is  built  over  the  spot  where  Nimroud  cast  the  patriarch  Abraham  into  the 
fiery  furnace,  according  to  the  common  Eastern  tradition.  Not  having 
been  able  to  excavate  in  this  mound,  I could  not  ascertain  -whether  it  cov- 
ers the  remains  of  any  ancient  building. 

Travellers,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  have  hitherto  failed  in  suggesting  any 
satisfactory  restoration  of  the  Birs.  It  is  generally  represented,  without 
sufficient  accuracy,  as  a mere  shapeless  mass.  But  if  examined  from  the 
summit  of  the  adjoining  mound,  its  outline  would  at  once  strike  any  one  ac- 
quainted with  the  ruins  to  the  west  of  Mosul,  described  in  a former  part  of 
this  work.*  The  similarity  between  them  will  be  recognised,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  they  are  all  the  remains  of  edifices  built  upon  very  nearly,  if 
not  precisely,  the  same  plan.  The  best  published  representations  of  the 
Birs  Nimroud  appear  to  me  to  be  those  contained  in  a memoir  of  that  ac- 
curate and  observing  traveller,  the  late  Mr.  Rich.f  I give  one  of  his 
sketches,  over  which  I have  placed  a proposed  restoration  of  the  form  of 
the  original  building ; the  present  shape  of  the  mound,  as  in  Mr.  Rich’s 
sketch,  being  in  dark  outline. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  mound  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain  on  one 

face,  the  western,  and  falls 
to  its  level  by  a series  of 
gradations  on  the  opposite. 
Such  is  precisely  the  case 
with  the  ruins  of  Mokha- 
mour,  Abou-Khameera,  and 
TelErmah.  The  brickwork 
still  visible  in  the  lower 

„ _ parts  of  the  mound,  as  well 

Eastern  Face  of  the  Birs  Is imroud,  with  proposed  Restoration.  r 

as  in  the  upper,  shows  the 

sides  of  several  distinct  stages  or  terraces. $ I believe  the  isolated  mass  of 
* See  Chap.  XI. 

t Memoir  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon  (London,  1816),  plates  2 and  3. 
t This  may  be  perceived  in  the  sketches  given  by  Rich.  He  observed,  indeed,  as 
did  also  Mr.  Buckingham,  these  indications  of  stages.  He  says,  “ In  the  side  of  the 
pile,  a little  below  the  summit,  is  very  clearly  to  be  seen  part  of  another  brick  wall 


Chap.  XXII.] 


THE  BIRS  NIMROUD. 


425 


masonry  to  be  the  remains  of  one  of  the  highest  terraces,  if  not  the  highest, 
and  the  whole  edifice  to  have  consisted,  on  the  eastern  or  south-eastern  side, 
of  a series  of  stages  rising  one  above  the  other,  and,  on  the  western  or  north- 
western, of  one  solid  perpendicular  wall.  The  back  of  the  building  may 
have  been  painted,  as,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus,*  were  the  palaces  of 
Babylon,  with  hunting  or  sacred  scenes,  and  may  have  been  decorated  with 
cornices  or  other  architectural  ornaments.  There  were  no  means  of  ascent 
to  it.  Nor  was  it  accessible  in  any  part  unless  narrow  galleries  were  car- 
ried round  it  at  different  elevations.  The  diagram  shows  how  far  the  pro- 
posed restoration  suits  with  the  actual  form  of  the  ruin  ; but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  number  of  terraces  is  merely  conjectural,  and  that 
there  might  have  been  more  or  less.  The  upper  stage  may  have  been 
larger,  and  the  proportions  of  the  others  altogether  different.  The  wood- 
cut  is  merely  meant  to  give  what  I conjecture  to  have  been  the  general 
form  of  the  edifice. 

It  is  probable  that  the  ascents  from  terrace  to  terrace  consisted  of  broad 
flights  of  steps,  or  of  inclined  ways,  carried  up  the  centre  of  each  stage. 
Such  we  may  judge,  from  the  descriptions  of  Diodorus,  was  the  form  of  some* 
of  the  great  buildings  at  Babylon.  The  ascents  to  the  different  terraces 
of  the  hanging  gardens,  he  says,  were  like  the  gradines  of  a theatre. f 
There  are  certainly  traces  of  them  in  the  mounds  in  the  Desert  west  of 
Mosul,  if  not  in  the  Birs  Nimroud.  Herodotus  states  that  the  temple  of 
Belus  at  Babylon  consisted  of  a series  of  towers.  His  description  is  not 
very  clear, $ but  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  various  parts  of  the  structure 
were  nearly  square.  The  base  was  undoubtedly  so,  and  so  also  may  have 

precisely  resembling  the  fragment  which  crowns  the  summit,  but  which  still  encases 
and  supports  its  part  of  the  mound.  This  is  clearly  indicative  of  another  stage  of 
greater  extent.”  (P.  167.  of  the  collected  edition  of  his  Memoirs.)  Since  writing  the 
above  I have  found  in  a treatise  by  M.  Von  Gumpach  (Die  Zeitrechnung  der  Babylo- 
nier  und  Assyrer,  Heidelberg,  1852,  p.  25.),  some  remarks  upon  the  sundial  mentioned 
in  2 Kings,  xx.  8 — 11.,  and  Isaiah,  xxxviii.  8.  The  author  conjectures  that  it  may 
have  been  presented  to  Ahaz  by  Tiglath  Pileser,  and  he  restores  it  very  nearly  in  the 
shape  I have  suggested  as  having  been  that  of  the  edifices  of  which  the  Birs  Nlm- 
roud,  and  other  great  ruins  in  Mesopotamia,  are  the  remains  ; viz.  a series  of  steps 
or  terraces,  on  which  an  upright  pole  cast  its  shadow.  He  observes  that  the  hours 
were  marked  by  the  coincidence  of  the  shadow  of  the  gnomon  with  the  edge  of  the 
steps  (degrees).  (See  also  his  Dissertation  on  the  Old  Testament,  Heidelberg,  1852, 
p.  181.)  Could  these  great  structures  have  been  raised  for  any  astronomical  purpose  1 
It  would  be  important  to  examine  them  carefully,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they 
all  face  precisely  the  same  way.  * Lib.  ii.  c.  8. 

t Lib.  ii.  c.  10.  Such  is  the  form  that  Calmet  and  other  antiquaries  have  given  to 
the  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon  in  their  restored  plans  of  the  city. 

t His  words  are,  “It  is  a square  building,  each  side  of  which  is  of  the  length  of 
two  stadia.  In  the  midst  rises  a solid  tower  (or  terrace),  of  the  depth  and  height  of 
one  stadium,  upon  which  is  another  tower  and  then  another,  to  the  number  of  eight. 
These  towers  are  ascended  from  the  outside,  a way  leading  round  each  of  them  ; and, 
in  the  middle  of  the  whole  structure,  there  are  convenient  resting  places.  On  the  last 
tower  is  built  a large  temple,”  &c.  (1.  i.  c.  181.) 


426 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


been  the  upper  stories,  although  generally  represented  as  round.  There 
is  nothing  in  the  word  used  by  Herodotus  [rrupyog)  to  show  that  they  were 
circular,  and  that  they  were  solid  masses  of  masonry  appears  to  me  to  be 
evident,  for  upon  the  upper  one  was  constructed  the  temple  of  the  god. 
The  ascent,  too,  was  on  the  outside.  Without,  however,  venturing  to  iden- 
tify the  Birs  Nimroud  with  the  ruins  of  this  temple,  it  may  be  observed 
that  it  is  highly  probable  one  uniform  system  of  building  was  adopted  in 
the  East,  for  sacred  purposes,  and  that  these  ascending  and  receding  plat- 
forms formed  the  general  type  of  the  Chaldaean  and  Assyrian  temples.  A 
step  may  still  be  traced  around  the  foot  of  the  ruin,  probably  part  of  the 
basement  or  first  platform,  and  as  the  whole  is  surrounded  by  the  remains 
of  a quadrangular  inclosure,  it  is  in  every  respect  like  those  in  the  Desert 
to  the  west  of  Mosul.  Around  the  Birs  are  heaps  of  rubbish  marking  the 
sites  of  ancient  buildings.* 

The  edifice,  of  which  this  remarkable  ruin  is  the  remains,  was  built  of  kiln- 
burnt  bricks.  Fragments  of  stone,  marble,  and  basalt,  scattered  amongst 
the  rubbish,  show  that  it  was  adorned  with  other  materials.  The  cement 
'by  which  the  bricks  were  united  is  of  so  tenacious  a quality,  that  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  detach  one  from  the  mass  entire.  The  ruin  is  a speci- 
men of  the  perfection  of  the  Babylonian  masonry. 

I will  not  enter  into  the  many  disputed  questions  connected  with  the 
topography  of  Babylon,  nor  will  I endeavor  to  identify  the  various  existing 
ruins  with  the  magnificent  edifices  described  by  ancient  authors.  The 
subject  was  fully  investigated  by  the  late  Mr.  Rich,  and  the  published  con- 
troversy between  him  and  Major  ftennellf  has  left  little  to  be  added.  A 
theory,  first  I believe  put  forward  by  Col.  Rawlinson,  that  the  ruins  around 
Hillah  do  not  mark  the  site  of  the  first  Babylon,  which  must  be  sought  for 
further  to  the  south,  as  far  even  as  NifFer,  has,  I presume,  been  abandoned. 
There  cannot,  however,  be  a doubt  that  Nebuchadnezzar  almost  entirely 
rebuilt  the  city,  and  perhaps  not  exactly  on  the  ancient  site  ; a conjecture, 
as  I have  shown,  perfectly  in  accordance  with  Scripture  and  with  Eastern 
customs.*  An  accurate  survey  of  the  ruins  is  now  chiefly  required,  and 
will,  I trust,  be  shortly  added  to  the  many  valuable  contributions  already 
made  by  Capt.  Jones  to  Eastern  archaeology  and  comparative  geography. 
Recent  travellers,  amongst  whom,  I believe,  may  be  included  Col.  Rawlin- 
son, are  of  opinion  that  the  Birs  Nimroud  cannot  be  identified,  as  conjec- 
tured by  Rich,  with  the  temple  of  Belus,  but  that  it  marks  the  site  of  the 
celebrated  Chaldaean  city  of  Borsippa,  which  Rich  traced  four  leagues  to 
the  south  of  Hillah, § in  some  mounds  called  Boursa  by  the  Arabs.  Until 
more  authentic  information  be  obtained  from  inscriptions  and  actual  re- 
mains, the  question  cannot,  I think,  be  considered  as  settled. 

* Rich,  with  his  usual  accuracy,  has  described  all  these  indications  of  building. 

First  Memoir,  p.  37.) 

f See  his  collected  Memoirs,  republished  by  his  widow,  1839. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  voL  ii.  p.  173.  $ Memoirs,  p.  79. 


Chap.  XXII.] 


THE  TOMB  OF  EZEKIEL. 


427 


From  the  summit  of  the  Birs  Nimroud,  I gazed  over  a vast  marsh,  for 
Babylon  is  made  “ a possession  for  the  bittern  and  pools  of  water.”*  In 
the  midst  of  the  swamps  could  he  faintly  distinguished  the  mat  huts  of  the 
Kazail,  forming  villages  on  the  small  islands.  The  green  morass  was  spot- 
ted with  flocks  of  the  black  buffalo.  The  Arab  settlements  showed  the  act- 
ivity of  a hive  of  bees.  Light  boats  were  skimming  to  and  fro  over  the 
shallow  water,  whilst  men  and  women  urged  onwards  their  flocks  and 
laden  cattle.  The  booming  of  the  cannons  of  the  Turkish  army,  directed 
against  the  fort  of  Hawaina,  resounded  in  the  distance  ; and  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  marsh  were  already  hurrying  with  their  property  to  safer  re- 
treats in  anticipation  of  the  fall  of  their  stronghold. 

To  the  south-west,  in  the  extreme  distance,  rose  the  palm-trees  of  Kifil, 
casting  their  scanty  shade  over  a small  dome,  the  tomb  of  Ezekiel.  To 
this  spot  annually  flock  in  crowds,  as  their  forefathers  have  done  for  cen- 
turies, the  Jews  of  Baghdad,  Hillah,  and  other  cities  of  Chaldsea,  the  de- 
scendants of  the  captives  of  Jerusalem,  who  still  linger  in  the  land  of 
their  exile.  Although  tradition  alone  may  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Babylon  the  tomb  of  the  prophet,  yet  from  a very  early  period  the  spot  ap- 
pears to  have  been  sought  in  pilgrimage  by  the  pious  Hebrew.  I visited 
the  edifice  some  years  ago.  It  is  now  but  a plain  building,  despoiled  of 
the  ornaments  and  manuscripts  which  it  once  appears  to  have  contained. 
The  description  given  by  Benjamin  of  Tudela  of  this  place  is  so  curious, 
that  I cannot  forbear  transcribing  it.  “ On  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
stands  the  synagogue  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  who  rests  in  peace.  The 
place  of  the  synagogue  is  fronted  by  sixty  towers,  the  room  between  every 
two  of  which  is  also  occupied  by  a synagogue  ; in  the  court  of  the  largest 
stands  the  ark,  and  behind  it  is  the  sepulchre  of  Ezekiel,  the  son  of  Busi, 
the  Cohen.  This  monument  is  covered  by  a large  cupola,  and  the  build- 
ing is  very  handsome  ; it  was  erected  by  Jeconiah,  king  of  Judah,  and  the 
35,000  Jews  who  went  along  with  him,  when  Evil  Merodach  released  him 
from  the  prison,  which  was  situated  between  the  river  Chaboras  and  an- 
other river.  The  name  of  Jeconiah,  and  of  all  those  who  came  with  him, 
are  inscribed  on  the  wall,  the  king’s  name  first,  that  of  Ezekiel  last. 

This  place  is  considered  holy  unto  the  present  day,  and  is  one  of  those 
to  which  people  resort  from  remote  countries  in  order  to  pray,  particularly 
at  the  season  of  the  new  year  and  atonement  day.  Great  rejoicings  take 
place  there  about  this  time,  which  are  attended  even  by  the  Prince  of  the 
Captivity  and  the  presidents  of  the  Colleges  of  Baghdad.  The  assembly 
is  so  large  that  their  temporary  abodes  cover  twenty  miles  of  open  ground, 
and  attracts  many  Arabian  merchants,  who  keep  a market  or  fair. 

On  the  day  of  atonement,  the  proper  lesson  of  the  day  is  read  from  a very 
large  manuscript  Pentateuch  of  Ezekiel’s  own  handwriting. 

A lamp  burns  night  and  day  on  the  sepulchre  of  the  prophet,  and  has 
always  been  kept  burning  since  the  day  that  he  lighted  it  himself ; and 

* Isaiah,  xiv.  23. 


428 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


the  oil  and  wicks  are  renewed  as  often  as  necessary.  A large  house  be- 
longing to  the  sanctuary  contains  a very  numerous  collection  of  books,  some 
of  them  as  ancient  as  the  second,  some  even  coeval  with  the  first  temple, 
it  being  customary  that  who  ever  dies  childless  bequeaths  his  books  to  the 
sanctuary.  Even  in  time  of  war  neither  Jew  nor  Mohammedan  ventures 
to  despoil  and  profanate  the  sepulchre  of  Ezekiel.”* 

We  galloped  back  from  the  Birs  Nimroud  to  Hillah,  crossing  the  dreary 
and  deserted  plain  without  meeting  any  of  those  marauders  who  were  wan- 
dering over  the  face  of  the  country. 

I remained  in  Hillah  until  the  19th  December,  riding  every  day  to  the^ 
ruins  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river,  and  personally  superintending  the 
excavations.  The  first  trenches  were  opened  in  the  great  mound  of  Babel, 
about  five  miles  from  the  gate  of  Hillah,  and  three  quarters  of  a mile  from 
the  river. f I sought  the  subterranean  passage  opened  and  described  by 
Mr.  Rich,  and  on  removing  the  rubbish  I soon  came  to  “ the  quadrangular 
funnel,  about  thirteen  feet  square,  of  burnt  brick  and.  bitumen,”  which  he 
had  discovered.  After  the  lapse  of  forty  years,  it  had  been  once  more  com- 
pletely filled  with  earth.  The  workmen  again  entered  the  underground 
chamber  in  which  Mr.  Eich  found  a coffin  of  wood,  containing  a skeleton 
still  well  preserved.  The  entrance  to  other  galleries  which  had  not  been 
explored,  were  still  closed  by  large  burnt  bricks,  amongst  which  were  a 
few  square  stones,  inscribed  on  one  edge  with  two  lines  of  cuneiform  char- 
acters, containing  the  name  and  titles  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  the  Chal- 
dees, the  inscription  usually  found  on  Babylonian  bricks.  It  was  evident 
that  they  had  originally  belonged  to  an  edifice  erected  by  that  monarch, 
and  had  been  taken  from  its  ruins  to  form  this  covering  to  the  vaults  and 
tombs. 

Beneath  this  masonry  were  found  several  entire  coffins,  precisely  similar 
to  that  discovered  by  Mr.  Eich.  They  still  held  skeletons,  more  or  less 
entire,  which  fell  to  pieces  as  soon  as  exposed  to  the  air.  No  relic  or  orna- 
ment had  been  buried  with  the  bodies.  The  wood  of  the  coffins  was  in 
the  last  stage  of  decay,  and  could  only  be  taken  out  piecemeal.  A foul 
and  unbearable  stench  issued  from  these  loathsome  remains,  and  from  the 
passages  which  had  become  the  dens  of  wild  beasts,  who  had  worked  their 
way  into  them  from  above.  It  was  almost  impossible  to  stay  for  many 

* Asher’s  translation.  On  the  Tigris,  near  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates,  is  the 
traditionary  tomb  of  Ezra.  The  Jews,  from  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  aera, 
also  appear  to  have  visited  this  spot  as  the  jfikee  of  sepulture  of  the  prophet.  Ben- 
jamin ofTudela  says  of  it,  “The  sepulchre  of  Ezra,  the  priest  and  scribe,  is  in  this 
place  (name  lost),  where  he  died  on  his  journey  from  Jerusalem  to  King  Artaxerx- 
es.”  In  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century,  a celebrated  Jewish  poet,  named  Jehuda 
Charisi  ben  Salomo,  described  both  tombs  in  verse.  (Dr.  Zunz’s  Essay  in  2d  volume 
of  Asher’s  ed.  of  Benjamin  ofTudela.) 

t P.  26.  The  dimensions  of  the  mound,  as  given  by  Rich,  are,  the  northern  face, 
200  yards  in  length ; the  southern,  219  ; the  eastern,  182 ; and  the  western,  136.  The 
elevation  at  the  N.  E.  angle,  141  feet. 


DISCOVERIES  AT  BABEL. 


429 


Chap.  XXII.] 


minutes  underground.  Even  the  Arabs  were  compelled  to  leave  their  work 
after  a few  days. 

On  the  northern  side  of  the  mound,  above  these  places  of  sepulture,  are 
the  remains  of  a massive  wall  of  sun-dried  brick.  The  masonry  is  not  united 
by  bituminous  cement,  as  in  the  vaults,  but  apparently  by  simple  mud,  as 
in  modern  Arab  buildings,  and  between  each  course  of  bricks  are  spread 
thin  layers  of  reeds  still  perfectly  preserved. 

The  coffins  discovered  at  Babel  are  of  a comparatively  recent  period, 
and  are  not  pure  Babylonian.  At  the  very  earliest  they  may  be  of  the 
time  of  the  Seleucidse,  but  I am  inclined  to  think  that  they  are  even  of  a 
still  later  date.  It  is  evident  that  they  were  buried  after  the  destruction 
of  the  edifice  covered  by  the  mound.  Upon  that  great  heap,  over  the  fallen 
palace  or  temple,  was  probably  raised  one  of  those  citadels,  which  formed 
the  defences  of  a city  built  long  after  the  destruction  of  the  Babylonian  em- 
pire and  its  magnificent  capital,  and  which  resisted  the  arms  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.*  Of  that  stronghold  the  thick  wall  of  sun-dried  brick  on  the 
northern  side  is  probably  the  remains. 

Numerous  deep  trenches  opened  on  the  surface  of  the  mound,  and  sev- 
eral tunnels  carried  into  its  sides  at  different  levels,  led  to  no  other  discov- 
ery than  that  of  numerous  relics  of  a doubtful  period,  such  as  are  found  in 
large  numbers,  in  a more  or  less  perfect  state,  amongst  all  Babylonian 
ruins,  especially  after  heavy  rains  have  washed  away  the  loose  soil,  or  have 
deepened  the  ravines.  The  most  interesting  were  arrow-heads  in  bronze 
and  iron,  small  glass  bottles,  some  colored,  others  ribbed  and  otherwise  or- 


Bottle  of  ribbed  Glass,  from  Glass  Bottles,  from  the  Mound  of 
the  Mound  of  Babel.  Babel. 


Glazed  Earthenware  Vessel, 
from  the  Mound  of  Babel. 


namented,  and  vases  of  earthenware  of  various  forms  and  sizes,  sometimes 
glazed  with  a rich  blue  color. 

A large  and  interesting  collection  of  similar  relics  has  been  sent  to  this 
country  by  Mr.  Loftus,  from  the  ruins  of  Niffer  and  Wurka,  and  are  now  in 
the  British  Museum.  They  are  picked  up,  in  a more  or  less  perfect  state 
by  most  travellers  on  the  great  mounds  of  Hillah.  I doubt,  however 
whether  they  should  be  considered  as  strictly  Babylonian.  The  greater 
part  of  them  undoubtedly  belong  to  a period  considerably  posterior  to  the 
* Diod.  Sic.  1.  xix.  s.  100. 


430 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


fall  of  the  empire.  The  earliest  may  be  of  the  time  of  the  Greek  occupation, 
whilst  the  latest  are  probably  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 
sera.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  impossible  to  point  out  any  very  certain  method 
of  ascertaining  the  exact  age  of  different  specimens.  With  them  are  constant- 
ly discovered  Greek  and  Roman  terracotta  figures,  lamps,  bronzes,  and  coins, 
and  also  gems  and  coins  of  the  Arsacian  and  Sassanian  dynasties  of  Persia. 

At  Babel  was  also  found,  at  some  depth  below  the  surface,  a curious  jug, 
which  I should  have  been  inclined  to  believe  altogether  modern,  had  there 
not  been  one  nearly  similar  in  form,  and  of  the  same  substance,  in  Mr. 
Rich’s  collection  in  the  British  Museum,  and  consequently,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, obtained  from  the 
same  ruins.  It  is  of  soap- 
stone, rudely  carved  and 
ornamented,  and  resem- 
bles in  shape  the  vessels 
still  used  by  the  Arabs  for 
ablutions. 

Scattered  over  the 
mound,  and  at  a little 
depth  beneath  the  surface, 
were  numerous  bricks, 
bearing  the  usual  super- 
scription of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. No  ancient  mason- 
ry was,  however,  discov- 
ered, from  which  these 
bricks  had  been  detached. 
It  was  thus  evident  that 
the  remains  of  the  original  edifice,  if  any  still  existed,  were  to  be  sought 
far  beneath  the  surface,  and  I accordingly  opened  tunnels  at  the  very  foot 
of  the  mound,  nearly  on  a level  with  the  plain.  A few  days’  labor  ena- 
bled me  to  ascertain  that  we  had  at  last  found  the  ancient  building.  On 
the  eastern  side  the  workmen  soon  reached  solid  piers  and  walls  of  brick 
masonry,  buried  under  an  enormous  mass  of  loose  bricks,  earth,  and  rub- 
bish. We  uncovered  eight  or  ten  piers  and  several  walls  branching  in  va- 
rious directions,  but  I failed  to  trace  any  plan,  or  to  discover  any  remains 
whatever  of  sculptured  stone  or  painted  plaster. 

During  the  remainder  of  my  stay  in  Babylonia  workmen  continued  to  ex- 
cavate in  this  part  of  the  mound,  uncovering  a confused  heap  of  ruin  and 
standing  masonry.  The  enormous  accumulation  of  loose  rubbish  above 
them,  not  a hard  compact  mass,  as  at  Nineveh,  but  continually  crumbling 
and  falling  in,  exposed  the  men  to  a risk  scarcely  warranted  by  the  results 
of  their  labors.  I much  doubt  whether  even  more  extensive  excavations 
would  lead  to  any  important  discoveries.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  de- 
tached inscriptions  or  sculptured  slabs  might  be  obtained. 


Jug  of  Soapstone,  from  the  Mound  of  Babel. 


RUINS  OF  BABYLON. 


431 


Chap.  XXII.] 

On  the  western  and  southern  sides  of  the  mound  were  also  discovered,  at 
the  very  base,  remains  of  solid  masonry.  The  bricks  bore  the  usual  super- 
scription of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  were  firmly  cemented  together  with  fine 
white  mortar.  It  is  thus  evident  that  a vast  edifice  once  stood  either  on  the 
level  of  the  plain,  or  raised  upon  enormous  piers  and  buttresses  of  brick- 
work, and  that  the  tombs,  and  any  traces  of  building  that  may  exist  on  or 
near  the  present  surface  of  the  mound,  are  of  a more  recent  period.  I will 
not  attempt  to  decide  whether  Babel  be  the  remains  of  a great  palace  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  of  the  celebrated  hanging  gardens,  or  of  a temple.  The 
Jews,  in  the  time  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  appear  to  have  believed  it  to  be 
the  ruins  of  the  palace,  and  near  it  was  pointed  out  the  site  of  the  burning 
fiery  furnace  in  which  Chananiah,  Mishael,  and  Asariah  (Shadrach,  Me- 
shach,  and  Abed-nego)  were  thrown  by  the  command  of  the  king.  The  ruin 
is  not  without  its  Mohammedan  tradition.  Within  it  are  suspended  by  the 
heels,  until  the  day  of  judgment,  the  two  fallen  angels,  Harut  and  Marut, 
and  the  Arabs  relate  endless  tales  of  the  evil  spirits  which  haunt  the  place. 

The  only  remains  of  building  not  covered  by  soil  and  sand,  but  still  stand- 
ing above  ground,  on  the  site  of  Babylon,  and  part  of  the  ancient  city,  are 
about  one  mile  to  the  south  of  the  mound  last  described.  It  is  the  Kasr, 
or  Palace,  of  Rich,  a name  by  which  it  is  now  generally  known  to  travel- 
lers, but  the  Arabs  call  it  the  Mujelibe,  or  the  “ overturned.”  It  rises  on 
the  river  bank,  and  is  about  seven  hundred  yards  square.  The  principal 
part  of  this  great  ruin  consists  of  loose  bricks,  tiles,  and  fragments  of  stone ; 
but  nearly  in  the  centre  a solid  mass  of  masonry,  still  entire,  and  even  re- 
taining traces  of  architectural  ornament,  protrudes  from  the  confused  heap 
of  rubbish.*  Piers,  buttresses,  and  pilasters  may  be  traced  ; but  the  work 
of  destruction  has  been  too  complete  to  allow  us  to  determine  whether  they 
belong  to  the  interior  or  exterior  of  a palace.  I sought  in  vain  for  some 
clue  to  the  general  plan  of  the  edifice.  The  bricks  are  of  a pale  yellow 
color,  and  are  not  exceeded  in  quality  by  any  found  in  the  ruins  of  Baby- 
lonia. They  are  as  firmly  bound  together  by  a fine  line  cement,  as  those 
at  the  Birs  Nimroud,  and  cannot  be  separated  entire.  Upon  nearly  every 
brick  is  clearly  and  deeply  stamped  the  name  and  titles  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  the  inscribed  face  is  always  placed  downwards.  This  wonderful  piece 
of  masonry  is  so  perfect,  and  so  fresh  in  color,  that  it  seems  but  the  work 
of  yesterday,  although  it  is  undoubtedly  part  of  a building  which  stood  in 
the  midst  of  old  Babylon. 

This  ruin  has  for  ages  been  the  mine  from  which  the  builders  of  cities 
rising  after  the  fall  of  Babylon  have  obtained  their  materials.  To  this  day 
there  are  men  who  have  no  other  trade  than  that  of  gathering  bricks  from 
this  vast  heap  and  taking  them  for  sale  to  the  neighbouring  towns  and  vil- 
lages, and  even  to  Baghdad.  There  is  scarcely  a house  in  Hillah  which  is 
not  almost  entirely  built  with  them  ; and  as  the  traveller  passes  through 

* See  woodcut  at  the  head  of  this  chapter,  taken  from  Mr.  Rich’s  collected  Mem- 
oirs by  the  permission  of  Mrs.  Rich. 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


432 


[Chap.  XXII. 


the  narrow  streets,  he  sees  in  the  walls  of  every  hovel  a record  of  the  glory 
and  power  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

To  obtain  these  materials,  the  masonry  which  had  withstood  the  decay 
of  ages  has  been  gradually  destroyed,  until  only  the  present  shapeless  mass 
remains,  whilst  the  heap  itself  has  been  tunnelled  in  every  direction  in  search 
of  such  entire  brickwork  as  may  still  exist  beneath  the  surface.  This  proc 
ess  having  now  gone  on  for  centuries,  the  ruin  has  been  more  fully  explored 
than  it  could  possibly  he  by  any  stranger  with  limited  time  and  means  at 
his  command.  Those  who  had  been  engaged  from  childhood  in  this  brick- 
trade,  assured  me  that  no  sculptures  or  inscribed  slabs  had  been  discovered 
in  their  time,  and  that  no  remains  of  stone  walls  existed  in  any  part  of  the 
mound.  The  tunnels  explored  by  my  workmen  led  to  nothing  hut  solid 
brick-masonry.  The  subterranean  passage  described  by  Rich*  still  exists, 
but  so  completely  filled  with  rubbish,  that  I was  unable  to  clear  it  entire- 
ly during  my  residence  at  Hillah.  It  is  not  more  than  seven  feet  high,  and 
looks  like  an  enormous  drain  rather  than  an  entrance  to  a great  building. 

A larger  number  of  the  fragments  of  brick  found  in  this  ruin  are  cover- 
ed with  a thick  enamel  or  glaze.  The  colors  have  resisted  the  effects  of 
time,  and  preserve  their  original  brightness.  Parts  of  figures  and  orna- 
ments may  still  he  traced  on  many  specimens.  The  principal  colors  are  a 
brilliant  blue,  red,  a deep  yellow,  white,  and  black. f We  learn  from  an- 
cient authors  that  the  walls  of  the  palaces  of  Babylon  were  painted  with 
the  figures  of  men  and  animals,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  en- 
amelled bricks  are  from  the  walls  of  an  edifice.  In  the  last  century  De 
Beauchamp,  a French  traveller,  was  told  that  a chamber  with  walls  of 
varnished  bricks  had  been  discovered  in  this  very  mound,  and  that  upon  the 
sides  of  one  of  them  were  depicted  figures  of  a cow  and  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  a story  to  which  some  credit  may  be  attached,  as  these  emblems  are 
now  known  to  he  Assyro-Babylonian.  I searched  in  vain,  however,  for 
some  traces  of  them.  Fragments  of  glass,  Babylonian  gems  and  cylinders, 
small  bronze  figures,  and  other  relics  of  this  nature  are  occasionally  found 
on  the  mound  by  the  Arabs,  and  are  bought  by  the  Jews  of  Hillah,  who  sell 
them  again  to  European  travellers. 

The  huge  lion  described  by  RichJ  and  seen  by  De  Beauchamp,  still  ex- 
ists half  buried  in  the  rubbish.  The  animal  stands  over  a man  with  out- 
stretched arms,  which  has  led  some  imaginative  travellers  to  see  in  the 
group  a representation  of  Daniel  in  the  lions’  den.  The  figures  are  in  black 
basalt,  either  so  barbarously  executed  as  to  show  very  little  progress  in  art, 
or  left  unfinished  by  the  sculptor.  It  would  scarcely  he  worth  removal. 

Near  the  northern  edge  of  the  ruin  is  the  solitary  tree  Athele,  well 

* Memoirs,  p.  64.  It  is  floored  and  walled  with  bricks,  and  covered  with  great 
blocks  of  sandstone. 

t The  nature  of  these  colors  has  been  alluded  to  in  another  part  of  this  work,  see 
not3,  p.  140.  Some  additional  remarks  will  be  found  in  an  Appendix. 

t Memoirs,  p.  64. 


FRAGMENT  OF  LIMESTONE. 


433 


Chap.  XXII.] 

known  to  the  Arabs,  and  the  source  of  various  traditions.  It  is  said  to 
have  stood  jn  the  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  and  to  have  been  saved  by 
God  from  the  general  destruction  which  overwhelmed  the  impious  city, 
that  Ali  might  tie  his  horse  to  its  trunk  after  the  defeat  of  the  enemies  of 
the  Prophet  in  the  great  battle  of  Hillah.  No  other  tree  of  the  same  kind 
exists,  according  to  the  same  tradition,  in  the  whole  world.  It  is,  howev- 
er, I believe,  a species  of  tamarisk,  whose  long  feathery  branches  tremble 
in  the  breeze  with  a melancholy  murmur  well  suited  to  the  desolate  heap 
over  which  it  may  have  waved  for  a thousand  years. 

It  was  a hopeless  task  to  excavate  in  a shapeless  heap  of  rubbish  of  such 
vast  extent,  which  had  already  been  explored  in  every  direction.  With 
the  exception  of  the  solitary  pile  of  masonry  rising  in  the  centre,  the  ruin 
consisted  of  little  else  than  of  shattered  brickwork.  I continued,  however, 
a few  of  the  tunnels  already  opened,  but  the  falling  rubbish,  which  had 
more  than  once  overwhelmed  the  seekers  after  bricks,  soon  compelled  me 
to  desist.  The  only  relic  of  any  interest  I was  fortunate  enough  to  dis- 
cover was  a fragment  of  limestone,  on  which  were  parts  of  two  figures,  un- 
doubtedly those  of  gods.  The  name  of  one  deity  is  added  in  Babylonian 
characters  to  its  sculptured  image.  It  is  probably  only  a small  portion  of 
a slab  or  frieze  containing  a series  of  similar  figures ; but  I was  unable, 
after  a careful  and  prolonged  search,  to  find  any  other  pieces.  The  frag- 
ment, however,  is  interesting,  as  showing  that  the  Babylonians  portrayed 
their  divinities  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Assyrians.  They  wear  the  same 

high  head-dress  ornamented  with 
feathers  and  rosettes,  the  long 
curled  hair  and  beard,  and  the 
embroidered  garments,  and  they 
hold  the  same  staff  with  a ring 
as  the  gods  in  the  rock  sculptures 
of  Bavian. 

With  the  exception  of  a few 
rudely  engraved  gems  and  enam- 
elled bricks,  this  was  the  only  rel- 
ic I obtained  from  the  Mujelibe. 

Excavations  were  carried  on 
for  some  days  in  the  smaller 
mounds  scattered  over  the  plain 
between  Babel  and  the  ruin  last 
described,  but  without  any  re- 
sults, except  the  discovery  of  the 
remains  of  brick  masonry,  of  a 
few  earthen  vases,  and  of  some 
fragments  of  glass. 

The  last  ruin  I examined  was 
a mound  of  great  extent,  sometimes  called  by  the  Arabs  Jumjuma,  from  a 

E E 


434 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII 


neighbouring  village  of  that  name,  and  sometimes,  as  stated  by  Rich,  Am- 
ran  ben  Ali,  from  a Koubbe,  or  small  domed  tomb,  of  a Mohammedan  saint 
on  its  summit.  No  masonry  is  here  seen  as  in  the  Mujelibe.  All  remains 
of  buildings,  if  there  be  any  still  existing,  are  deeply  buried  beneath  the 
loose  nitrous  earth.  It  is  traversed  by  innumerable  ravines,  and  its  form 
and  level  are  equally  irregular.*  I opened  trenches  in  various  parts,  but 
could  find  no  traces  of  an  edifice  of  any  kind.  Some  small  objects  of  con- 
siderable interest  were,  however,  discovered.  Although  not  of  the  true 
Babylonian  epoch,  they  are,  on  more  than  one  account,  highly  important. 

The  mound  of  Amran,  as  well  as  nearly  all  those  in  Babylonia,  had  been 
used  as  a place  of  burial  for  the  dead  long  after  the  destruction  of  the  great 
edifices  whose  ruins  it  covers.  Some  specimens  of  glass,  and  several  terra- 
cotta figures,  lamps,  and  jars,  dug  out  of  it,  are 
evidently  of  the  time  of  the  Seleucidse  or  of  the 
Greek  occupation  With  these  relics  were  five 
cups  or  bowls  of  earthenware,  and  fragments 
of  others,  covered  on  the  inner  surface  with 
letters  written  in  a kind  of  ink.  Similar  ob- 
jects had  already  been  found  in  other  Baby- 
lonian ruins  Two  from  the  collection  of  the 
late  Mr  Stewart  had  been  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  amongst  the  antiquities 
recently  purchased  by  the  Trustees  from  Col- 
onel Rawlinson  are  eight  specimens,  obtained 
at  Baghdad,  where  they  are  sometimes  offered  for  sale  by  the  Arabs  , but 
it  is  not  known  from  what  sites  they  were  brought.  The  characters  upon 
them  are  in  form  not  unlike  the  Hebrew,  and  on  some  they  resembled  the 
Sabsean  and  Syriac.  These  books  had  not  attracted  notice,  nor  had  the 
inscriptions  upon  them  been  fully  examined  before  they  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  Mr.  Thomas  Ellis,  of  the  manuscript  department  in  the  British 
Museum,  a gentleman  of  great  learning  and  ingenuity  as  a Hebrew  scholar. 
He  has  succeeded,  after  much  labor,  in  deciphering  the  inscriptions,  and  I 
will  now  give,  in  his  own  words,  an  account  of  these  singular  relics. 

“ A discovery  relating  to  the  Jews  of  the  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  con- 
sequently of  great  interest  to  Oriental  scholars,  and  especially  to  biblical 
students,  was  made  by  Mr.  Layard  during  his  second  expedition  to  Assyria. 
Amongst  the  various  curious  objects  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylonia,  were  several  bowls  or  cups  of  terra- 
cotta, round  the  inner  surface  of  which  were  inscriptions  in  the  ancient 


Earthen  Jars  found  in  Babylonian 
Ruins. 


* Rich  gives  its  dimensions  as  1100  yards  by  800,  but  the  form  is  so  irregular,  and 
it  is  so  difficult  to  determine  where  the  ruins  cease  altogether,  that,  without  a very 
careful  and  accurate  survey,  it  appeared  to  me  impossible  to  ascertain  its  exact  size. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  Mujelibe,  and  to  nearly  all  the  mounds  except  Ba- 
bel, whose  sides  are  steep  and  well-defined.  The  others  lose  themselves  almost  in- 
sensibly in  the  plain. 


JEWISH  RELICS. 


435 


Chap.  XXII.] 

Chaldsean  language,  written  in  characters  wholly  unknown,  and,  I believe, 
never  before  seen  in  Europe.  The  letters  appear  to  be  an  admixture  of  the 
Syriac  and  Palmyrine,*  and  in  some  instances  resemble  the  ancient  Phoe- 
nician. The  subjects  of  these  inscriptions  are  amulets  or  charms  against 
evil  spirits,  diseases  and  every  kind  of  misfortune.  They  must  have  been 
written  long  prior  to  any  existing  manuscripts  of  the  ancient  Hebrew  and 
Chaldsean  languages  that  we  now  know  of,  there  being  no  divisions  between 
the  words  (except  in  one  instance,  No.  5.*  where  the  iorms  of  the  letters 
would  seem  to  indicate  a later  date),  nor  are  there  any  vowel  points.  But 
the  most  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  these  inscriptions  is,  that 
the  characters  used  on  the  bowl  marked  No.  1.  answer  precisely  to  the  de- 
scription given  of  the  most  ancient  Hebrew  letters  in  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud, which  contains  an  account  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  letters  used 
by  the  Jews.  In  the  tract  Sanhedrin  we  are  told  that  the  Jews  called 
their  characters  Assyrian , rvmiDK,  and  that  they  were  brought  ivitli  them 
from  Assyria.  Abraham  de  Balmis  in  his  Hebrew  grammar  states,  that 
the  characters  calle.d  Assyrian  were  composed  of  straight  lines  : his  words 
are,  Tima  ntfx*n  mnwixn  miin^a  a*’!!©  ; the  Latin  version  of  this 
in  the  same  grammar  is,  ‘ Quia  est  recta  in  suis  Uteris  et  exivit  nobiscum 
ex  Assyria .’  The  orthography  of  these  inscriptions  is  very  defective,  and 
sometimes  pure  Hebrew  sentences  are  found  mixed  with  the  Chaldee,  espe- 
cially in  No.  5.  ; and  the  words  ‘ Halleluiah’  and  ‘ Selah’  occur  in  nearly 
every  one  of  them.  All  this  tends  to  confirm  the  opinion  that  the  writers 
were  Jews ; for  it  is  well  known  that  the  early  Christians  were  utterly 
ignorant  of  Hebrew,  nor  is  there  any  proof  that  it  was  cultivated  at  Baby- 
lon ; on  the  contrary,  it  was  at  Babylon  that  the  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  a 
spoken  language,  the  Jews  being  compelled,  by  their  lengthened  captivity, 
to  adopt  the  Chaldsean,  whilst  at  the  same  time  they  were  corrupted  by 
the  idolatry  and  superstitions  of  the  Babylonians.  The  Chaldseans  were 
formerly  famous  for  divination,  astrology,  and  witchcraft,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  the  Jews  were  not  only  led  away  by  these  practices,  but 
brought  them  with  them  into  their  own  country  ; for  we  find  that  the  Jew- 
ish captives  taken  to  Rome  by  Titus  Vespasian,  immediately  after  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  were  acquainted  with  astrology,  casting  nativities, 
and  magic.  We  are  told  this  by  Juvenal,  the  Roman  satirist. f It  is  wor- 
thy of  remark,  that  although  the  Roman  ladies  consulted  all  sorts  of  as- 
trologers and  soothsayers,  such  as  the  Armenians,  Jews,  and  those  of 
Comagena,  the  Chaldseans  were  considered  the  most  proficient  in  the  art. 
Thus  Juvenal,  in  describing  a lady  who  had  consulted  cunning  men  about 
her  nativity,  ‘ Chaldceis  sed  major  erit  fiducia : quicquid  dixerit  astro • 

* See  the  inscriptions  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Palmyra,  published  in  the  “ Phil- 
osophical Transactiqns,”  vol.  xlviii.  part  2. : their  dates  are  from  a.  d.  49  to  258,  and 
will  be  found  on  comparison  to  resemble  very  closely  the  characters  used  on  the  bowl 
No.  1. 

t See  Sat.  iii.  v.  13,  et  seq.,  Sat.  vi.  vv.  541—546. 


436 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


logus,  credent  a fonte  relatum  Ammonis ' That  is,  But  her  chief  de- 
pendence is  upon  the  Chaldcean  conjurors ; whatever  an  astrologer  of 
that  sort  pronounces , she  receives  as  an  answer  from  Jupiter  Ammon  * 
In  later  times  we  find  that  the  practices  of  magicians  in  and  about  Baby- 
lon were  not  fallen  into  disuse.  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  in  his  Travels,  states 
that  ‘j Baghdad  contained  many  wise  men , and  magicians,  proficient  in 
all  sorts  of  witchcraft'  tpiaa  ■'rs  ban  own  c^aiain  naan  ban.f  It  is 
customary  in  many  parts  of  the  East  at  the  present  day,  when  a person  is 
ill  whose  malady  baffles  the  skill  of  the  ordinary  physician,  to  send  for  a 
magician,  who  frequently  attempts  to  cure  the  patient  by  writing  a charm 
on  some  convenient  utensil,  such  as  a bowl,  plate,  or  bason,  and  command- 
ing the  sick  person  to  put  water  into  the  vessel  containing  the  charm,  and 
to  drink  it  up.  It  seems  highly*  probable  that  the  howls  from  Babylon,  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  have  been  used  for  a similar  purpose  ; one,  it  would 
seem,  contained  some  substance  like  soup,  and  had  never  been  entirely 
washed  out ! 

“ With  respect  to  the  translation  I have  only  to  state,  that  in  many 
passages  it  is  mere  conjecture,  for  the  ink  is  faded  in  so  many  places  that 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  decipher  two  sentences  together  ; hut  the  difficulty 
is  increased  tenfold  through  there  being  no  distinction  between  daleth  *1, 
resh  n,  and  frequently  lamed  b : nor  is  there  any  distinction  between  vav 
1,  zain  1,  and  medial  nun  3 ; nor  between  he  n and  cheth  Pi,  and  some- 
times tau  n is  written  like  cheth  n.  The  Syriac  inscription  on  No.  6.  has 
no  distinction  whatever  between  he  oi  and  cheth  as  may  be  seen  in  the 

word  for  and  - Aw  for  ; but  this  is  known  to 

be  a peculiarity  of  the  Sabaean  dialect.  Add  to  this,  that  many  passages 
in  amulets  of  this  kind  were  never  intended  to  be  deciphered,  being  made 
up  of  the  initial  and  final  letters  of  some  mystic  legends,  without  making 
any  sense  whatever  by  themselves.  These  abbreviations  are  very  numer- 
ous in  No.  4. 

“ In  concluding  these  remarks,  there  is  one  thing  to  which  I wish  to 
call  the  attention  of  Oriental  scholars,  namely,  the  subject  of  the  inscrip- 
tion of  No.  1.  It  is  a letter  of  dismissal , or  bill  of  divorce  to  Satan,  and 
other  evil  spirits.  The  word  used  to  express  this  is  the  very  word 

found  in  the  Talmud  to  express  the  same  thing,  aa  plural  *paa,  and  al- 
most invariably  used  for  a bill  of  divorce,  instead  of  nrvna  PEG.  (Deut- 
eronomy, xxiv.  1,  2.)  See  the  tract  Gittin  in  the  Talmud,  which  treats 
of  divorce.  That  this  is  the  true  interpretation  of  Ka^a  is  evident  from 
the  explanation  given  of  this  word  by  Bar  Bahlul  in  his  Syriac  and  Ar- 
abic lexicon,  under  he  has  the  following: — jo  j-s 

^ au-oi*-  ; t*iat  is>  ‘ ac_ 

cording  to  Bar  Serushai,  a canal;  also,  a letter  of  dismissal  or  release 

* Sat.  vi.  vv.  552 — 554.  f Asher’s  edition,  p.  105.  Heb.  text,  p.  64. 


JEWISH  RELICS. 


437 


Chap.  XXII  ] 


from  an  obligation.’  This  last  answers  precisely  to  133  in  the  Talmud. 
The  word  occurs  three  times  in  the  inscription.  The  ancient  Jews  sup- 
posed that  the  devils  or  evil  spirits  were  propagated  like  mankind  ; that  they 
eat,  and  drank,  married,  and,  it  would  seem,  quarreled  with  their  wives, 
and  divorced  them,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  remarkable  passage  : 

1 And  as  the  devils  write  bills  of  divorce,  and  give  them  to  their  wives , 

and  return  not  unto  them  again , so  you,  in  like  manner,  receive  this,  &c.’* 
“ I now  proceed  to  give  translations  of  such  bowls  as  I have  been  able 
to  decipher. 

No.  1. 


“ This  is  a bill  of  divorce  to  the  Devil,  and  to  . . . and  to  Satan,  and 
to  Nerig,  and  to  Zachiah,  and  to  Abitur  of  the  mountain,  and  to  . . . and 
to  the  night  monsters,  commanding  them  to  cease  from  Beheran  in  Bat- 
naiun,  and  from  the  country  of  the  north,  and  from  all  who  are  tormented 
by  them  therein.  Behold,  I make  the  counsels  of  these  devils  of  no  effect, 
and  annul  the  power  of  the  ruler  of  the  night-monsters. f I conjure  you 


No.  1.  An  Earthen  inscribed  Bowl,  from  Babylon.  Diameter  6 inches,  depth  3 inches. 


* See  a full  account  of  these  superstitions  in  Bartolocci’s  Bibliotheca  Rabbinica. 
t This  word  (lilith)  occurs  once  in  Isaiah  (xxxiv.  14.),  and  is  translated  in  our  ver- 
sion “ a screech  owl.”  But  these  nocturnal  monsters  were  considered  by  the  Jews 


438 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII 


all,  monsters,  . . . both  male  and  female,  to  go  forth.  I conjure  you  and 
...  by  the  sceptre  of  the  powerful  one,  who  has  power  over  the  devils, 
and  over  the  night-monsters,  to  quit  these  habitations.  Behold,  I now  make 
you  cease  from  troubling  them,  and  make  the  influence  of  your  presence 
cease  in  Beheran  of  Batnaiun,  and  in  their  fields.  In  the  same  manner  as 
the  devils  write  bills  of  divorce  and  give  them  to  their  wives,  and  return 
not  unto  them  again,  receive  ye  your  bill  of  divorce,  and  take  this  written 
authority,  and  go  forth,  leave  quickly,  flee,  and  depart  from  Beheran  in  Bat- 
naiun, in  the  name  of  the  living , by  the  seal  of  the  powerful 

one,  and  by  this  signet  of  authority.  Then  will  there  flow  rivers  of  water 
in  that  land,  and  there  the  parched  ground  will  be  watered.  Amen,  Amen, 
Amen.  Selah.” 

INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  BOWL  NO.  1.  REDUCED  TO  HEBREW  CHARACTERS. 

amo  •moabn  rrorbi  p>-n:bi  r«c bi  « . . . bi  aTttb  mm  pTi 
nra  pi  th  p^nn  TH  pro  p pbt:m  amb^bi  [t? . . . snjbi 
p-pm  prrobta  aran  ni  bia  nrva  pi  td'tt  pr^a-an 

'nniana  rimb^b  nbon  rrob*  amm  nmb*^  ran  aa^bE**  pm 
ansi  msi  imm  *oib?  a:?nra  rapia  2a  “on  2a  nn^b  ^ n'mn 
ambib  ib?  pnn»  by  triiD  aim  anM  op^m  nrmiam  panb^b 
pn  pran  nna  pi  nra  porn  ribbon  an  an  pan"rra  nn'an 
ab  mm  pnnsrb  pom*  pa^  pp©  pnron  aas  m2  pi  pn  pwn 
ipmw  impi  ipisi  parana  ibapi  paws  bip©  pmb*  pnnn 
aaiCnpni'nirTj  Dim  pn  p^ann  th  pran  nrva  p ibmai 
Dt?i  mbyn  “’barn  pn  mnpryai  np^nn  mnpryn  Vie  ^"nnn 

: nbo  pa  pa  pa  rant?  naa 

No.  2. 

“ . . . These  idols  shall  be  driven  out  of  his  house,  and  will  take  away 
these  enchanters  who  whisper. 

“*A  remedy  from  heaven  to  take  away  these  diseases,  . . . and  to  expel 
demons,  and  to  cast  out  Satan,  and  idolatry,  and  curses,  and  Nidra ; pro- 
hibiting every  male  and  female  idolator.  This  remedy  will  also  render 
secure  all  the  children  of  men  from  the  whisperings  of  the  enchanters,  and 
will  totally  subvert  them,  and  thrust  them  out  of  your  house,  and  they  shall 
go  forth  from  your  servants  also,  and  from  their  habitations  ; in  the  name 
of  Him  who  can  subvert  the  earth,  the  heavens,  the  stars,  and  planets,  and 
who  can  break  down  the  support  of  all  the  children  of  men  ; who  can  ren- 
der void  the  effects  of  witchcraft,  whether  of  the  mother,  or  of  the  daughter, 
or  of  the  daughter-in-law,  or  of  the  mother-in-law,  far  and  near,  whether 
in  the  desert  or  in  the  city.  . . . That  fell  on  his  face,  and  . ...  at  the 

to  have  been  in  the  form  of  a beautiful  female  who  lay  in  wait  for  children  by  night. 
Not  unlike  them  were  the  fabled  women  *'E1mrou<ra  and  the  ovoKeyravpoi  of  the  Greeks, 
the  lamiae  and  striges  of  the  Romans,  and  the  ghouls  of  the  Arabs,  who  are  supposed 
to  be  female  monsters  who  tear  men  in  pieces. 


JEWISH  RELICS. 


439 


Chap.  XXII.] 

knees  of  your  enemies , and  by  the  mouth  of  Levatta , . . . and  the  strong 
foundations  of  the  earth.  . . . This  amulet  puts  an  end  to  Levatta , 
whether  new  or  old  ; and  guards  from  the  whisperings  of  these  enchanters, 
in  the  name  of  Batiel  and  Qatuel.  And  by  the  guardianship  of  an  angel 
to  whom  there  are  eleven  names,  SS.  BB.  H.S.  RIH.  CCC.  ACS.  CAS. 
ID.  RIH.  HRIH.  IH.  OINI.  HCH.  Q,PH.  ANG.  PAA.  NSC.  CSC.  ICI. 
CYY.  NHA.  II.  . . . And  to  all  who  transgress  against  the  names  of  this 
ano-el,  for  by  these  names  the  captives  will  be  let  free  from  their  captivity, 
and  from  every  Nidra , Levatta , Patiki,  and  Isarta ; as  well  as  from 
every  other  evil  spirit,  the  old  one,  his  son,  and  his  daughter ; and  every 
evil  enchanter  that  causes  diseases,  and  all  kinds  of  sorrow,  and  all  the  cap 
tives  shall  be  secure  from  the  enchanters  who  whisper,  every  Nidra , Le- 
vatta.,  and  all  the  diseases  which  are  on  the  earth,  and  those  which  come 
from  heaven.  Observe  . . . the  voice  . . . the  earth  that  . . . and  heaven 
that  . . . the  names  from  this  world  . . . the  voice  of  the  woman  of  Le- 
vatta was  heard  . . . and  was  sent  to  the  kings  : for  he  will  surely  treat 
us  as  strangers , and  will  bring  vengeance  upon  us,  and  hold  us  in  cap- 
tivity, will  assuredly  ....  from  ....  of  the  woman  of  Levatta  .... 
from  thy  word,  that  thou  mayest  not  take  vengeance  upon  us,  nor  curse  us 
with  a heavier  curse  than  we  now  suffer.  Amen,  Amen,  Selah,  Amen, 
Amen,  Amen,  Amen,  Selah,  Halleluiah,  Halleluiah,  Y.Y.Y.  Beware 
V.V.Y.Y.  to  thyself  and  to  all.  . . .” 

INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  BOWL  NO.  2.  REDUCED  TO  HEBREW  CHARACTERS. 

‘pnnn  p-psia  no  prrn  mmn  p ‘ppsrn  nonon  an 
nnnsn  ‘jmw  nnama  maw  p pin  p^sb  rrarc  p anioa 
amnmai  -oin  nans  bn  poa  nnm  anmbi  nanm  wo  yipo^ 
p rrnp  npmi  psnrvn  p pmo  pr^ma  p atoma  w cm  annpi: 
nbo  ‘pbr»i  pnnp-i  inwp  pi  run  pi  mmn  pi  *p  piD  pponta 
won  mato  nncn  aona  nmcn  nncn  niton  prnonto  boi  *pmm 
aiman  anoib  nmsn  atma  w bnn  iirpoio  nmon  ^brn  won  win 
anon  nopm  annnn  nmpn  nmpi  [npnnn]  ammi  anbn-i  ariiaii 
rcnai  amb  ntaioni  .annnn  nmoni  abo:  nsa  bon  annnn  nnpn 
•pwa  p anprponi  amnn  anoib  aonnb  annnb  aio^a  aopn 
n*»b  ma-j  nnabn  an-;  ann  nmoni  b^ainpm  bwnn  niton  pi: 
spnn"nmo'nwn"nn^n''To''anona',oon,'n*n  "onnn"co  ptato  noo  -in 
•pnn  ‘oabon  annnn  ■pbn  bo  -non  bnb^an":iimn''wo"nma"aop:an 
annmai  wnoi  anmb  nnw  bn  p ^nnr  pnoa  annnto  •pbnnn 
icm  iinnon  pimn  nonn  bm  ansm  w pn  p antra  mini 
nTi  bn  p *pn-o  prora  p *jinbn  pnoai  ]bnnn  w bm  [in]mm 
ampn  ana  bp  [njntato  moo  nmiobn  bn  [np]  aonab-i  bm  anmbi 
niopaio]  an^a  bp  aobo  ‘pn  p [annta]to  wfbnnap  molten 
p m cm  labm  ba:i  anp:  mp:i  tod  pobta  nbo  anntoi  [ano]ibn 

* The  phrase  p lino  pfWtta  p ought,  perhaps,  to  be  read  p proi  TBia  ]C. 


440 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII 


arraaa  [wi]  anna  nnpn]  airb-j  annwi  p ace"! 

DipTi  abn  ‘t’-Q'i  ia[y]  p [rj]an|>iTn»]  anma  ‘loanansh]  anabi 
tn  mr^bn  rrbbn  nbo  p»  pa  p«  pa  nbo  pa  pa  ab^n  abi 

: . . . bob  [T\]Tb*  aabn  Tni  pa© 

No.  3. 

Is  an  abridgment  of  No.  2.,  with  some  slight  variations.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served, that  the  word  “ father ” (acx,  abba)  is  inserted  in  this  inscription 
before  “ mother,  daughter,”  &c.  It  is  probable  that  the  omission  of  this 
word  in  No.  2.  was  an  oversight  of  the  writer. 


No.  3.  An  Earthen  inscribed  Bowl,  from  Babylon.  Diameter  6 inches,  depth  inch- 


INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  BOWL  NO.  3.  REDUCED  TO  HEBREW  CHARACTERS. 

p 'pfib’-D  poa  anabi  ‘na^nai  aao  p[p]^i  •nana'H  pnan 
D*cn  »rapi3  pw  ‘na^na  ba  anmbn  pa  p ‘pma  ■pnaaa 

by  *jbn  pa  prim  p pma  p'-naa  p pnba  poa  a©3*ia  an  ba 
naia  won  ma©  man  naan  naan  nn©n  pna*n©a  bn  pinir 
aam  anan  ana-ib  n*n©n  a©*»a  “»an  ban  pna?©  na^an  ^bra  naan** 
nap^i  snmn  nap  nnnpp  npmn  rrn©  anarm  anban  amnm 


JEWISH  RELICS. 


441 


Chap.  XXII.] 

nnmnni  KbsD  nsx  bn  mm  annn  tabm  mm  smn  ampn  annn 
»rnm  anmb  xannb  KD^mo^bnn  "^pn.K  «n«i  az:b  rrcn&ni  kdd*j 
nn  mb  man  naxba  an  nimton  p •pmn  pn^srra  p Kpnm  an 
K&pmn  m'so*  mYn  mm''oKnn',&n',Knnn''n‘nD  ann'oo  pain  m? 
poa  pb*^  annato  pbn  by  m n bnb[ijKimDntomn  cn  ddk  K5p2K 
p anirnn  mm  bm  stnnD^i  imrrsi  Ktmibi  itpo  bn  p mm 
pioai  “jbnna  “’Da  bm  ‘imm  mn  jn^a  mn  mm  bm  anoni  an  pr 
•jan  immi  pi  nm  pninn  11m  pi  p pnp]n  pmsn  p pbn 
pnn  p nmn  amra  mamb*i  bm  K*np  ay-iabi  bm  imm"*1  *>  m 
npni  nnm  pba  nby  srm  m<m  anaib  mm  anrpK  bp  aaby 
annib  imtoi  Kaib*j  Ktimam  m"oom  aa  i'ooi  pbma  bail  ^api 


“ y.y.y.V.  Beware  of  the  diseases  which  are  upon  thee,  and  upon  . . . 
from  all  evil  diseases  Y.Y.Y.Y.  . . . sorrow  and  bodily  infirmities  from  now 
even  for  ever.  A remedy  from  heaven  against  the  whisperings  of  enchant- 
ers who  are  not  far  hence,  and  also  against  demons.  This  amulet  will  de- 
liver you  from  evil  sorcerers  and  from  Abdi,  and  from  Levatta , and  tribu- 
lations, from,  the  machinations  of  the  Assyrians , and  from  extremities , and 
from  treachery , and  from  rebellion , from  Shoq,  and  from  Nidra,  and  the 
sorrows  of  all  the  children  of  Adam.  And  thy  petition  shall  be  in  the  name 

of  Barakiel,  Ramiel,  Raamiel,  Nahabiel,  and  Sharmiel will  take 

vengeance  . . . these  nine  angels  will  guard  and  protect  you  from  evil  en- 
chanters, and  from  Abdi  the  powerful,  and  from  the  nets  of  the  enchanters 

that  whisper,  and  from  ...  in  heaven and  Nura.  Amen.  Amen. 

Selah.  y.y.y.y.  Beware  V.Y.Y.Y Y.Y.Y.Y.  Beware from 

now  even  for  [ever].  A remedy  . . . against  the  enchanters  who  whisper, 
who  are  not  far  from  hence,  and  also  against  demons  ....  and  from  Le- 
vat[ta\,  ....  tribulation,  from  Asdarta,  from  the  machinations  of  the  As 
Syrians , from  extremities , and  from  treachery , and  from  rebellion , from 
Shoq,  and  from  Nidra  ....  of  all  the  children  of  men  ...  in  the  name  of 
Barhiel  . . . — miel  . . . — miel,  Raamiel  . . . — kiel,  Sharmie[l,  AJshriel 

against  evil  enchanters  and  from  Abdi  the  powerful,  and  from  the 

nets  of  . . 

INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  BOWL  NO.  4.  REDUCED  TO  HEBREW  CHARACTERS. 

pun  mo  1111  ain  mn  bna  pma  ^by  aabminiw  p min  1111 
pm  mb*!  p pmn  pmsab  mam  p amoa  nbiy  mi  nnya  nnaim 
p arpai  Ktitnib  pi  *nnyai  mm  min  p bnn  Kin  pmmbi  mn 
amo  pi  pm  p amana  pi  anabina  pi  anmna  pi  armna 
b^aayn  b^aw  bwpnn  niton  riinn  pmi  ma  an  bn*i  arvnpi 
pnaba  yimn  pb^a  oipmi  oiobp  ppimai  ppm  b^^nn  barnn: 
pmpn  pmyai  pimn  pnnb  pinir  pm  pna  pnn  pm[a]ni  pna 


442 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


cm  oism  ma©a  mm  pi  p [pn]-o  pTDnm  msip]  p 
[is]  ini  ics  1111  nbo  p«  p»  am:i  v«m[^b]  dtotoidtioti 

anica  mn  nns  p amain  p xn *tq©  mi  ‘irnr  mbsasanb 

Db  pi [a]  pro^bi  5©  pm  tt»br  p pro  pm&rab  amo 

p arrana  pi  arrob©a  pi  armna  p anmoa  p anp:a .... 
. . . b^a©  . . . b-’amnn  Di©n  ....  ©ra  ^n  bm  . . . aim  pi  pi© 
p . . ppmai  ppm  b»a*n©[a  ^■'cici  b^a-o  . . . ©m  b“>a©  . . . 
nbo  pa  pa  . . . am  rwifr]  p psnpn  pms©i  ptnn  p©nnb 

: pa  mbbn 


No.  5. 

“ An  approved  amulet  confirmed  and  sealed  by  divine  authority,  which 
is  of  powerful  efficacy  to  those  who  read  it,  and  to  those  at  Posikiah,  and 
to  all  who  dwell  therein  ; to  preserve  from  Nidra , and  from  sorcery,  and 


Bowl  No.  5.  Diameter  4j|  inches,  depth  2|  inches. 

from  enchanters,  and  from  Levatta , and  from  the  waters  of  pollution,  and 
from  burning  sores,  and  from  all  kinds  of  blemishes  both  natural  and  arti- 
ficial, and  from  evil  spirits  both  male  and  female,  and  from  an  evil  eye, 
and  from  enchantments  both  of  men  and  women.  In  the  name  of  Babnaa, 
Ninikia,  and  Umanel.  These  are  their  forms  ....  by  these  angels  . . . 


JEWISH  RELICS. 


443 


Chap.  XXII.] 

will  take  away  the  mist  . . . and  dispel  darkness  and  tribulation.  There 
names  ....  [Amen]  Amen.  Selah.”* * 


INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  BOWL  NO.  5.  REDUCED  TO  HEBREW  CHARACTERS. 


tfjrotn  WBpn  Dnrai  dinn  fa  pn  wap  [anpid 

pi  inro  pa  rrci  ‘pT-n  bdbi  mp^DiD^bi  ipb  i-pb  nirmnid 
pai  ‘0*0?  aria  pi  pDD  ana  pi  a nDib  pi  ^nn  pi  an&ipTO 
nnpsi  ‘idt  wi  mi  pi  pw  abn  ‘pTnsn  bD  pi  an&nnD 
awron  Dim  nmi  ima  didtdd  pi  w py  pi 
‘prvtmp  pb»  ^ab^D  rvnapjn  pin  ypiprc  p]n  12  pin  bamia 
pa  [pa  omiaiD]  pma©  pia  bin?  ntJim  Dip  Dip  bnp  pTDa 

j nbo 

No.  6. 


AN  INSCRIPTION  ON  A BOWL  IN  A DIALECT  RESEMBLING  THE  SABJEAN. 

“ all  fears,  and  against  all  sicknesses,  and  against  all 

night-monsters who  will  receive  for  himself  good,  hut  for 

wickedness and  these  mysteries  ....  who  shall  rise  up  and 

kill  him and  falling  into  flames,  and  was  heard and 

would  rejoice  to  have  his  thirst  quenched  . . . and  immediately  the  broth- 
er to  this  man  came,  and  being  compassionate,  he  took  him  to  his  own 

habitation and  the  altar  called  Sauta and  good  fortune 

called  Sauto.  Hear  ye  then  the  words  of  your  fathers,  and  despise  them 
not ; for  by  disobedience you  will  he  punished,  and  into  burn- 

ing fire.  Believe  ye,  therefore,  and  keep  these  words.  Amen,  and  Amen. 
Selah.” 

After  this  follows  a duplicated  Estranghelo  Syriac  alphabet,  then  a ser- 
pent is  drawn  round  the  inner  margin,  close  to  the  rim. 


INSCRIPTION  ON  THE  BOWL  NO.  6.  REDUCED  TO  SYRIAC  CHARACTERS. 

^03  'Vl.O  1^51  'VAo  jZiAAfil  ^>0.3 

] **Lo  UcJulO  ro  w*3 lJlLo  )Aj£l£  <TU^.j  5 

r?o  aAt.  i r;  ctl!^  j.3o  j-— « w^J  a£c). . . j|]9C 

[a]aoa,  j.ln_^AaAo  'VaJ  |??ti  j 

* This  amulet  is  called  a earned,  riprap ; which  is  the  word  usually  employed  by 

the  Jews  to  denote  a charm  or  a protector  from  the  wiles  of  Satan  and  other  evil 
spirits,  as  well  as  from  bodily  infirmities,  &c.  This  word  is  found  in  the  Talmud. 
For  specimens  of  a modern  Jewish  earned , see  a book  entitled  “ Raziel,”  or  the  rev- 
elations which  the  angel  Raziel  gave  to  Adam.  Some  expressions  in  this  earned  are 
found  to  correspond  exactly  with  those  used  in  that  book,  and  especially  the  names 
of  angels  ending  with  el,  as  may  be  seen  in  No.  4.  Some  sentences  in  this  earned 
are  in  pure  Hebrew  : this  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  that  the  Jews  believed  that, 
the  devil  did  not  understand  the  Chaldaean  language  ; so  that,  by  a judicious  admix- 
ture of  foreign  words,  he  would  not  be  able  to  make  out  what  the  earned  was  intended 
to  protect,  and  thus  be  frustrated  from  attempting  to  hinder  the  requests  contained 
therein  from  being  granted ! 


444 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


, . . joCl  1-ftJl^  U»|  1,^2  3 ]t-»  j.AA^OO  IJ. S-^O  '^-s] [-^]— 

[lj^^  or]  V^Z.  |Zo^  Ij-oAZo  l-*z:,Zco  1-0  l-o?5r^  l[r]SQ“*  l^-^>  iHr^ 

\cZZo  ^o-Zo-aZ  [3 o ^i£ic|  jLZo  rZ.V.Ao  cZc.  |j_o£Zo  j^o  jj»[i]l 

*?ci  ILZo  [o]^[j]o  oZn.*^]  ci£^£uJz..ao  ,c_o-Jzz  ei  £T? 

0.0  01  Cl  ,.?  uQ2  j.j  S_*JZ£7  V-1  ^Zci[|]ouZi  bo  5 j-O  [j.]^Zo9C 

ZZZZZ  Z-a  Z-a  5 j-o-o  'U.ar  'ZZr^J  'VIzZo  u>  w'Z  >] 


Bowl  No.  6.  Diameter  5 inches,  depth  3 inches. 


No.  7. 

GENERAL  CONTENTS  OF  THE  INSCRIPTIONS  ON  THE  FRAGMENTS. 

“ A remedy  from  heaven  to  take  away  fevers  and  diseases,  and  to  guard 
from  sudden  death,  from  injustice  and  treachery  ; and  will  loosen  the  bonds 
of  those  who  are  afflicted,  from  the  machinations  of  the  devil  and  all  evil 
spirits.  By  the  instrumentality  of  this  amulet  you  are  protected  from  the 
wiles  of  Satan,  who  is  constrained  and  under  the  control  of  a mighty  an- 
gel, to  whom  there  are  eleven  names.  [Here  follow  mysterious  and  cabal- 
istic names,  made  up  of  the  initial  letters  of  mystic  legends,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  modern  Jews  of  the  East  and  West  make  their  portable  am- 
ulets, and  which  are  never  meant  to  be  understood  by  any  one,  not  even 


THE  JEWS  OF  BABYLON. 


445 


Chap.  XXII.l 

by  the  writer.  All  the  fragments,  which  are  written  in  the  characters  re- 
sembling the  Palmyrine,  finish  the  charm  by  invocations  to  good  angels 
and  genii,  as  follows.]  I charge  you  in  the  name  of  Nadkiel,  Ramiel, 
Damael,  Hachael,  and  Sharmiel.  Amen.  Amen.  Amen.  Selah.  Amen 
[On  one  of  them]  Halleluiah,  Amen.” 


Such  then  are  the  contents  of  the  inscriptions  on  these  curious  bowls  as 
deciphered  by  Mr.  Ellis.  Little  doubt  can,  I think,  exist  as  to  their  Jew- 
ish origin  : and  such  being  the  case,  there  is  no  reason  to  question  their 
having  belonged  to  the  descendants  of  those  Jews  who  were  carried  cap- 
tive by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylon  and  the  surrounding  cities.  These 
strangers  appear  to  have  clung  with  a tenacity  peculiar  to  their  race  to  the 
land  of  their  exile.  We  can  trace  them  about  Babylon  from  almost  the  time 
of  their  deportation  down  to  the  twelfth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  when 
the  Hebrew  traveller,  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  wandered  over  the  regions  of 
the  East  and  among  the  cities  of  the  captivity  to  seek  the  remnant  of  his 
ancient  nation.  During  the  Persian  dominion  in  Mesopotamia  we  find 
them  enduring  tortures  and  persecution  rather  than  help  to  rebuild  a tem- 
ple dedicated  to  a false  god.*  In  the  time  of  the  Roman  supremacy  in  the 
East  they  appear  to  have  been  a turbulent  race,  rebelling  against  their  ru- 
lers and  waging  civil  war  amongst  themselves. f They  had  celebrated 
schools  in  many  cities  of  Assyria  and  Chaldsea. 

As  early  as  the  third  century  Hebrew  travellers  visited  Babylon,  and 
some  of  them  have  left  records  of  the  state  of  their  countrymen.  The 
Babylonian  Talmud,  compiled  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  con- 
tains many  valuable  notices  of  the  condition  of  the  Jewish  colonies  in  Bab- 
ylonia, and  enumerates  more  than  two  hundred  Babylonian  towns  then  un- 
der the  Persian  rule,  inhabited  by  Jewish  families.  In  manuscripts  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries  we  have  further  mention  of  these  colonies. $ 

In  the  twelfth  century,  Benjamin  of  Tudela  found  no  less  than  twenty 
thousand  Jews  dwelling  within  twenty  miles  of  Babylon,  and  worshipping 
in  the  synagogue,  built,  according  to  tradition,  by  the  prophet  Daniel  him- 
self. In  Hillah  alone  were  ten  thousand  persons  and  four  synagogues, 
and  he  gives  the  number  of  families  and  of  their  places  of  worship,  in 
every  town  he  visited,  keeping  during  his  journey  an  exact  daily  itinerary, 
which  includes  nearly  all  the  stations  on  the  modern  caravan  routes.  Al- 
lowing for  some  exaggeration  on  the  part  of  this  traveller,  it  is  still  evident 
that  a very  considerable  Jewish  population  lived  in  the  cities  of  Babylonia. 

* Josephus  against  Appian,  1.  i.  cviii.  The  Jewish  historian  quotes  from  Hecataeus, 
who  gives  a characteristic  account  of  the  attachment  of  the  Jews  to  their  faith, 
f They  were  subdued  by  Lusius  Quietus  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Trajan, 
t See  Dr.  Zunz’s  valuable  essay  on  the  Geographical  Literature  of  the  Jews,  in  the 
2d  vol.  of  Asher’s  Itinerary  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela. 


446 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII. 


It  has  greatly  diminished,  and  in  some  places  has  entirely  disappeared.  A 
few  families  still  linger  at  Hillah,  and  in  Baghdad  the  principal  native 
trade  and  money  transactions  are  carried  on  by  Jews,  who  are  the  bankers 
and  brokers  of  the  governors  of  the  city,  as  they  no  doubt  anciently  were  of 
the  Abasside  Caliphs. 

According  to  their  own  tradition  these  Hebrew  families  were  descended 
from  the  Jews  of  the  captivity.  They  still  preserved  their  pedigrees,  and 
traced  their  lineage  to  the  princes  and  prophets  of  Judah.  Their  chief  re- 
sided at  Baghdad,  and  his  title  was  “ Lord  Prince  of  the  Captivity.”  He 
was  lineally  descended,  according  to  his  people,  from  king  David  himself. 
Even  Mohammedans  acknowledged  his  claim  to  this  noble  birth,  and  called 
him  “ Our  Lord,  the  son  of  David.”  His  authority  extended  over  the  coun- 
tries of  the  East  as  far  as  Thibet  and  Hindostan.  He  was  treated  on  all 
occasions  with  the  greatest  honor  and  respect,  and  when  he  appeared  in 
public  he  wore  robes  of  embroidered  silk,  and  a white  turban  encircled  by 
a diadem  of  gold.* 

We  may  then  safely  conclude,  that  these  earthen  bowls  belonged  to  Jews 
of  Babylonia  and  Chaldea.  Indeed  in  one  of  the  inscriptions  (No.  2.)  the 
writer  appears  to  call  those  for  whom  the  charm  was  intended  the  “ people 
of  the  captivity a title  which  was  preserved  amongst  the  Jews  of  Mes- 
opotamia until  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century.  Similar  relics  have 
been  found  as  I have  stated  in  many  ruins  near  Babylon.  I discovered  an 
entire  bowl,  as  well  as  many  fragments,  at  NifFer.  Nearly  at  the  same 
time,  several  were  dug  out  of  a mound  about  half-way  between  Baghdad 
and  Hillah,  but  they  were  unfortunately  dispersed  or  destroyed  before  I 
could  obtain  possession  of  them.  On  all  these  sites  during  the  first  centu- 
ries of  the  Christian  sera,  dwelt  Jewish  families.  It  would  appear  that  the 
charms  were  either  the  work  of  stranger  Jews,  or  were  written  in  Babylo- 
nia for  persons  who  had  come  from  a distance.  The  two  cities  or  towns 
mentioned  on  the  bowls,  numbered  1 and  5,  were  in  the  north  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. Batnaiun  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the  early  Christian  fathers. 
It  was  near  Edessa,  the  modern  Orfa,  and  was  at  one  time  well  known  by 
its  Arabic  name  of  Serug.f  Pozikiah  appears  to  have  been  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, near  Samosate,  and  consequently  not  far  from  Batnaiun.  A Chris- 
tian convent  stood  there  at  a very  early  period. f The  bowls  must,  there- 
fore, either  have  been  brought  from  those  places  to  Babylon,  or  were  pre- 
pared for  some  of  their  inhabitants  by  Babylonish  Jews,  who,  like  the  Chal- 
dseans,  amongst  whom  they  dwelt,  appear  to  have  been  celebrated  for  their 
skill  in  the  art  of  writing  charms.  The  Sabsean  characters  on  one  of  the 
cups  tends  to  show  that  the  latter  was  the  case.  I may  remark  that  the 
two  names  were  deciphered  by  Mr.  Ellis  before  he  was  aware  of  the  exist- 

* Benjamin  of  Tudela’s  Travels;  and  see  Milman’s  History  of  the  Jews,  book 
xix.  &c. 

t Assemani  (Bibl.  Orient,  vol.  i.  p.  283.)  gives  a full  account  of  this  town. 

t See  Assemani,  vol.  ii.  p.  359. 


JEWISH  INSCRIPTIONS. 


447 


Chap.  XXII.] 

ence  of  the  places,  a satisfactory  proof  in  favor  of  the  general  correctness  of 
his  interpretations. 

As  no  date  whatever  is  found  in  the  inscriptions,  it  is  difficult  to  determ- 
ine the  exact  time  when  they  were  written.  We  must  endeavour  to  form 
some  opinion  upon  such  internal  evidence  as  they  may  afford.  Mr.  Ellis 
remarks,  that,  “ as  this  is  the  first  time  anything  of  the  kind  has  been  ex- 
amined in  Europe,  he  can  only  hazard  a conjecture  from  the  forms  of  the 
letters,  which  are,  certainly,  the  most  ancient  known  specimens  of  the  Chal- 
dsean,  and  appear  to  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  writing  the  cu- 
neiform character  in  a more  cursive  and  expeditious  manner.”*  In  sup- 
port of  this  conjecture  he  cites  the  language  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  as 
closely  resembling  that  on  the  bowls.  The  relics,  however,  are  evidently 
of  different  dates.  The  most  ancient  seems  to  be  that  containing  “ the 
Bill  of  Divorce  to  the  Devils”  (No.  1.).  It  might  be  referred  to  the  sec- 
ond or  third  century  before  Christ,  but  may  be  of  a later  period.  Others, 
such  as  No.  5.  and  No.  6.  are  undoubtedly  of  a more  recent  date,  and  might 
even  have  been  written  as  late  as  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  The  Syriac 
characters  on  the  latter  bowl  appear  to  have  marks  of  a Sabsean  or  Men- 
dean  origin,  and  on  a bowl  from  Mr.  Stewart’s  collection  there  is  an  in- 
scription, unfortunately  almost  destroyed  and  no  longer  decipherable,  in  that 
peculiar  character  still  used  by  the  Sabseans  of  Susiana. 

In  the  forms  of  expression  and  in  the  names  of  the  angels,  these  inscrip- 
tions bear  a striking  analogy  to  the  apocryphal  book  of  Enoch,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  a Jew  of  the  captivity,  shortly  before  the 
Christian  era.  That  singular  rhapsody  also  mentions  the  “ sorceries,  in- 
cantations, and  dividing  of  roots  and  trees,”  which  appear  to  have  been 
practised  by  the  Jews  at  that  period,  and  to  be  alluded  to  on  the  bowls. f 

As  to  the  original  use  of  these  vessels  it  is  not  improbable,  as  conjectur- 
ed by  Mr.  Ellis,  that  the  writing  was  to  be  dissolved  in  water,  to  be  drank 
as  a cure  against  disease,  or  a precaution  against  the  arts  of  witchcraft 
and  magic.  Similar  remedies  are  still  resorted  to  in  the  East  in  cases  of 
obstinate  illness,  and  there  are  Mullahs  who  make  the  preparation  of  such 
charms  their  peculiar  profession.  The  modern  inscriptions  generally  con- 
sist of  sentences  from  the  Koran,  interspersed  with  various  mystic  signs  and 
letters.  But  if  such  was  their  object  it  is  evident  that  they  could  not  have 
been  used  for  that  purpose,  as  the  writing  upon  them  is  perfectly  fresh,  and 
it  is  essential  that  it  should  be  entirely  washed  into  the  water  to  make 
the  remedy  efficacious.  As  they  were  found  at  a considerable  depth  be- 

* The  form  of  the  letters  certainly  approach  the  cuneiform  character  when  writ- 
ten with  simple  lines,  as  it  is  sometimes  seen  on  Assyrian  relics  and  monuments. 
(See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  179.)  I am  not,  however,  at  present  ready 
to  admit  that  the  early  Chaldee  square  letters  were  derived  from  this  source. 

t See  Book  of  Enoch  translated  by  Bishop  Lawrence,  particularly  chap.  vii.  sect. 
2.  and  chap,  lxviii.  Among  the  names  of  the  angels  who  came  down  to  the  daughters 
of  men  and  instructed  them  in  sorcery  and  the  magic  arts,  we  find  Tamiel,  Agheel, 
Azael,  and  Ramiel,  and  Raamiel,  as  on  the  bowls  No.  2 and  3. 


448 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXII 


neath  the  surface  in  mounds  which  had  undoubtedly  been  used  as  places 
of  sepulture,  I am  rather  inclined  to  believe  that  they  were  charms  buried 
with  the  dead,  or  employed  for  some  purpose  at  funeral  ceremonies,  and  aft- 
erwards placed  in  the  grave. 

In  conclusion,  I will  only  observe  that  the  inscriptions  in  the  woodcuts 
are  as  nearly  as  possible  facsimiles  of  the  originals,  though  reduced  in  size, 
and  that  they  were  copied  with  the  greatest  care  by  Mr.  Scharf,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Ellis.  I trust,  therefore,  that  Hebrew  scholars 
may  he  induced  to  examine  their  contents,  and  to  investigate  further  the 
history  and  date  of  these  very  curious  relics. 


Terracotta  Tablet  from  Babylon,  representing  an  Indian  Dog. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

STATE  OF  THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON. CAUSE  OF  THE  DISAPPEARANCE  OF  BUILDINGS. 

NATURE  OF  ORIGINAL  EDIFICES. BABYLONIAN  BRICKS. — THE  HISTORY  OF  BABYLON. 

ITS  FALL. ITS  REMARKABLE  POSITION. COMMERCE. CANALS  AND  ROADS. SKILL  OF 

BABYLONIANS  IN  THE  ARTS. ENGRAVED  GEMS. — CORRUPTION  OF  MANNERS,  AND  CON- 
SEQUENT FALL  OF  THE  CITY. THE  MECCA  PILGRIMAGE. — SHEIKH  IBN  RESHID. THE 

GEBEL  SHAMMAR. TRIBES  OF  SOUTHERN  MESOPOTAMIA. THE  MOUNDS  OF  EL  HYMER 

OF  ANANA. 

Such  then  were  the  discoveries  amongst  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylon. 
They  were  far  less  numerous  and  important  than  I could  have  anticipated, 
nor  did  they  tend  to  prove  that  there  were  remains  beneath  the  heaps  ot 
earth  and  rubbish  which  would  reward  more  extensive  excavations.  It 
was  not  even  possible  to  trace  the  general  plan  of  any  one  edifice  ; only 
shapeless  piles  of  masonry,  and  isolated  walls  and  piers,  were  brought  to 
light — giving  no  clue  whatever  to  the  original  form  of  the  buildings  to 
which  they  belonged.  If  the  tradition  be  true  that  Xerxes,  to  punish  the 
Babylonians  and  humiliate  their  priests,  ordered  them  utterly  to  destroy 
their  temples  and  other  great  public  edifices,  and  that  Alexander  the  Great 
employed  10,000  men  in  vain  to  clear  away  the  rubbish  from  the  temple 

F F 


450 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XXIII. 


of  Belus  alone,*  it  is  not  surprising  that  with  a small  hand  of  Arabs  little 
progress  should  have  been  made  in  uncovering  any  part  of  the  ancient 
buildings. 

No  sculptures  or  inscribed  slabs,  the  panelling  of  the  walls  of  palaces, 
have  been  discovered  amongst  the  ruins  of  Babylon  as  in  those  of  Nine- 
veh. Scarcely  a detached  figure  in  stone,  or  a solitary  tablet,  has  been  dug 
out  of  the  vast  heaps  of  rubbish.  “ Babylon  is  fallen,  is  fallen ; and  all  the 
graven  images  of  her  gods  he  hath  broken  unto  the  ground.”! 

The  complete  absence  of  such  remains  is  to  he  explained  by  the  nature 
of  the  materials  used  in  the  erection  of  even  the  most  costly  edifices.  In 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Babylon  there  were  no  quarries  of  alabaster,  or  of 
limestone,  such  as  existed  near  Nineveh.  The  city  was  built  in  the  midst 
of  an  alluvial  country,  far  removed  from  the  hills.  The  comparatively  re- 
cent deposits  of  the  mighty  rivers  which  have  gradually  formed  the  Mes- 
opotamian plains  consist  of  a rich  and  very  thick  clay.  Consequently 
stone  for  building  purposes  could  only  he  obtained  from  a distance.  The 
black  basalt,  a favorite  material  amongst  the  Babylonians  for  carving  de- 
tached figures,  and  for  architectural  ornaments,  as  appears  from  numerous 
fragments  found  amongst  the  ruins,  came  from  the  Kurdish  mountains,  or 
from  the  north  of  Mesopotamia.  It  was  probably  floated  down  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  on  rafts  from  those  districts.  Limestone  of  an  inferior 
quality  might  have  been  quarried  nearer  to  the  city,  but  it  seems  to  have 
been  little  used  for  building  purposes.  The  Assyrian  alabaster  could  have 
been  brought  from  Nineveh,  and  the  water  communication  by  the  rivers 
and  canals  offered  great  facilities  for  transport;  yet  enormous  labor  and 
expense  would  have  been  required  to  supply  such  materials  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  construct  an  entire  edifice,  or  even  to  panel  the  walls  of  its 
chambers. 

The  Babylonians  were,  therefore,  content  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
building  materials  which  they  found  on  the  spot.  With  the  tenacious  mud 
of  their  alluvial  plains,  mixed  with  chopped  straw,  they  made  bricks,  whilst 
bitumen  and  other  substances  collected  from  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
furnished  them  with  an  excellent  cement.  A knowledge  of  the  art  of 
manufacturing  glaze,  and  of  compounding  colors,  enabled  them  to  cover 
their  bricks  with  a rich  enamel,  thereby  rendering  them  equally  ornamental 
for  the  exterior  and  interior  of  their  edifices.  The  walls  of  their  palaces 
and  temples  were  also  coated,  as  we  learn  from  several  passages  in  the 
Bible,  with  mortar  and  plaster,  which,  judging  from  their  cement,  must 
have  been  of  very  fine  quality.  The  fingers  of  the  man’s  hand  wrote  the 
words  of  condemnation  of  the  Babylonian  empire  “ upon  the  plaster  of  the 
wall  of  the  king’s  palace.”!  Upon  those  walls  were  painted  historical 
and  religious  subjects,  and  various  ornaments,  and,  according  to  Diodorus 
Siculus,  the  bricks  were  enamelled  with  the  figures  of  men  and  animals. 

* Strabo,  lib.  xvi.  p.  1049.  Oxf.  ed.  Arrian,  lib.  vii.  17.  t Isaiah,  xxi.  9. 

f Daniel,  v.  5 


Chap.  XXIII.] 


TABLET  OF  NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 


451 


Images  of  stone  were  no  doubt  introduced  into  the  buildings.  We  learn 
from  the  Bible  that  figures  of  the  gods  in  this  material,  as  well  as  in  metal, 
were  kept  in  the  Babylonian  temples.  But  such  sculptures  were  not  com- 
mon, otherwise  more  remains  of  them  must  have  been  discovered  in  the 
ruins. 

On  one  of  the  most  important  Babylonian  relics  brought  to  this  country 
we  have  some  highly  curious  notices  of  the  architecture  of  the  Babyloni- 
ans. They  are  contained  in  tablets  inscribed  upon  a black  stone,  and  di- 
vided into  ten  columns.  The  inscription  commences,  according  to  Dr. 
Hincks,  with  the  name  and  titles  of  Nebuchadnezzar  the  Great,  whose 
reign  began,  it  may  be  inferred  from  Ptolemy’s  canon,  b.  c.  604.  He  is 
called  “ Nabukudurruchur,  king  of  Babylon,  son  of  Nabubaluchun,  king  of 
Babylon.”  We  may  infer  that  his  grandfather  was  not  a king  from  the 
omission  of  his  name.  The  subsequent  part  of  the  inscription  contains  no 
notice  of  any  foreign  conquests,  but  speaks  of  the  building  of  various  tem- 
ples and  palaces  in  addition  to  the  walls  of  Babylon  and  Borsippa.  Men- 
tion is  also  made  of  works  undertaken  at  Bit-Shaqqathu  and  Bit-Zida  ;* 
but  whether  these  were  distinct  cities  may  be  doubted.  Minute  details 
are  given  of  the  various  ornaments  used  in  some  of  the  temples  and  pal- 
aces, and  these  decorations  appear  to  have  been  very  rich.  If  the  tablets 
could  be  completely  deciphered,  and  the  meaning  of  many  doubtful  words 
accurately  ascertained,  much  information  would  be  obtained  relating  to 
Babylonian  architecture.  The  walls  were  built  of  burned  bricks  and  bit- 
umen lined  with  gypsum  and  other  materials.  Some  seem  to  have  been 
wainscotted.  Over  these  walls  was  woodwork,  and  on  the  top  an  awning 
sustained  by  poles,  like  “the  white,  green,  and. blue  hangings,  fastened 
with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to  silver  rings,  and  pillars  of  marble,” 
in  Ahasuerus’  palace  at  Shushan.f  Some  of  the  woodwork  is  said  to  have 
> been  gilt,  other  parts  silvered  : and  a large  portion  of  it  was  brought  from 
Lebanon. 

Marduk  appears  in  this  inscription  as  the  principal  deity  of  Babylon, 
holding  the  place  that  Ashur  does  on  the  monuments  of  Nineveh.  He  is 
called  “ the  great  Lord,”  “ Lord  of  Lord,”  “ Elder  of  the  Gods,”  &c.  Nebu 
seems  to  hold  the  second  rank.  The  king  offers  him  thanksgiving  for  what 
he  has  already  done,  and  prays  for  his  blessing  on  himself  and  his  house.:}: 

It  may  be  conjectured  that  in  their  general  plan  the  Babylonian  palaces 

* The  first  name  may  mean  the  “house  of  peace”  (compare  Hebrew  Opl£0>  the 
second  “ the  house  of  pride,”  or  “ the  house  of  enlargement.”  The  two  places  are 
mentioned  together  in  a fragment  of  the  annals  of  Pul  (B.  M.  Series,  34.  6.).  On 
Lord  Aberdeen’s  stone  Bit-Shaqqathu  is  called  “ the  palace  of  the  Gods,”  and  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Babylon ; whilst  on  Grotfend’s  cylinder  the  Gods  of  the 
two  places  are  spoken  of  as  distinct  from  each  other.  (Dr.  Hincks.) 

t Esther,  i.  6. 

t This  inscription  was  obtained  from  some  rums  near  Baghdad  by  Sir  Harford 
Jones,  and  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  East  India  Company.  A facsimile  of  it  has 
been  published. 


452 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIII. 


and  temples  resembled  those  of  Assyria.  We  know  that  the  arts,  the  re- 
ligion, the  customs,  and  the  laws  of  the  two  kindred  people  were  nearly 
identical.  They  spoke,  also,  the  same  language,  and  used,  very  nearly, 
the  same  written  characters.  One  appears  to  have  borrowed  from  the  oth- 
er ; and,  without  attempting  to  decide  the  question  of  priority  of  independ- 
ent existence  as  a nation  and  of  civilisation,  it  can  he  admitted  that  they 
had  to  a certain  extent  a common  origin,  and  that  they  maintained  for 
many  centuries  an  intimate  connection.  We  find  no  remains  of  columns 
at  Babylon,  as  none  have  been  found  at  Nineveh.  If  such  architectural 
ornaments  were  used,  they  must  have  been  either  of  wood  or  of  brick. 
The  massy  pillars,  with  Egyptian-like  capitals,  usually  chosen  by  artists 
for  the  restoration  of  Belshazzar’s  palaces  and  temples,  are  the  mere  crea- 
tions of  fancy,  and  are  not  warranted  by  any  existing  remains  whatever.* 
The  Babylonian  column  more  probably  resembled,  in  form  and  proportions, 
that  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis.  It  may  have  been  a modification  of  the 
Assyrian  which  afterward  gave  birth  to  the  Persian,  for  it  was  through 
Babylon  that  the  arts  appear  to  have  penetrated  partly,  if  not  entirely,  into 
Persia. 

Although  the  building  materials  thus  used  in  the  great  edifices  of  Bab- 
ylon may  seem  extremely  mean  when  compared  with  those  employed  in 
the  stupendous  palace-temples  of  Egypt,  and  even  in  the  less  massive  edi- 
fices of  Assyria,  yet  the  Babylonians  appear  to  have  raised,  writh  them 
alone,  structures  which  excited  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  most  fa- 
mous travellers  of  antiquity.  The  profuse  use  of  color,  and  the  taste  dis- 
played in  its  combination,  and  in  the  ornamental  designs,  together  with  the 
solidity  and  vastness  of  the  immense  substructure  upon  which  the  build- 
ings proudly  stood,  may  have  chiefly  contributed  to  produce  this  effect  upon 
the  minds  of  strangers.  The  palaces  and  temples,  like  those  of  Nineveh, 
were  erected  upon  lofty  platforms  of  brickwork.  The  origin  of  Assyrian 
architecture,  which  I have  elsewhere  described,!  was  especially  that  of 
Babylon.  The  bricks,  as  in  Assyria,  were  either  simply  baked  in  the  sun, 
or  were  burnt  in  the  kiln.  The  latter  are  of  more  than  one  shape  and  qual- 
ity. Some  are  square  ; others  are  oblong. $ Those  from  the  Birs  Nimroud 
are  generally  of  a dark  red  color,  whilst  those  from  the  Mujelibe  are  mostly 
of  a light  yellow.  Specimens  have  been  frequently  brought  to  this  coun- 
try, and  are  to  be  found  in  many  public  and  private  collections.  It  is  well 
known  that  a large  number  of  them  have  inscriptions  in  a complex  cunei- 
form character  peculiar  to  Babylon.  By  comparing  several  bricks,  it  will 

* According  to  Strabo,  the  Babylonians,  being  unable  to  procure  other  wood,  made 
their  beams  and  columns  of  the  trunks  of  palm  trees,  binding  them  together  with 
twisted  reeds,  and  then  painting  the  whole  with  colors.  (Lib.  xvi.  p.  1050.  Oxf.  ed.). 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  2d  part,  chap.  ii. 

t The  usual  dimensions  of  the  Babylonian  bricks  are  as  nearly  as  possible  one  foot 
square,  by  three  and  a half  inches  thick.  Rich  says  thirteen  inches  square.  Mr.  Birch 
has  conjectured  that  they  may  represent  multiples  of  some  Babylonian  measure,  per- 
haps the  cubit. 


HISTORY  OF  BABYLON. 


I 


453 


Chap.  XXIII.l 


be  seen  that  the  superscriptions  have  been  impressed  upon  them  by  a stamp, 
on  which  the  whole  inscription  was  cut  in  relief.  Each  character  was  not 
made  singly,  as  on  the  Assyrian  bricks,  and  this  is  the  distinction  between 
them.  The  Babylonian  inscribed  bricks  long  excited  the  curiosity  of  the 
learned,  and  gave  rise  to  a variety  of  ingenious  speculations  as  to  their  use 
and  meaning.  By  some  they  were  believed  to  be  public  documents ; others 
saw  in  the  writing  dedications  to  the  gods,  or  registers  of  gifts  to  temples. 
The  question  has  now  been  entirely  set  at  rest  by  the  discovery  made  by 
Dr.  Hincks,  that  almost  every  brick  hitherto  obtained  from  the  ruins  of 
Babylon  bears  the  same  inscription,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  un- 
important words,  and  that  they  record  the  building  of  the  city  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar the  son  of  Nabubaluchun  (?). 

As  many  as  eight  lines  in  close  writing,  and  sometimes  letters  in  a cur- 
sive character,  allied  to  the  Phoenician  and  other  Semetic  alphabets,  are 
stamped  on  a few  of  these  bricks  : but  such  specimens  are  very  rare,  and 
the  inscriptions  upon  them  have  not  yet,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  been  satis- 
factorily deciphered.  On  some  bricks  are  rude  figures  of  animals. 

A few  inscribed  tablets  of  stone  and  baked  clay,  figures  in  bronze  and 
terracotta,  metal  objects  of  various  kinds,  and  engraved  cylinders  and  gems, 
have  been  almost  the  only  undoubted  Babylonian  antiquities  hitherto 
brought  to  Europe.  Such  relics  are  preserved  in  many  cabinets.  The 
small  original  collection  in  the  British  Museum  belonged  partly  to  Sir  Rob- 
ert Ker  Porter,  and  partly  to  Mr.  Rich. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  add  a few  remarks  upon  the  history  of 
Babylon.  The  time  of  the  foundation  of  this  celebrated  city  is  still  a ques- 
tion which  does  not  admit  of  a satisfactory  determination,  and  into  which  1 
will  not  enter.  Some  believe  it  to  have  taken  place  at  a comparatively 
recent  date  ; but  if,  as  Egyptian  scholars  assert,  the  name  of  Babylon  is 
found  on  monuments  of  the  eighteenth  Egyptian  dynasty,  we  have  positive 
evidence  of  its  existence  at  least  in  the  fifteenth  century  before  Christ.* 
After  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  it  appears  to  have  been  at  one  time 
under  the  direct  rule  of  the  kings  of  Nineveh,  and  at  another  to  have  been 
governed  by  its  own  independent  chiefs.  Expeditions  against  Babylonia 
are  recorded  in  the  earliest  inscriptions  yet  discovered  in  Assyria  ; and,  as  it 
has  been  seen,  even  in  the  time  of  Sennacherib  and  his  immediate  prede- 
cessors, large  armies  were  still  frequently  sent  against  its  rebellious  inhab- 
itants. The  Babylonian  kingdom  was,  however,  almost  absorbed  in  that 
of  Assyria,  the  dominant  power  of  the  East.  When  this  great  empire  be- 
gan to  decline,  Babylon  rose  for  the  last  time.  Media  and  Persia  were 
equally  ready  to  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  and  at  length  the  allied  ar- 
mies of  Cyaxares  and  the  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar  captured  and  destroyed 
the  capital  of  the  Eastern  world. 

Babylon  now  rapidly  succeeded  to  that  proud  position  so  long  held  by 

* Mr.  Birch  has  found  more  than  one  notice  of  Babylon  on  Egyptian  monuments  of 
the  time  of  Thothmes  III. 


454  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XXIII. 

Nineveh.  Under  Nebuchadnezzar  she  acquired  the  power  forfeited  by  her 
rival.  The  hounds  of  the  city  were  extended  ; buildings  of  extraordinary 
size  and  magnificence  were  erected  ; her  victorious  armies  conquered  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  penetrated  into  Egypt.  Her  commerce,  too,  had  now 
spread  far  and  wide,  from  the  east  to  the  west,  and  she  became  “ a land  of 
traffic  and  a city  of  merchants.”* 

But  her  greatness  as  an  independent  nation  was  short-lived.  The  neigh- 
bouring kingdoms  of  Media  and  Persia,  united  under  one  monarch,  had 
profited,  no  less  than  Babylon,  by  the  ruin  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  were 
ready  to  dispute  with  her  the  dominion  of  Asia.  Scarcely  half  a century 
had  elapsed  from  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  when  “ Belshazzar,  the  king  of  the 
Chaldseans,  was  slain,  and  Darius,  the  Median,  took  the  kingdom.”!  From 
that  time  Babylonia  sank  into  a mere  province  of  Persia.  It  still,  howev- 
er, retained  much  of  its  former  power  and  trade,  and,  as  we  learn  from  the 
inscriptions  of  Bisutun,  as  well  as  from  ancient  authors,  struggled  more 
than  once  to  regain  its  ancient  independence. 

After  the  defeat  of  Darius  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  supremacy, 
Babylon  opened  its  gates  to  Alexander,  who  deemed  the  city  not  unwor- 
thy to  become  the  capital  of  his  mighty  empire.  On  his  return  from  In- 
dia he  wished  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Belus,  which  had  fallen  into  ruins, 
and  in  that  great  work  he  had  intended  to  employ  his  army,  now  no  longer 
needed  for  war.  The  priests,  however,  who  had  appropriated  the  revenues 
of  this  sacred  shrine,  and  feared  lest  they  would  have  again  to  apply  them 
to  their  rightful  purposes,  appear  to  have  prevented  him  from  carrying  out 
his  design.! 

The  last  blow  to  the  prosperity  and  even  existence  of  Babylon  was  given 
by  Seleucus  when  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  new  capital  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tigris  (b.  c.  322).  Already  Patrocles,  his  general,  had  compelled  a 
large  number  of  the  inhabitants  to  abandon  their  homes,  and  to  take  ref- 
uge in  the  Desert,  and  in  the  province  of  Susiana.§  The  city,  exhausted 
by  the  neighbourhood  of  Seleucia,  returned  to  its  ancient  solitude.  ||  Ac- 
cording to  some  authors,  neither  the  walls  nor  the  temple  of  Belus  existed 

* Ezekiel,  xvii.  4. 

t Daniel,  v.  30,  31.  This  event  took  place  b.  c.  538.  Whether  the  Darius  of  the 
book  of  Daniel  be  Cyrus  himself,  or  a Median  who  commanded  the  armies  of  that 
monarch,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  viceroy  of  Babylon,  is  one  of  the  many  dis- 
puted points  of  ancient  history. 

t Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.  1.  vii.  c.  17.  See  Jeremy’s  Epistle  in  the  Apocryphal  book 
of  Baruch,  vi.  10,  11.  and  28.,  for  instances  of  the  cupidity  of  the  Babylonian  priests. 
They  had  even  stripped  the  idols  of  their  robes  and  ornaments  to  adorn  their  wives 
and  children.  This  epistle  contains  a very  curious  account  of  the  idol  worship  of  the 
Babylonians. 

§ Diod.  Sic.  xix.  100. 

II  Caetero  ad  solitudinem  rediit  exhausta  vicinitate  Seleuciae.  (Pliny,  1.  vi.  c.  30 J 
Strabo  states  that  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  and  part  by  time, 
and  that  the  rest  perished  in  consequence  of  the  neglect  of  the  Macedonians.  It  had 
become,  he  declares,  a vast  solitude  (lib.  xvi.  p.  2019.). 


IMPORTANCE  OF  BABYLON. 


455 


Chap.  XXIII.] 

any  longer,  and  only  a few  Chaldaeans  continued  to  dwell  around  the  ruins 
of  their  sacred  edifices.* 

Still,  however,  a part  of  the  population  appears  to  have  returned  to  their 
former  seats,  for  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
sera  we  find  the  Parthian  king,  Evemerus,  sending  numerous  families  from 
Babylon  into  Media  to  he  sold  as  slaves,  and  burning  many  great  and  beau- 
tiful edifices  still  standing  in  the  city.f 

In  the  time  of  Augustus,  the  city  is  said  to  have  been  entirely  deserted, 
except  by  a few  Jews  who  still  lingered  amongst  the  ruins. $ St.  Cyril, 
of  Alexandria,  declares  that  in  his  day,  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  in  consequence  of  the  choking  up  of  the  great  canals  derived  from 
the  Euphrates,  Babylon  had  become  a vast  marsh  : and  fifty  years  later 
the  river  is  described  as  having  changed  its  course,  leaving  only  a small 
channel  to  mark  its  ancient  bed.  Then  were  verified  the  prophecies  of 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  that  the  mighty  Babylon  should  he  hut  “pools  of  wa- 
ter,” “ that  the  sea  should  come  upon  her,  and  that  she  should  he  covered 
with  the  multitude  of  the  waves  thereof.  ”§ 

In  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  inva- 
sion, the  ancient  cities  of  Babylonia  were  “ a desolation,  a dry  land,  and  a 
wilderness.”  Amidst  the  heaps  that  marked  the  site  of  Babylon  herself 
there  rose  tjie  small  town  of  Hillah.H 

Long  before  Babylon  had  overcome  her  rival  Nineveh  she  was  famous 
for  the  extent  and  importance  of  her  commerce.  No  position  could  have 
then  been  more  favourable  than  hers  for  carrying  on  a trade  with  all  the 
regions  of  the  known  world.  She  stood  upon  a navigable  stream  that 
brought  to  her  quays  the  produce  of  the  temperate  highlands  of  Armenia, 
approached  in  one  part  of  its  course  within  almost  one  hundred  miles  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  emptied  its  waters  into  a gulf  of  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Parallel  with  this  great  river  was  one  scarcely  inferior  in  size 
and  importance.  The  Tigris,  too,  came  from  the  Armenian  hills,  flowed 
through  the  fertile  districts  of  Assyria,  and  carried  their  varied  produce  to 
the  Babylonian  cities.  Moderate  skill  and  enterprise  could  scarcely  fail  to 
make  Babylon,  not  only  the  emporium  of  the  Eastern  world,  but  the  main 
link  of  commercial  intercourse  between  the  East  and  the  West. 

The  inhabitants  did  not  neglect  the  advantages  bestowed  upon  them  by 
nature.  A system  of  navigable  canals  that  may  excite  the  admiration  of 

* Pausanias,  Attic,  c.  16.  But  according  to  Pliny,  the  temple  of  Belus  still  existed 
in  his  day  (lib.  vi.  c.  30.). 

t b.  c.  127.  Diod.  Sic.  Fragm.  1.  xxxiv.  c.  21.  Justin,  1.  xlii.  c.  1.  Athenaeus,  1. 
xi.  p.  463. 

t And  yet  Trajan  is  said  to  have  visited  the  house  in  Babylon  in  which  Alexander 
died,  and  to  have  performed  religious  ceremonies  to  the  memory  of  the  hero.  (Dio 
in  Excerpt,  p.  785.)  § Isaiah,  xiv.  23.  Jeremiah,  li.  42. 

II  See  an  interesting  Memoir  on  Babylon,  by  M.  de  St.  Croix,  in  the  48th  vol.  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres,  in  which  all  the 
authorities  on  the  subject  of  the  gradual  decay  of  the  city  are  collected. 


456 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIII 


even  the  modern  engineer,  connected  together  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
those  great  arteries  of  her  commerce.  With  a skill,  showing  no  common 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  surveying,  and  of  the  principles  of  hydraulics,  the 
Babylonians  took  advantage  of  the  different  levels  in  the  plains,  and  of  the 
periodical  rises  in  the  two  rivers,  to  complete  the  water  communication  be- 
tween all  parts  of  the  province,  and  to  fertilise  by  artificial  irrigation  an 
otherwise  barren  and  unproductive  soil.  Alexander,  after  he  had  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  his  empire  to  the  East,  so  fully  understood  the  importance 
of  these  great  works,  that  he  ordered  them  to  be  cleansed  and  repaired,  and 
superintended  the  work  in  person,  steering  his  boat  with  his  own  hand 
through  the  channels.  I have  so  frequently  had  occasion  to  mention  them, 
and  to  describe  their  actual  remains,  that  I will  not  weary  the  reader  with 
a further  account  of  them. 

High-roads  and  causeways  across  the  Desert  united  Syria  and  Palestine 
with  Babylonia.  Fortified  stations  protected  the  merchant  from  the  wan- 
dering tribes  of  Arabia,  walled  cities  served  as  resting-places  and  store-houses, 
and  wells  at  regular  intervals  gave  an  abundant  supply  of  water  during 
the  hottest  season  of  the  year.  One  of  those  highways  was  carried  througli 
the  centre  of  Mesopotamia,  and  crossing  the  Euphrates  near  the  town  of 
Anthemusia  led  into  central  Syria.*  A second  appears  to  have  left  Baby- 
lon by  the  western  quarter  of  the  city,  and  entered  Idumsea,  after  passing 
through  the  country  of  the  Nabathseans.  Others  branched  off  to  Tadmor. 
and  to  cities  which  were  built  in  the  midst  of  the  Desert  almost  solely  for 
purposes  of  trade. 

To  the  east  of  Babylonia  was  the  celebrated  military  and  commercial 
road  described  by  Herodotus.t  It  led  from  Sardis  to  Susa  in  ninety  days’ 
journey,  and  was  furnished,  at  intervals  of  about  fifteen  miles,  with  sta- 
tions, and  public  hostelries,  probably  resembling  the  modern  caravanserais 
of  Persia. 

Merchandise  and  travellers  descended  the  rivers  upon  rafts  of  skins,  as 
well  as  in  boats  built  of  reeds  coated  with  bitumen,  or  of  more  solid  ma- 
terials. The  land  trade  was  no  doubt  principally  carried  on,  as  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  by  caravans  of  merchants,  who  loaded  their  goods  on  the  backs  of 
camels,  horses,  and  asses.  The  Assyrian  sculptures  show  that  waggons 
and  carts  drawn  by  mules  and  oxen  were  not  unknown,  and  as  the  roads 
appear  to  have  been  carefully  kept  in  repair,  this  more  convenient  and 
cheaper  mode  of  transporting  merchandise  was  probably  not  neglected. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  to  how  far  the  Babylonians  may  have  navi- 
gated in  vessels  the  Indian  Ocean. $ Of  the  various  articles  of  merchand- 
ise stored  in  Babylon,  the  produce  of  the  islands  and  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  even  of  India,  formed  no  inconsiderable  part.  Pearls,  from  the 
fisheries  of  Bahrein,  which  still  supply  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Turkey,  and  per- 

* Strabo,  lib.  xvi.  p.  1061.  Oxf.  ed.  f L.  v.  c.  52  and  53. 

t Heeren,  with  his  usual  critical  skill,  has  investigated  the  subject  in  his  essay  ov 
the  commerce  of  the  Babylonians,  in  the  2d  vol.  of  his  Historical  Researches. 


COMMERCE  OF  BABYLON. 


457 


Chap.  XXIII.] 

haps  even  from  Ceylon ; cotton,  spices,  frankincense,  precious  stones,  ivory, 
ebony,  silks,  and  dyes,  were  amongst  the  objects  of  trade  brought  to  her 
markets.  They  could  only  have  been  obtained  from  the  southern  coasts 
of  Arabia,  and  directly  or  indirectly  from  the  Indian  peninsula.  We  learn 
from  the  Kouyunjik  inscriptions  that  the  people  inhabiting  the  country  at 
the  mouths  of  the  united  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  possessed  ves- 
sels in  which,  when  defeated  by  the  Assyrians,  they  took  refuge  on  the  sea. 
The  prophet  Isaiah* also  alludes  to  the  ships  of  the  Chaldseans.*  Timber 
for  ship-building  could  have  been  floated  with  ease  from  the  mountains  of 
Armenia  to  the  very  quays  of  Babylon,  or  to  her  ports  at  the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  We  have  seen  that  Sennacherib  sent  down  the  Tigris  the 
materials  for  the  construction  of  the  vessels  required  in  the  siege  of  the  cities 
of  southern  Chaldsea,  and  that  he  employed  Phoenician  mariners  to  build 
and  navigate  them. 

But  although  a coasting  trade  might  have  existed  along  the  shores  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  of  the  ocean  as  far  as  India,  yet  a very  considerable 
trade  was  also  carried  on  by  land  with  the  same  country,  through  Media, 
Hyrcania,  and  the  centre  of  Asia.  It  was  by  this  road  that  gold  and  va- 
rious precious  stones  were  probably  supplied  to  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 

A race  of  dogs  too,  much  prized  by  the  Babylonians,  was  brought  from 
India.  A satrap  of  Babylon  is  declared  to  have  devoted  the  revenues  of 
four  cities!  to  the  support  of  a number  of  these  animals.  On  a small  ter- 
racotta tablet  in  the  British  Museum,  from  Col.  Rawlinson’s  collection,  ob- 
tained, I believe,  at  Baghdad,  but  probably  found  in  some  ancient  ruin  in 
the  neighbourhood,  is  the  figure  of  a man  leading  a large  and  powerful 
dog,  which  has  been  identified  with  a species  still  existing  in  Thibet.! 

Tin,  cedar-wood,  and  various  articles,  were  brought  from  Phoenicia  and 
other  parts  of  Syria,  which  were  in  return  supplied  with  the  produce  of 
India  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  through  Babylon. § 

Whilst  the  Babylonians  thus  imported  the  produce  of  the  East  and  West, 
they  also  supplied  foreign  countries  with  many  valuable  articles  of  trade. 
Corn,  which  according  to  tradition  first  grew  wild  in  Mesopotamia,  and 
was  there  first  eaten  by  man,  was  cultivated  to  a great  extent,  and  was 
sent  to  distant  provinces.  The  Babylonian  carpets,  silks,  and  woollen  fab- 
rics, woven  or  embroidered  with  figures  of  mythic  animals  and  with  ex- 
quisite designs,  were  not  less  famous  for  the  beauty  of  their  texture  and 
workmanship,  than  for  the  richness  and  variety  of  their  colors.  The  much- 
prized  Sindones,  or  flowing  garments,  were  the  work  of  the  looms  of  Baby- 
lon even  long  after  she  had  ceased  to  be  a city.  || 

* xliii.  14.  f Herod.  1.  i.  c.  192. 

t See  woodcut  at  the  head  of  the  chapter.  $ Ezekiel,  xxvii.  15 

II  Of  the  early  reputation  of  the  looms  of  Babylon  we  may  form  an  idea  from  the 
fact  of  “ a goodly  Babylonish  garment”  (*.  e.  garment  of  Shinar)  being  mentioned  in 
the  book  of  Joshua  (vii.  21.)  amongst  the  objects  buried  by  Achan  in  his  tent.  In  a 
curious  dearee  of  the  time  of  Diocletian,  regulating  the  maximum  value  of  articles 
of  clothing  and  food  throughout  the  Roman  empire,  several  objects  from  Babylon  are 


455 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIII. 


Baryioaian  Cylinder  in  Sienite  (Size  of  the  Original). 


The  engraved  gems  and  cylinders  discovered  in  the  mins  hear  ample 
witness  to  the  skill  of  the  Babylonian  lapidaries.  Many  of  these  relics  ex- 
it in  European  collections,  and.  during  my  residence  at  Hillah,  I was  able 
to  obtain  several  interest- 
ing specimens  from  the 
Arabs,  who  usually  pick 
them  up  on  the  mounds 
aftei*ram.  The  most  re- 
markable of  them  is  a 
cylinder  of  spotted  sien- 
ite. upon  which  are  in- 
cised seven  figures,  and  a 
few  Babylonian  charac- 
ters. The  figures  are  cut 
with  delicacy  and  spirit.  Six  appear  to  represent  foreign  captives.  They 
are  led  by  a warrior,  armed  with  bow  and  arrows,  and  having  on  his  back 
a quiver  ending  in  a sharp  point  like  the  head  of  a spear.  The  prisoners 
are  clothed  in  robes  of  skin  or  fur.  One  wears  a flat  projecting  cap,  and 
two  of  them  carry  weapons  in  the  form  of  a pickaxe.  The  fourth  figure 
seems  to  be  that  of  a woman,  and  the  last  two  are  smaller  in  size  than  the 
others.  One  bears  on  his  shoulders  a table  or  stool,  the  otlfbr  a bag  hang- 
ing on  a hooked  stick.  The  letters  of  the  inscription  are  rudely  formed, 
and  have  not  yet  been  deciphered. 

Another  interesting  gem  obtained  by  me  at  Babylon  is  an  agate  cone, 
upon  the  base  of  which  is  engraved  a winged  priest  or  dei- 
ty, standing  in  an  atti- 
tude of  prayer  before 
a cock  on  an  altar. 

Above  this  group  is 
the  crescent  moon. 

The  Hebrew  com- 
mentators^ conjecture 
that  Xergal,  the  idol  of  the  men  of 
Cuth,  had  the  form  of  a cock.f  On 
a cylinder  in  the  British  Museum 

there  is  a subject  almost  similar.  

A priest,  wearing  the  sacrificial  Cylinder  m the  British  Museum. 

lress,  stands  at  a table,  before  an  altar  bearing  a crescent,  and  a smaller 


Engrave*  Gem 
from  Babylon. 


specified.  Babylonian  skins  of  the  first  quality  are  rated  at  500  denarii : of  the  sec- 
ond quality  at  40 : Babylonian  shoes,  called  mullai.  at  120  denarii  per  pair ; and  a 
Babylonian  girdle  at  100.  Plain  Babylonian  socks  are  also  mentioned,  but  the  amount 
at  which  they  were  valued  is  wanting.  This  decree  was  discovered  at  Eski  Hissar, 
the  ancient  Stratoniceia.  in  Asia  Minor.  (See  Leake's  Asia  Minor.) 

+ Selden.  De  Dis  Syris,  p.  251. 

f 4i  And  the  men  of  Cuth  made  Nergal."  in  Samaria,  where  they  had*been  trans- 
planted after  the  first  captivity.  (2  Kings,  xvii.  30.)  The  country  of  the  Cuthites 


DECAY  OF  BABYLON. 


459 


Chap.  XXIII.] 

altar,  on  which  stands  a cock.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  this  bird 
was  either  worshipped  by  the  Babylonians  or  by  some  neighbouring  na- 
tion ; or  that  it  was  sacrificed,  as  in  Greece,  on  the  celebration  of  certain 
religious  ceremonies.* 

In  the  last  chapter  of  this  work  I shall  describe  other  engraved  gems 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  and  shall  then  show  the  use 
to  which  they  were  applied. 

The  vast  trade,  that  rendered  Babylon  the  gathering-place  of  men  from 
all  parts  of  the  known  world,  and  supplied  her  with  luxuries  from  the  re- 
motest climes,  had  at  the  same  time  the  effect  of  corrupting  the  manners 
of  her  people,  and  producing  that  general  profligacy  and  those  effeminate 
customs  which  mainly  contributed  to  her  fall.  The  description  given  by 
Herodotus  of  the  state  of  the  population  of  the  city  when  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Persian  kings,  is  fully  sufficient  to  explain  the  cause  of  her 
speedy  decay  and  ultimate  ruin.  The  account  of  the  Greek  historian  fully 
tallies  with  the  denunciations  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  against  the  sin  and 
wickedness  of  Babylon.  Her  inhabitants  had  gradually  lost  their  warlike 
character.  When  the  Persians  broke  into  their  city  they  were  revelling  in 
debauchery  and  lust ; and  when  the  Macedonian  conqueror  appeared  at 
their  gates,  they  received  with  indifference  the  yoke  of  a new  master. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  account  for  the  rapid  decay  of  the  country  around 
Babylon.  As  the  inhabitants  deserted  the  city  the  canals  were  neglect- 
ed. When  once  those  great  sources  of  fertility  were  choked  up,  the  plains 
became  a wilderness.  Upon  the  waters  conveyed  by  their  channels  to  the 
innermost  parts  of  Mesopotamia  depended  not  only  the  harvests,  the  gar- 
dens, and  the  palm  groves,  but  the  very  existence  of  the  numerous  towns 
and  villages  far  removed  from  the  river  banks.  They  soon  turned  to  mere 
heaps  of  earth  and  rubbish.  Vegetation  ceased,  and  the  plains,  parched  by 
the  burning  heat  of  the  sun,  were  ere  long  once  again  a vast  arid  waste. 

Such  has  been  the  history  of  Babylon.  Her  career  was  equally  short 
and  splendid ; and  although  she  has  thus  perished  from  the  face  of  the 
earth,  her  ruins  are  still  classic,  indeed  sacred,  ground.  The  traveller  visits, 
with  no  common  emotion,  those  shapeless  heaps,  the  scene  of  so  many  great 
and  solemn  events.  In  this  plain,  according  to  tradition,  the  primitive 
families  of  our  race  first  found  a resting-place.  Here  Nebuchadnezzar 
boasted  of  the  glories  of  his  city,  and  was  punished  for  his  pride.  To  these 
deserted  halls  were  brought  the  captives  of  Judsea.  In  them  Daniel,  un- 
dazzled by  the  glories  around  him,  remained  steadfast  to  his  faith,  rose  to 
be  a governor  amongst  his  rulers,  and  prophesied  the  downfall  of  the  king- 
dom. There  was  held  Belshazzar’s  feast,  and  was  seen  the  writing  upon 
the  wall.  Between  those  crumbling  mounds  Cyrus  entered  the  neglected 
gates.  Those  massive  ruins  cover  the  spot  where  Alexander  died. 

was  probably  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylon,  though  the  commentators  have  not 
agreed  upon  its  exact  site.  Josephus  says  that  it  was  in  Persia  (Antiq.  ix.  14.). 

* Can  this  image  have  any  connection  with  the  brazen  figure  of  the  bird  which  I 
have  described  in  a former  part  of  this  work  as  belonging  to  the  Yezidis? 


160 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIII 


Soon  after  my  arrival  at  Hillah,  the  caravan  of  the  hadj,  or  annual  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  passed  through  the  town  on  its  way  to  Baghdad.  I met 
the  pilgrims  outside  the  walls.  The  friends  and  relations  of  those  who  had 
undertaken  this  difficult  and  perilous  journey  had  come  out  to  greet  them 
on  their  return.  The  holy  places  had  this  year  been  visited  by  the  cholera: 
and  of  the  many  who  had  crossed  the  Desert  few  had  survived.  In  the 
crowd  that  had  assembled  on  the  high  road  were  mingled  scenes  of  grief 
and  joy.  Here  a parent  was  lamenting  for  his  child,  there  a child  was 
seeking  in  vain  for  his  parent.  A few  yards  distant,  those  more  fortunate 
were  embracing  and  weeping.  The  mournful  wail  of  the  women  was 
heard  above  the  merry  laugh  of  those  who  had  again  found  their  friends. 
A few  stately  old  Seyyids,  who  appeared  to  he  without  kith  or  kin  in  this 
world,  rode  along  unmoved  on  their  white  asses,  rejoicing  in  the  sanctity  ac- 
quired by  the  faithful  performance  of  one  of  the  chief  duties  imposed  upon 
true  believers.  The  wild  Bedouins  of  Nedjd,  who  had  guided  and  protected 
the  pilgrims  during  their  arduous  journey,  passed  through  the  throng  on 
their  weary  dromedaries. 

After  a lapse  of  some  years  the  annual  hadj  from  the  south  of  Turkey 
and  Persia  had  been  able  to  follow  the  direct  road  to  Mecca  across  the 
desert  of  Nedjd  and  the  interior  of  Arabia.  The  country  on  the  way  is  in- 
habited by  numerous  Arab  tribes,  governed  by  different  chiefs,  and  usually 
at  war  with  each  other.  It  is,  moreover,  infested  by  bands  of  Bedouins, 
who,  combining  for  the  purpose  of  plunder,  leave  their  tents  in  the  Syrian 
plains  and  undertake  journeys  of  two  or  three  months,  merely  to  intercept 
and  plunder  caravans. 

Of  late  years  Ibn  Reshid,  a chief  of  the  Gehel  Shammar,  has  by  his  cour- 
age and  abilities  acquired  the  whole  of  that  district ; and  has  rendered  him- 
self sufficiently  powerful  to  hold  in  check  the  various  tribes  which  surround 
it.  Pilgrims  under  his  protection  could,  therefore,  again  venture  to  take 
the  shortest  road  to  Mecca.  He  undertook  to  furnish  them  with  camels, 
and  to  answer  for  their  safety  from  Hillah  to  the  holy  cities  and  hack. 
The  terms  agreed  upon  were,  that  each  Arab  pilgrim  should  pay  150  gha- 
zees  (rather  more  than  26 Z.).  Of  this  sum  70  ghazees  was  to  go  to  the 
Sheikh,  and  the  rest  to  the  owner  of  the  camels.  Persian  pilgrims,  being 
heretical  in  doctrine,  had,  of  course,  to  be  taxed  accordingly,  and  the  sum 
required  from  them  amounted  to  nearly  100Z. 

The  chief  punctually  fulfilled  his  engagement,  and  the  caravan  I have 
described  was  the  first  that  had  crossed  the  Desert  for  many  years  without 
accident  or  molestation.  It  was  under  the  charge  of  Abd-ur-Rahman,  a re- 
lation of  Ibn  Reshid.  I frequently  saw  this  Sheikh  during  his  short  resi- 
dence at  Hillah,  and  he  urged  me  to  return  with  him  to  the  G-ebel  Sham- 
mar.  Zaid  and  several  other  Agayls  offered  to  accompany  me  ; and  it  was 
with  great  regret  that  I felt  unable,  on  various  accounts,  to  undertake  a jour- 
ney into  a country  so  little  known,  and  so  interesting,  as  central  Arabia  * 
A better  opportunity  could  scarcely  have  occurred  for  entering  Nedjd. 

* Dr.  Wallin,  a native  of  Finland,  is,  I believe,  the  only  European  traveller  who  hes 


SHEIKH  IBN  RESHID. 


461 


Chap.  XXIII.] 

According  to  my  Bedouin  frieads,  a rider  on  a good  deloul  could  reach 
the  first  village  in  Gebel  Shammar  within  eight  days ; or,  as  Suttum  ex- 
pressed it,  a man  might  go  through  his  mid-day  prayers  in  the  mosque  of 
Hillah  on  one  Friday,  and  be  in  the  Gebel  in  time  to  perform  the  same 
ceremony  on  that  day  week.  But  for  three  days  there  are  no  wells,  and  a 
supply  of  water  must  be  carried  in  skins  for  that  time. 

Sheikh  Abd-ur-Rahman  described  the  Gebel  Shammar  as  abounding  in 
fertile  valleys,  where  the  Arabs  had  villages  and  cultivated  lands.  The 
inhabitants  are  of  the  same  great  tribe  of  Shammar  as  those  who  wander 
over  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  Suttum  told  me  that  his  family  still  pos- 
sessed their  gardens  in  the  hills  ; and  although,  from  long  absence,  their 
produce  had  been  gathered  by  strangers,  yet  that  he  could  by  law  at  any 
time  return  and  claim  them. 

Ibn  Reshid  was  described  to  me  as  a powerful,  and,  for  an  Arab,  an  en 
lightened  chief,  who  had  restored  security  to  the  country,  and  who  desired 
to  encourage  trade  and  the  passage  of  caravans  through  his  territories. 
His  mares  and  horses,  collected  from  the  tribes  of  central  Arabia,  were  de- 
clared to  excel  all  those  of  the  Desert  in  beauty  and  in  blood.  Hawking 
and  hunting  are  his  favorite  amusements,  and  game  abounds  in  the  hills 
and  plains.  Amongst  the  wild  animals  are  lions,  leopards,  deer,  and  a kind 
of  ox  or  large  antelope,  I could  not  learn  exactly  which,  called  Wothaiyah, 
said  to  have  long  spiral  horns,  and  to  be  exceedingly  fierce  and  dangerous. 

I was  assured  that  in  the  Gebel  Shammar  there  are  ruins  of  large  cities, 
attributed  by  the  Arabs  to  the  Jews.  Inscriptions  in  an  unknown  charac- 
ter are  also  said  to  exist  on  slabs  of  stone  and  on  rocks.  They  may  be  that 
class  called  Himyari,  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Arabian  peninsula. 

The  principal  tribes  encamping  near  Hillah,  and  in  the  south  of  Meso- 
potamia, are  the  Maidan,  the  Kazail,  the  Zobeide,  and  the  Montefik.*  The 
Maidan,  according  to  their  traditions,  are  descended  from  the  people  who 
dwelt  in  the  marshes  long  before  the  time  of  the  Prophet. f The  Kazail 
are  said  to  have  come  from  Mecca,  and  to  have  been  the  original  guardians 
of  the  holy  Kaaba,  the  keys  of  which  were  sold  by  their  chief  for  a bottle 
of  wine  ; an  anecdote  told  by  Arab  authors  of  the  Khazaites,  who  may,  how- 
ever, be  of  the  same  tribe.  The  Zobeide  are  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
first  Mohammedan  wars,  and  are  still  numerous  and  powerful.  The  Mon- 
tefik  possess  vast  palm  groves,  and  have  erected  permanent  settlements  on 
the  banks  of  the  lower  Euphrates.  Their  principal  town  is  Soug-el-Shiouk, 
the  market  of  the  Sheikhs,  where  their  chief  resides. 

About  two  hours  and  a half,  or  eight  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Hillah,  a 
mound,  scarcely  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  Babylon,  rises  in  the  plain.  It 

passed  through  this  part  of  Arabia.  See  an  account  of  his  Journey  in  the  20th  vol. 
of  the  Royal  Geog.  Soc.  Journal,  p.  293. 

* There  are  numerous  smaller  tribes,  such  as  the  Shammar-Togha  and  the  Jebour, 
but  they  are  generally  under  the  chiefs  of  the  greater. 

t Strabo  states  that,  in  his  time,  to  the  south  of  Mesopotamia,  were  wandering  Arab 
tribes,  who  were  shepherds  and  thieves  (lib.  xvi.  p.  1807.  Oxf.  ed.'i 


462 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIII. 


is  called  El  Hymer,  meaning,  according  to  the  Arabs,  the  red,  from  its  color. 
The  ruin  has  assumed  a pyramidal  form,  hut  it  is  evidently  the  remains  of 
a solid  square  structure,  consisting,  like  the  Birs  Nimroud.  of  a series  of  ter- 
races or  platforms.  It  may  he  conjectured,  therefore,  that  it  was  a sacred 
edifice  built  upon  the  same  general  plan  as  all  the  temples  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria.  The  basement  or  substructure  appears  to  have  been  of  sun- 
dried  brick  ; the  upper  part,  and  probably  the  casing  of  the  lower,  of  bricks 
burnt  in  the  kiln.  Many  of  the  latter  are  inscribed  with  the  name  and  ti- 
tles of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Although  the  masonry  is  solid  and  firmly  bound 
together,  it  is  not  united  by  a white  cement  like  that  of  the  Mujelibe.  The 
same  tenacious  mud  that  was  used  for  making  the  bricks  has  been  daubed, 
as  far  as  I could  ascertain,  between  each  layer.  The  ruin  is  traversed  like 
the  Birs  by  square  holes  to  admit  air. 

Around  the  centre  structure  are  scattered  smaller  mounds  and  heaps  of 
rubbish,  covered  with  the  usual  fragments  of  pottery,  glass,  and  bricks. 

Opposite  to  the  Mujelibe  (or  Kasr),  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, is  a village  called  Anana,  and  near  it  a quadrangle  of  earthen  ramparts, 
like  the  remains  of  a fortified  inclosure.  A large  mass  of  brick  masonry  is 
still  seen  in  the  river  bed  when  the  stream  is  low.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
village  brought  me  a fragment  of  black  stone  with  a rosette  ornament  upon 
it,  very  Assyrian  in  character.  With  the  exception  of  these  remains,  and 
the  Birs  Nimroud,  there  are  scarcely  any  ruins  of  ancient  buildings  on  the 
Arabian  side  of  the  Euphrates. 

On  the  eastern  bank  low  mounds  covered  with  broken  pottery  and  glass 
are  found  in  almost  every  direction.  One  resembles  another,  and  there  is 
nothing  either  in  their  appearance  or  in  their  contents,  as  far  as  they  have 
hitherto  been  ascertained,  deserving  of  particular  description.  They  only 
prove  how  vast  and  thriving  the  population  of  this  part  of  Mesopotamia 
must  at  one  time  have  been,  and  how  complete  is  the  destruction  that  has 
fallen  upon  this  devoted  land. 


Heads  of  Arab  Delouls. 


Arab  Man  and  Woman. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

RUINS  IN  SOUTHERN  MESOPOTAMIA. DEPARTURE  FROM  HILLAH. SAND-HILLS. VILLAGES 

IN  THE  JEZIREH. SHEIKH  KARBOUL. RUINS. FIRST  VIEW  OF  NIFFER. THE  MARSHES. 

ARAB  BOATS. ARRIVE  AT  SOUK-EL-AFAIJ. SHEIKH  AGAB. TOWN  OF  THF  AFAIJ. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RUINS  OF  NIFFER. EXCAVATIONS  IN  THE  MOUNDS. DISCOVERY 

OF  COFFINS OF  VARIOUS  RELICS. MR.  LOFTUS’  DISCOVERIES  AT  WURKA. THE  ARAB 

TRIBES. WILD  BEASTS. LIONS. CUSTOMS  OF  THE  AFAIJ. LEAVE  THE  MARSHES. RE- 
TURN TO  BAGHDAD. A MIRAGE. 

The  south  of  Mesopotamia  abounds  in  extensive  and  important  ruins,  of 
which  little  is  known.  The  country  around  them  is  inhabited  by  Arabs 
of  the  tribes  of  Rubbiyah  and  Ahl  Maidan,  notorious  for  their  lawlessness, 
•and  scarcely  more  intelligent  or  human  than  the  buffalos  which  they  tend. 
One  or  two  travellers  have  passed  these  remains  of  ancient  civilisation 
when  journeying  through  the  Jezireh,  or  have  received  descriptions  of  them 
from  natives  of  the  country.  Mr.  Loftus  was  the  first  to  explore  the  most 
important.  Being  attached,  as  geologist,  to  the  mission  for  the  settlement 
of  the  boundaries  between  Persia  and  Turkey,  he  went  by  land  from  Bagh- 
dad to  Bursah  to  join  its  other  members.  As  he  was  accompanied  by  au 
escort  of  troops,  he  was  able  to  visit  the  principal  ruins  on  the  way  without 
risk.  He  found  the  tribes  well-disposed  towards  Europeans,  though  very 
hostile  to  the  Turks.  Taking  advantage  of  this  favorable  feeling,  and  re- 
lying upon  the  protection  of  the  Arab  Sheikhs,  Mr.  Loftus  returned  a second 
time  alone,  and  was  able  to  excavate  in  some  of  the  larger  mounds.  He 
obtained  during  this  expedition  the  highly  interesting  collection  of  antiqui- 
ties from  Wurka,  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


464 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV. 


All  these  ruins  are  best  reached  from  Hillah.  The  Sheikhs  of  the  Arab 
tribes  living  near  them  are  usually  in  friendly  communication  with  the 
principal  people  of  that  town.  From  its  bazars  they  obtain  the  greater 
part  of  their  supplies,  clothing  and  many  articles  of  food.  During  my  res- 
idence at  Hillah,  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  had  interrupted  this 
intercourse,  and  I was  unable  to  meet  with  any  Arab  from  the  south  who 
could  guide  and  escort  me  to  their  tents.  To  visit  these  districts  of  Mes- 
opotamia it  is  necessary  to  travel  under  the  protection  of  some  powerful 
chief.  I was,  therefore,  compelled  to  send  a special  messenger  to  Agah, 
the  Sheikh  of  the  Afaij,  to  inform  him  of  my  intention  to  enter  his  terri- 
tories and  to  ask  for  men  to  conduct  me.  Some  days  elapsed  before  I re- 
ceived an  answer  to  my  letter.  At  length,  one  evening,  two  horsemen  rode 
to  my  door,  and  having  tethered  their  mares  announced  that  they  were 
come  to  lead  us  to  the  village  of  their  chief. 

The  Afaij  dwell  in  the  midst  of  extensive  marshes  formed  by  the  Eu- 
phrates, about  fifty  miles  below  Hillah.  On  the  eastern  border  of  these 
swamps  rise  the  great  ruins  of  Nifier,  wrhich  I was  first  desirous  of  exam- 
ining. Although  Agab’s  horsemen  could  protect  us  when  we  were  once 
amongst  their  own  Arabs,  yet  there  were  hostile  tribes  on  our  way  who 
hut  little  respected  their  master’s  authority.  Various  plans  were  conse- 
quently suggested  for  our  journey.  It  was  proposed  that  we  should  descend 
the  river  in  a boat  as  far  as  the  marshes,  and  then  proceed,  still  by  water, 
through  them  to  the  Sheikh’s  residence.  But  there  were  many  objections 
to  this  course,  especially  the  difficulty  of  getting  hack  again,  as  we  should 
have  to  leave  our  horses  behind  us.  It  was  finally  settled  that  we  were  to 
go  by  land,  keeping  as  much  as  possible  in  the  centre  of  Mesopotamia,  and 
thus  avoiding  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Euphrates,  as  the  Arabs  were  now 
congregated  along  the  banks  of  the  river.  Zaid,  with  an  Agayl  of  his  ac- 
quaintance, agreed  to  accompany  me.  My  own  Jebours  were,  of  course,  of 
the  party.  Having  hired  mules  and  laid  in  a proper  stock  of  provisions, 
tools,  and  packing  cases  to  hold  any  antiquities  that  might  be  discovered, 
we  began  our  journey  on  Wednesday,  the  15th  of  January. 

The  weather  was  bright  and  intensely  cold.  The  sky  was  cloudless,  hut 
a biting  north  wind  swept  across  the  plain.  It  was  the  middle  of  the  Baby- 
lonian winter,  and  a hard  frost  daily  whitened  the  ground.  We  left  Hillah 
by  the  Baghdad  gate.  The  Bairakdar  was  with  me,  with  the  rest  of  my 
Mosul  servants.  My  huntsman,  old  Seyyid  Jasim,  wrapt  up  in  his  thick 
Arab  cloak,  bore  his  favorite  hawk  on  his  wrist.  He  was  followed,  as  usual, 
by  the  greyhounds.  The  Jebours  went  partly  on  foot,  riding  by  turns  on 
the  baggage  horses.  Mr.  Hormuzd  Bassam  was  wanting  to  complete  our 
party.  He  had  been  kept  in  Baghdad  by  severe  illness  almost  since  our 
arrival,  and  for  the  first  time  during  my  wanderings  in  Mesopotamia  he 
was  not  with  me. 

We  followed  a track  leading  towards  the  centre  of  the  Mesopotamian 
Desert.  The  long  belt  of  feathery  palms  bordering  the  Euphrates  for  many 


JOURNEY  THROUGH  THE  DESERT. 


465 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

and  many  a mile,  and  broken  here  and  there  by  a dome  or  a minaret,  be- 
came gradually  less  distinct,  until  'it  was  but  a faint  black  line  edging  the 
horizon.  Our  course  was  nearly  due  east.  About  six  miles  from  the  town 
we  found  ourselves  amidst  moving  sand-hills,  extending  far  and  wide  on 
all  sides.  They  were  just  high  enough  to  shut  out  the  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  The  fine  sand  shifts  with  every  breeze,  and  the  wrinkled 
heaps  are  like  the  rippled  surface  of  a lake  When  the  furious  southerly 
wind  sweeps  over  them,  it  raises  a dense  suffocating  dust,  blinding  the  way- 
faring Arab,  and  leaving  him  to  perish  in  the  trackless  labyrinth. 

Thirty  years  only  had  elapsed,  according  to  Zaid,  since  the  formation  oi 
these  hillocks.  The  sand  issues  from  the  earth  like  water  from  springs,  and 
the  Arabs  call  the  sources,  of  which  we  passed  two  or  three,  “ Aioun-er-rum- 
mel”  (the  sand  springs).  The  banks  of  ancient  canals,  still  rising  among 
the  moving  heaps,  showed  that  the  soil  had  once  been  under  cultivation. 
The  sand  is  now  fast  spreading  over  the  face  of  the  country,  and  threatens 
ere  long  to  overwhelm  several  small  Arab  settlements. 

After  four  hours’  ride  we  left  the  sand-heaps,  and  again  came  in  sight  of 
the  black  belt  of  palm  trees.  We  found  ourselves  near  the  village  of  Hamza, 
whose  mud  hovels  are  built  round  a turbeh  or  tomb,  covered  by  a white 
dome,  and  shaded  by  a few  slender  palms.  After  stopping  to  drink  water, 
we  proceeded  to  a small  hamlet  called  Allak,  and  took  up  our  quarters  for 
the  night  in  the  museef  of  its  Sheikh.  The  inhabitants  were  of  the  tribe 
of  Sherayfaut,  from  Mecca.  They  had  been  attacked  and  plundered  two 
days  before  our  visit  by  the  Maidan  Arabs  from  the  other  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. Even  the  very  doors  of  the  huts  had  been  torn  from  their  hinges, 
and  dragged  away.  Notwithstanding  his  poverty  the  poor  Sheikh  receiv- 
ed us  very  hospitably.  He  related  to  me  how  from  the  numerous  artificial 
mounds  in  the  surrounding  plains  were  frequently  taken,  after  rain  had 
washed  away  the  soil,  earthen  jars  and  Coffins  containing  ornaments  of 
gold  and  silver. 

Near  Allak  is  a great  artificial  watercourse  called  the  Shat-el-Neel, 
which,  I was  assured  by  the  Arabs,  was  not  a continuation  of  a celebrated 
canal  of  the  same  name  running  to  the  north  of  Babylon.  Tradition  says, 
that  its  source  was  unknown  until  a shepherd,  dropping  his  pipe  into  the 
Euphrates,  found  it  afterwards  in  the  Neel,  whither  it  had  been  carried 
through  the  underground  passage,  by  which,  it  thus  appeared,  the  stream 
was  derived  from  the  river.  A city  similarly  called,  and  whose  ruins  may, 
I believe,  still  be  traced,  stood  on  one  of  the  canals,  if  they  be  not  the  same. 
It  was  a Chaldaean  bishopric  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity.  The  canal, 
as  will  hereafter  be  seen,  runs  far  to  the  south,  into  the  interior  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. 

As  we  continued  our  journey  during  the  following  day,  still  keeping  in 
the  Desert,  we  passed  one  or  two  small  encampments  of  the  Zobeide  tribe. 
The  Arabs,  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  so  large  a party,  and  believing  us 
to  be  horsemen  on  a foray,  sallied  forth  to  meet  us  at  some  distance  from 

G G 


466 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXJY. 


their  tents,  flourishing  their  weapons  and  chanting  their  wild  war-cry. 
The  plain,  although  now  without  any  stationary  population,  was  once 
thickly  inhabited.  The  white-domed  tombs  rising  to  the  right  and  left  of 
our  track  marked  where  former  villages  had  stood,  whilst  the  embankments 
of  innumerable  canals,  long  deserted  by  their  waters,  crossed  our  path,  bear- 
ing witness  to  the  skill  and  industry  which  once  turned  these  barren  plains 
into  one  vast  garden.  The  lion,  the  hyena,  the  wolf,  the  jackall,  the  wild 
boar,  the  fox,  and  the  porcupine  now  alone  break  the  solitude  of  a wilder- 
ness once  the  seat  of  the  most  luxurious  and  civilised  nation  of  the  East. 

It  would  be  needless  to  describe  the  few  deserted  villages  we  passed  dur- 
ing our  day’s  journey  ; their  mud  walls,  once  a protection  against  the  wan- 
dering Arab,  are  unable  to  resist  the  encroaching  sand,  which  has  already 
overwhelmed  the  empty  dwellings.  In  this  region  the  habitations  of  men 
are  turned  almost  in  a day  to  mere  heaps  of  earth.  The  district  is  called 
Shomali. 

After  a ride  of  six  hours  we  reached  an  ancient  mound  of  considerable 
size,  called  Haroun.  On  its  summit  was  a ruined  Imaum-zadeh  (Mussul- 
man oratory).  It  was  a sacred  place  to  the  Arab,  and  within  it  were  de- 
posited various  rude  agricultural  implements,  which  had  probably  been 
there  for  years,  no  one,  not  even  the  Bedouin  robber,  venturing  to  violate 
the  sanctuary,  by  touching  the  objects  placed  under  its  protection.  This 
custom  of  storing  property  within  the  walls  of  a holy  building  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  East.  It  is  thus  left  for  years,  until  it  rots  away,  the  owner 
perhaps  dying  or  never  returning  to  claim  his  own.  The  mound  of  Haroun, 
too,  on  account  of  the  sacred  nature  of  the  edifice,  had  been  used  as  a bury- 
ing-place.  The  grave  of  the  wandering  Arab  is  rarely  far  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  and  the  wild  beasts  of  the  Desert  soon  scrape  away  the 
scanty  earth.  Human  skulls  and  remains,  scarcely  yet  bleached  by  the 
sun,  were  scattered  over  the  ruins,  mingled  with  bricks,  pottery,  broken 
glass,  and  other  relics  of  ancient  population. 

Several  deserted  villages  in  this  district  had  belonged  to  a tribe  bearing 
the  same  name  as  that  of  my  workmen.  But  these  Jebours  were  a branch 
of  the  Maidan  Arabs,  and  in  no  way  related  to  the  tribes  living  around 
Mosul. 

We  had  scarcely  passed  Haroun  when  a party  of  Arabs  on  horseback  and 
on  foot  suddenly  came  forth  from  behind  the  lofty  banks  of  a dry  canal. 
They  had  seen  our  caravan  from  afar,  and  had  waylaid  us.  After  they 
had  followed  us  for  some  distance  they  turned  back  to  their  tribe,  deeming 
it  prudent  not  to  venture  an  attack,  as  we  were  fully  prepared  for  them. 

Shortly  after  their  departure,  a gazelle  rose  from  a thicket,  and  bounded 
across  the  plain.  Seyyid  Jasim  unloosed  his  hawk,  and  I pursued  with  the 
dogs.  The  sight  of  horsemen  gallopping  to  and  fro  alarmed  an  Arab  set- 
tlement gathered  round  a small  mud  fort  belonging  to  a chief  called  Kar- 
boul.  The  men  armed  themselves  and  came  out  against  us.  Our  Afaij 
guides,  however,  soon  made  themselves  known  to  them,  and  they  then  es- 


THE  AFAIJ  MARSH. 


467 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

corted  our  caravan  to  their  tents,  dancing  a wild  dance,  shouting  their  war- 
cries,  singing  war-songs,  and  firing  their  matchlocks.  Most  of  them  had 
no  other  clothing  than  the  shirt  taken  off  their  shoulders  and  tied  round 
their  loins.  Their  countenances  were  singularly  ferocious,  their  bright 
eyes  and  white  teeth  making  them  even  more  hideous.  Long  black  mat- 
ted hair  was  scattered  over  their  heads  in  horrid  confusion,  and  their  bodies 
were  tanned  by  the  burning  sun  to  the  color  and  substance  of  old  leather. 

Their  Sheikh,  Karboul,  was  scarcely  less  savage  in  his  appearance, 
though  somewhat  better  clothed.  However  ill-disposed  he  might  have 
been  towards  Europeans  or  travellers  in  general,  he  acknowledged  the  pro- 
tection that  had  been  extended  to  us  by  the  Afaij  chief,  and  led  me  with 
words  of  welcome  to  his  spacious  tent.  His  followers,  excited  by  the  late 
alarm,  and  now  full  of  warlike  enthusiasm,  were  not,  however,  to  be  dis- 
missed until  they  had  satisfied  themselves  by  performing  various  warlike 
dances.  They  did  so  in  circles  before  the  tent,  raising  a few  tattered  flags, 
and  deafening  me  by  their  shouts  and  barbarous  songs. 

These  wild  beings,  little  better  than  mere  beasts,  lived  in  hovels  made 
of  mats  and  brushwood.  They  fed  large  herds  of  buffalos  ; but  the  greater 
part  of  their  sheep  and  cattle  had  been  driven  away  by  the  Bedouins. 
Their  tribe  was  the  Shabaneh,  a branch  of  the  Ahl  Ukra. 

Next  morning  Karboul  sent  his  son  and  a party  of  horsemen  to  escort  us 
for  some  distance  on  our  road.  Jar-ullah,  a Sheikh  of  the  district  of  Dug- 
garah,  was  scouring  the  country  with  his  Arabs,  and  there  was  a risk  of 
meeting  with  the  robbers.  We  soon  came  to  the  borders  of  those  marshes 
which  have  now  spread  over  the  lower  part  of  the  Mesopotamian  plains.  As 
we  ascended  the  lofty  banks  of  ancient  canals,  over  which  our  track  contin- 
ually led,  we  saw  a boundless  expanse  of  dark  green,  mottled  with  shad- 
ows by  the  wind,  like  the  ruffled  surface  of  a lake.  It  seemed  as  if  the 
parched  Desert  had  been  suddenly  turned  into  pastures  and  fields  of  green 
corn.  But  we  only  gazed  upon  a vast  bed  of  tall  reeds  bred  by  the  wide- 
spreading  swamps,  no  less  a sign  of  desolation,  neglect,  and  decay,  than 
the  yellow  wilderness. 

We  had  now  to  make  a considerable  circuit  to  the  east  to  encompass  the 
marsh.  We  passed  numerous  artificial  mounds,  covered  with  fragments  of 
bricks,  pottery,  glazed  tiles,  richly-colored  glass  and  other  relics  that  mark 
the  site  of  Babylonian  ruins.  Canals,  too,  no  longer  fed  by  the  Euphrates, 
everywhere  crossed  our  path,  and  limited  our  view.  The  parched  soil  out- 
side the  swamp  has  become  fine  sand,  amidst  which  small  tufts  of  the  hardy 
tamarisk  form  the  only  vegetation.  These  bushes,  thus  standing  alone, 
were  turned  by  the  mirage  into  forests,  whilst  the  embankments  of  the  old 
watercourses  seemed  like  ranges  of  hills. 

After  two  hours’  ride,  we  emerged  from  the  labyrinth  of  dry  canals,  and 
ascending  a heap  of  rubbish  covering  some  ancient  ruin,  we  beheld,  loom- 
ing on  the  horizon  like  a distant  mountain,  the  principal  object  of  my 
journey — the  mounds  of  Niffer.  They  were  still  nearly  ten  miles  from  us. 


468 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV. 


Magnified  as  they  were  by  the  mirage  they  appeared  far  to  exceed  in  size 
and  height  any  artificial  elevation  that  I had  hitherto  seen. 

To  the  east  of  us  rose  another  great  ruin,  called  Zibbliyah,  a lofty,  square 
mass,  apparently  of  sun-dried  brick.  It  resembled  in  form,  and  was  scarce- 
ly less  in  size  than  the  well-known  remains  of  Akkerkuf,  near  Baghdad. 

Between  us  and  Niffer  were  still  many  mounds  and  ancient  canals. 
The  largest  of  the  former,  covered  with  bricks  and  pottery,  was  called  by 
our  Arab  guides  El  Hamra,  “ the  red.”  The  principal  canal,  whose  wa- 
ters had  once  been  confined  between  two  enormous  embankments,  ran  in  a 
direct  line  towards  the  ruins.  It  is  now  dry,  but  appears  to  have  once  sup- 
plied the  city.  According  to  the  Afaij,  it  is  a continuation  of  the  Neel,  de- 
rived, as  I have  said,  from  the  Euphrates.  Its  solid  banks  now  oppose  the 
further  spread  of  the  marsh  which  reaches  to  their  feet. 

We  rode  along  this  canal,  passing  here  and  there  the  former  sites  of 
Bedouin  encampments,  marked  by  the  heaps  of  dry  camel’s  dung,  t[ie 
blackened  stones  on  which  the  caldron  had  been  heated,  and  the  narrow 
trenches  dug  to  carry  off  the  winter  rain.  The  tents  lately  pitched  on  these 
spots  belonged  to  the  Shammar  Arabs,  who  had  wandered  thus  far  to  the 
south,  and  after  having  plundered  all  the  tribes  not  strong  enough  to  re- 
sist them,  were  now  on  their  way  back  to  the  spring  pastures  in  northern 
Mesopotamia.  The  Bedouins  cannot,  it  is  said,  remain  to  the  south  of 
Baghdad  after  the  month  of  February,  as  their  camels  would  be  destroyed 
by  eating  a poisonous  herb  which  at  that  season  of  the  year  begins  to  grow 
plentifully  in  the  Desert.  We  saw,  too,  many  tracks  of  lions  in  the  sand, 
some  not  many  hours  old.  Flocks  of  pelicans  whitened  the  plain,  we  start- 
led innumerable  waterfowl  from  the  reeds,  and  the  pheasant-like  francolin 
sprang  with  a loud  whirring  noise  from  almost  every  thicket. 

After  a journey  of  five  hours  we  reached  the  ruins  of  Niffer.  They  differ 
in  general  form  from  the  great  mounds  of  Assyria,  with  which  my  descriptions 
may  have  familiarised  the  reader.  Although  at  their  north-east  corner  is 
a cone  similar  to  those  of  Nimroud  and  Kalah-Sherghat,  yet,  in  their  broken 
outline  and  in  their  division  into  several  distinct  parts,  they  have  more  the 
appearance  of  the  remains  of  different  buildings  than  that  of  one  regular 
platform  surrounded  by  walls.  In  this  respect  they  are  not  unlike  the  Mu- 
jelibe  (Kasr)  and  the  Amran  of  Babylon.  The  irregular  heaps  crossed  by 
numerous  deep  ravines,  are  divided  into  two  principal  parts  by  a broad  gul- 
ley,  apparently  the  dry  bed  of  a canal.  The  Arabs  call  it  the  “ Shat,” 
declaring  that  it  is  still  a part  of  the  Neel.  I could  not  trace  it  to  the 
south  of  the  ruins.  Boats  smeared  with  bitumen,  like  those  still  in  use,  are 
occasionally,  it  is  said,  found  beneath  the  soil  on  this  spot.  The  mounds 
cover  altogether  a very  considerable  area  of  ground,  and  stand  on  the  edge 
of  the  marsh,  which  is  gradually  encroaching  upon  them,  and  which  oc- 
casionally during  high  floods  of  the  Euphrates  completely  surrounds  them. 
They  are  strewed  with  the  usual  fragments  of  brick,  glazed  and  unglazed 
pottery,  and  glass.  A loose  nitrous  soil,  into  which  the  feet  sink  above  the 


THE  MOUNDS  OF  NIFFER. 


469 


Chap.  XXIV  ] 

ankles,  forme  a coating  about  a yard  deep  over  harder  and  more  compact 
soil.  In  the  ravines  large  earthen  jars  and  portions  of  brick  masonry  are 
occasionally  uncovered  by  the  rains.  Commencing  my  search  after  antiq- 
uities as  soon  as  we  had  reached  the  summit  of  the  principal  mound,  it 
was  not  long  before  I discovered,  in  one  of  these  newly-formed  ruts,  a per- 
fect vase,  about  five  feet  high,  containing  human  remains.  Other  objects 
of  the  same  kind  were  found  by  the  Arabs  who  were  with  me.  But  I left 
more  careful  researches  to  the  time  when  I could  commence  excavations 
below  the  surface.  Leaving,  therefore,  the  ruins,  I hastened  to  join  the  rest 
of  the  party. 

The  caravan  had  continued  its  journey  along  the  western  foot  of  the 
mound,  and  my  tents  were  pitched  about  two  miles  beyond  the  ruins  on  the 
margin  of  the  marsh.  In  front  of  the  encampment  was  a small  lake  or 
pond,  from  which  the  reeds  seem  to  have  been  carefully  cleared.  From 
this  open  space  branched  several  narrow  lanes,  which,  losing  themselves  in 
the  thick  forest  of  lofty  canes,  appeared  to  lead  into  the  interior  of  the 
morass.  From  the  top  of  NifFer  I had  faintly  distinguished  in  the  distance 
the  mat  hovels  forming  the  settlements  of  the  Afaij  Arabs,  and  the  great 
herds  of  buffalos  pasturing  in  the  swamps  ; but  from  our  tents  the  view  was 
bounded  within  a few  yards  of  us  by  the  dense  vegetation  springing  from 
the  stagnant  water. 

We  had  sent  one  of  our  Afaij  guides  to  inform  Sheikh  Agab  of  our  ap- 
proach. I had  not  been  long  seated  in  my  tent  when  suddenly  a number 
of  black  boats,  each  bearing  a party  of  Arabs,  darted  from  the  reeds  and 
approached  the  shore.  They  were  of  various  sizes.  In  the  bottom  of 
some,  eight  or  ten  persons  sat  crouched  on  their  hams  ; in  others,  only  one 
or  two.  Men  standing  at  the  head  and  stern  with  long  bamboo  poles  of 
great  lightness  guided  and  impelled  them.  The  largest  were  built  of  teak- 
wood,  but  the  others  consisted  simply  of  a very  narrow  framework  of  rushes 
covered  with  bitumen,  resembling  probably  “ the  vessels  of  bulrushes”  men- 
tioned by  Isaiah.*  They  skimmed  over  the  surface  of  the  water  with  great 
rapidity. 

The  tiradas,  for  so  these  boats  are  called  by  the  Arabs,  drew  up  along 
the  bank  in  the  open  basin  before  our  tents.  The  largest  evidently  con- 
tained three  chiefs,  who  landed  and  advanced  towards  me.  They  were  the 
sons  of  the  Sheikh  of  the  Afaij.  Their  father  had  sent  them  to  welcome 
me  to  his  territories.  They  brought  with  them  provisions  for  my  caravan, 
as  their  village,  they  said,  was  still  far  distant,  and  it  would  be  impossible 
to  transport  our  baggage  and  lead  our  horses  thither  before  nightfall.  The 
young  men  were  handsome,  well-dressed  and  well-armed,  and  very  cour- 
teous. My  tent  was  soon  filled  by  their  companions  and  followers.  Each 
man  wore  a long  white  shirt,  a black  abba  or  cloak,  and  a bright  yellow 
and  scarlet  keffieh  over  his  head.  They  all  carried  rifles  of  great  length  and 
weight.  The  charges  of  ball  and  powder  were  contained  in  pieces  of  hol- 

* xviii.  2. 


470 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV. 


low  reed  cut  to  equal  lengths  and  fastened  across  their  breasts  to  broad 
leather  hands  ornamented  with  small  shells  and  glass  beads.  Each  was, 
moreover,  armed  with  a sword  and  a large  curved  Persian  dagger.  The 
complexion  of  these  marsh  Arabs,  from  constant  exposure  to  the  intense 
heat  of  the  sun,  is  almost  black,  with  the  usual  contrast  of  eyes  of  extraor- 
dinary brilliancy,  and  teeth  of  the  whiteness  of  pearls.  They  wear  their 
hair  in  long,  well-greased  plaits. 

The  young  Sheikhs  had  been  ordered  by  their  father  to  remain  with  me 
during  the  night,  and  to  place  a proper  guard  round  the  tents,  as  the  out- 
skirts of  the  marsh  were  infested,  we  were  assured,  by  roving  Bedouins  and 
midnight  thieves.  I gained,  as  other  travellers  have  done  before  me,  some 
credit  for  wisdom  and  superhuman  knowledge  by  predicting,  through  the 
aid  of  an  almanack,  a partial  eclipse  of  the  moon.  It  duly  took  place  to 
the  great  dismay  of  my  guests,  who  well-nigh  knocked  out  the  bottoms  of 
all  my  kitchen  utensils  in  their  endeavor  to  frighten  away  the  Jins  who  had 
thus  laid  hold  of  the  planet.* 

Soon  after  sunrise  the  Sheikh’s  own  tirada  issued  from  the  reeds  into  the 
open  space.  It  had  been  spread  with  carpets  and  silken  cushions  for  my 
reception.  The  baggage  was  placed  in  other  boats,  but  the  unfortunate 
horses,  under  the  guidance  of  a party  of  naked  Arabs,  had  to  swim  the 
stream,  and  to  struggle  through  the  swamp  as  they  best  could.  The  armed 
men  entered  their  various  vessels,  and  we  all  left  the  shore  together. 

The  tirada  in  which  I sat  was  skilfully  managed  by  two  Arabs  with  long 
bamboo-poles.  It  skimmed  rapidly  over  the  small  lake,  and  then  turned 
into  a broad  street  cut  through  green  reeds  rising  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet  on 
both  sides  of  us.  The  current  where  the  vegetation  had  thus  been  cleared 
away,  ran  at  the  rate  of  about  two  miles  an  hour,  and,  as  we  were  going 
towards  the  Euphrates,  was  against  us.  We  passed  the  entrances  to  many 
lanes  branching  off  to  the  right  and  to  the  left.  From  them  came  black 
boats  filled  with  Arab  men  and  women  carrying  the  produce  of  their  buf- 
falo herds  to  the  Souk  or  market.  As  we  glided  along  we  occasionally  dis- 
turbed flocks  of  waterfowl,  and  large  king-fishers  of  the  most  brilliant  plum- 
age, seated  on  the  bending  rushes,  watching  their  prey.  The  sharp  report 
of  the  rifle  resounded  through  the  marsh,  and  the  whizzing  of  the  ball  oc- 
casionally reminded  us  that  the  unseen  sportsmen  were  not  far  distant, 
though  concealed  in  the  brakes.  They  were  shooting  the  ducks  and  geese 
which  abound. 

Herds  of  buffalos  here  and  there  struggled  and  splashed  amongst  the 
rushes,  their  unwieldy  bodies  completely  concealed  under  water,  and  their 

* The  common  notion  amongst  ignorant  Mohammedans  is,  that  an  eclipse  is 
caused  by  some  evil  spirit  catching  hold  of  the  sun  or  moon.  On  such  occasions,  in 
Eastern  towns,  the  whole  population  assembles  with  pots,  pans,  and  other  equally 
rude  instruments  of  music,  and,  with  the  aid  of  their  lungs,  make  a din  and  turmoil 
which  might  suffice  to  drive  away  a whole  army  of  evil  spirits,  even  at  so  great  a 
distance. 


SHBIK  AGAB. 


471 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

hideous  heads  just  visible  upon  the  surface.  Occasionally  a small  plot  of 
ground,  scarcely  an  inch  above  the  level  of  the  marsh,  and  itself  half  a 
swamp,  was  covered  with  huts  built  of  reeds,  canes,  and  bright  yellow 
mats.  These  were  the  dwellings  of  the  Afaij,  and,  as  we  passed  by,  troops 
of  half-naked  men,  women,  and  children  issued  from  them,  and  stood  on 
the  bank  to  gaze  at  the  strangers. 

The  lanes  now  became  more  crowded  with  tiradas.  The  boatmen,  how- 
ever, darted  by  the  heavier  vessels,  turned  the  sharp  corners,  and  managed 
their  frail  barks  with  great  skill  and  ease.  The  openings  in  the  reeds  be- 
gan to  be  more  numerous,  and  it  required  a perfect  knowledge  of  the  vari- 
ous windings  and  streets  to  follow  the  right  way.  This  singular  scene  re- 
called vividly  to  my  mind  the  sculptures  at  Kouyunjik  representing  the 
Assyrian  wars  in  marshes  of  the  same  nature,  and  probably  formed  by  the 
waters  of  the  same  river.  The  streets  through  the  reeds,  and  the  tiradas 
or  boats  of  rushes  smeared  with  bitumen,  are  faithfully  delineated  in  the 
bas-reliefs,  showing  how  little  the  barbarous  inhabitants  of  these  great 
swamps  have  changed  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  three  thousand  years.  If 
we  may  judge,  however,  from  the  spoil  of  furniture  and  of  vessels  of  metal, 
probably  of  gold  and  silver,  carried  away  from  them  by  the  conquerors,  the 
ancient  tribes  appear  to  have  been  more  wealthy  and  more  ingenious  than 
their  descendants.* 

After  an  hour’s  journey  we  left  the  reeds  and  came  to  a swampy  plain, 
scarcely  above  the  level  of  the  marsh.  A mud-built  edifice  rose  about  half 
a mile  beyond.  It  was  the  watchtower  and  landmark  of  the  Souk-el- Afaij, 
or  market-place  of  the  tribe,  and  near  it  was  the  residence  of  the  Sheikh. 
Scattered  over  the  open  ground  were  buffalos,  oxen,  and  mat-covered  cabins. 

We  entered  a narrow  canal  and  stopped  at  length  near  some  larger  and 
better  built  huts  than  any  we  had  yet  seen.  Before  them,  at  the  water’s 
edge,  and  waiting  to  receive  us,  were  drawn  up  a number  of  armed  men, 
at  the  head  of  whom  stood  a tall,  handsome  Arab.  He  was  attired  in  a 
long  robe  of  scarlet  silk  of  Damascus,  over  which  he  wore  one  of  those 
cloaks  richly  embroidered  in  gold  thread  down  the  back  and  one  arm,  pe- 
culiar to  Baghdad.  This  was  Agab,  Sheikh  of  the  Afaij.  As  I stepped 
out  of  the  tirada  he  threw  his  arms  round  my  neck,  and  gave  me  the  usual 
embrace  of  welcome. 

The  chief  led  us  at  once  to  the  museef.  The  guest-house  was  built  ol 
the  same  materials  as  the  smaller  cabins,  but  they  were  far  more  tastefully 
put  together.  It  resembled  in  shape  the  boiler  of  some  enormous  steam- 
engine.  Reeds  bound  together,  were  bent  into  arches  at  regular  intervals, 
and  formed  a series  of  ribs,  upon  which  were  stretched  the  choicest  mats. 
About  fifty  persons  could  conveniently  sit  in  this  hut.  In  the  centre  was 
the  usual  array  of  bright  pots  and  tiny  cups  ranged  in  circular  trays,  round 
a smouldering  fire.  A hideous  black  slave,  crouching  upon  his  haunches, 
was  roasting  coffee  and  pounding  the  fragrant  beans  in  an  iron  mortar. 

* See  Plates  25.  27,  and  28.,  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 


472  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XXIV. 

Down  both  sides  were  spread  carpets  and  mats ; soft  cushions  of  figured 
silk  were  especially  prepared  for  the  European  guest. 

The  museef  stood  at  a short  distance  from  the  other  huts,  and  in  a comer 
formed  by  two  water-streets  branching  off  at  right  angles.  In  front  of  it 
was  the  harem  of  the  Sheikh.  It  consisted  of  several  cabins  in  an  inclosure 
formed  entirely  by  walls  of  reeds  and  mats.  Beyond  was  a great  collec- 
tion of  huts,  and  in  the  middle  of  them  the  bazars,  consisting  of  double  rows 
of  shops,  all  of  the  same  frail  materials.  So  that  this  Arab  town  was  built 
entirely  of  mats  and  reeds. 

Agab  received  me  in  the  most  friendly  manner,  and  entered  at  once  into 
my  plans  for  excavating,  describing  the  ruins  existing  in  the  neighbourhood. 
He  ordered  his  people  to  raise  a hut  for  my  servants  and  the  Jebour  work- 
men, and  to  pitch  my  tents  in  the  open  space  opposite  the  museef  Build- 
ing is  not  a lengthy  or  difficult  process  where  the  materials  are  so  simple. 
Within  an  hour  the  mats  had  been  dragged  from  the  harem,  the  bundles 
of  reeds  turned  into  graceful  arches,  and  the  cabin  duly  covered  in.  As  a 
dwelling-place,  however,  the  small  island  on  which  the  Sheikh  of  the  Afaij 
had  thought  fit  to  erect  his  moveable  capital  was  not  perhaps  the  most  de- 
sirable in  the  world.  Had  the  Euphrates  risen  by  any  sudden  flood  we 
should  have  been  completely  under  water.  Indeed,  the  place  was  little 
better  than  a swamp,  and  we  appeared  to  be  actually  below  the  level  of 
the  streams  that  encompassed  us.  We  were,  at  the  same  time,  far  distant 
from  the  ruins,  and  much  time  would  be  lost  in  going  backwards  and  for- 
wards every  day.  I proposed,  therefore,  to  the  Sheikh  to  encamp  under 
the  mound  of  Niffer  itself,  and  to  live  there  during  the  excavations.  But 
Agab  would  not  listen  for  one  moment  to  this  suggestion.  He  declared 
that  we  should  be  stripped  of  every  thing  within  twenty-four  hours,  and 
perhaps  be  killed  in  the  bargain,  by  the  Bedouins  who  were  wandering 
over  the  Desert,  or  by  the  neighbouring  tribes,  who  were  all  in  open  rebell- 
ion against  the  Sultan.  If  even  by  a miracle  we  esoaped  these  enemies, 
it  wTould  be  utterly  impossible  to  avoid  a still  greater  danger  in  the  Jins 
and  evil  spirits  who  swarmed  after  dark  amongst  the  ruins.  No  Arab 
would  pass  a night  on  the  mounds  of  Niffer.  To  complete  the  list  of  perils, 
there  were  wild  beasts  without  number.  Our  horses  first,  and  then  we 
ourselves,  would  be  devoured  by  the  lions,  which  leave  the  marsh  after 
sunset  in  search  of  prey.  It  was  useless  to  contend  against  this  array  of 
evils,  and  the  only  real  source  of  apprehension,  that  from  the  Arab  tribes, 
not  being  without  foundation,  I made  up  my  mind  to  remain  at  the  Souk. 

To  please  the  Sheikh  I engaged  some  of  his  Arabs  as  workmen,  and  he 
placed  his  son  Mohammed  over  them,  ordering  him  to  accompany  me  daily 
to  the  ruins,  and  to  protect  me  during  my  visits  to  them.  - I hired,  at  the 
same  time,  two  large  boats  to  take  the  excavators  every  morning  to  the 
mounds  and  to  bring  them  back  at  night.  The  Sheikh  himself,  with  a 
number  of  his  armed  followers,  frequently  accompanied  us,  ostensibly  to 
guard  me  against  any  marauders  who  might  pass  that  way,  but  really  to 


EXCAVATIONS  AT  NIFFER. 


473 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

be  at  hand  in  case  of  the  discovery  of  treasures.  He  believed,  of  course, 
that  I was  searching  after  gold.  Agab  knew  so  many  authentic  instances 
of  enormous  wealth  having  been  dug  up  at  NifFer,  that  it  was  useless  to 
argue  with  him  upon  the  subject.  He  related  to  me,  in  the  usual  express- 
ive manner  of  the  Arabs,  the  following  story  : — In  the  time  of  Hatab,  the 
uncle  of  Wadi,  Sheikh  of  the  Zobeide,  a cameleer  of  that  tribe  chanced  to 
be  at  Damascus  with  his  camels.  As  he  was  walking  one  day  in  the  ba- 
zar, an  aged  man  accosted  him.  “ 0 Sheikh  of  the  Caravan,”  said  he, 
“ I know  that  thou  art  from  the  southern  Jezireh,  and  from  the  land  of  the 
Zobeide.  God  be  praised  for  sending  thee  to  me  ! Now  there  is  in  that 
country  a great  mound,  that  marks  the  site  of  an  ancient  city  of  the  Un- 
believers, called  NifFer.  Go,  dig  in  the  dry  bed  of  the  Shat-et-Neel,  in  the 
midst  of  the  ruins,  and  thou  wilt  find  a stone  white  as  milk ; bring  it  to 
me,  and  thou  shalt  have  for  a reward  double  the  usual  hire  for  thy  camels 
both  there  and  back.”  The  cameleer  was  at  a loss  to  guess  how  the  old 
man  knew  of  the  stone,  but  he  did  as  he  had  been  asked,  and  in  the  place 
described  to  him  he  found  the  white  stone,  which  was  just  a camel’s  bur- 
den. He  took  it  to  Damascus,  and  gave  it  to  the  Sheikh,  who  first  paid 
him  his  just  reward,  and  then  broke  the  stone  into  pieces  before  him.  It 
was,  of  course,  full  of  gold,  and  the  philosopher  had  learnt  where  it  was  to 
be  found  in  the  books  of  the  Infidels. 

Being  thus  compelled  to  remain  at  the  Souk,  I fitted  up  my  tent  and 
cabins  as  well  as  I was  able.  The  weather  was  intensely  cold,  and  it  was 
the  middle  of  the  rainy  season.  By  the  help  of  mats  we  were  able  to  keep 
out  the  water  to  a certain  extent.  The  excavations  were  carried  on  until 
the  3rd  of  February,  and  I will  describe  at  once  their  general  results. 

NifFer,  as  I have  already  observed,  consists  rather  of  a collection  of 
mounds  of  unequal  height,  and  irregular  form,  than  of  one  compact  plat- 
form, like  the  principal  ruins  of  Assyria.  They  may  be  divided  into  four 
distinct  groups,  each  surrounded,  and  separated  from  the  others,  by  deep 
ravines,  which  have  the  appearance  of  ancient  streets.  The  high  cone  at 
the  north-east  corner  is  probably  the  remains  of  a square  tower  constructed 
entirely  of  large  sun-dried  bricks.  It  is  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Bint-el- 
Ameer,  “ the  daughter  of  the  prince.”  I could  not  ascertain  the  origin  of 
the  name,  which  must  be  connected  with  some  ancient  tradition.  The 
Afaij  say  that  within  it  is  still  preserved  a shi  p of  gold  filled  with  the  same 
precious  metal.  Beneath  the  cone  masonry  of  sun-dried  and  kiln-burnt 
bricks  protrudes  from  the  sides  of  the  ravine:*.  The  bricks  are  generally 
smaller  in  dimensions  than  those  from  Babylon,  and  long  and  narrow  in 
shape.  Many  of  them  are  stamped  with  inscriptions  in  the  Babylonian 
character,  containing  the  name  of  a king  and  of  the  city.* 

* Col.  Rawlinson  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  16.)  reads  the  name  of  the  city 
Tel  Anu,  and  endeavors  to  identify  it  with  the  Tela  u (Te\dirq)  of  Stephen  of  Byzan- 
tium, the  native  place,  according  to  that  geographer,  of  the  Assyrian  kings  before  the 
buiiding  of  Nineveh. 


474 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIY. 

My  workmen  were  divided  into  gangs,  or  karkhanehs,  as  they  are  called 
by  the  Arabs,  and  were  placed  in  different  parts  of  the  ruins.  The  only 
discovery  of  any  interest  made  during  the  first  day  was  that  of  a series  of 
small  recesses,  or  cells  of  brickwork,  six  feet  deep,  and  about  three  feet 
wide.  They  contained  human  remains,  and  were  probably  sepulchres  built 
at  a comparatively  recent  period  above  the  more  ancent  ruins. 

During  the  two  subsequent  days  we  found  many  vases  and  jars  of  earth- 
enware, some  glazed  and  others  plain.  'With  these  relics  was  a bowl,  un- 
fortunately much  broken,  covered  with  ancient  Hebrew  characters,  similar 
to  those  discovered  at  Babylon,  and  described  in  a previous  chapter.  Frag- 
ments of  similar  vessels  were  afterwards  dug  out  of  the  ruins. 

On  the  mound  of  Niffer,  as  on  other  ruins  of  the  same  period  in  this  part 
of  Mesopotamia,  are  found  numerous  fragments  of  highly-glazed  pottery,  of 
a rich  blue  color,  hut  very  coarse  and  fragile  in  texture.  I was  at  a loss 
to  conjecture  the  nature  of  the  objects  of  which  they  had  originally  formed 
part,  until,  on  the  fourth  day  of  the  excavations,  a party  of  workmen  un- 
covered a coffin  or  sarcophagus,  of  precisely  the  same  material.  Within 
it  were  human  remains,  which  crumbled  to  dust  almost  as  soon  as  exposed 
to  the  air.  The  earthenware  was  so  ill-burnt,  and  had  suffered  so  much 
from  age,  that  I was  unable  to  remove  this  coffin  entire.  It  fell  to  pieces 
as  soon  as  I endeavored  to  detach  it  from  the  soil  by  which  it  was  sur- 
rounded. But  beneath  it  was  found  a second,  and  subsequently  scarcely  a 
day  elapsed  without  the  discovery  of  four  or  five 
similar  coffins.  The  largest  were  about  six  feet 
long  ; some,  containing  the  remains  of  children, 
scarcely  exceeded  three.  They  were  all  of  near- 
ly the  same  shape  ; an  oval,  about  two  feet  wide, 
for  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  corpse,  joined  to 
a narrow  box  for  the  legs  and  feet.  The  oval  was 
closed  by  a detached  flat  lid  ; the  rest  of  the  coffin  was  covered,  and  there 
was  a small  hole  at  the  very  end.  The  body  must,  consequently,  have 
been  forced  into  the  sarcophagus  from  the  top  or  open  part. 

All  these  coffins  were  covered  with  bright  greenish-blue  glaze,  colored 
with  copper,  like  that  on  pottery  and  bricks  from  the  ruins  of  Babylon. 
Some  were  ornamented  with  scroll  work  and  other  designs  ; others,  with 
rude  figures  of  men  and  animals  in  relief.  They  were  all  of  the  same  fra- 
gile material.  The  clay,  moreover,  having  been  only  partially  burnt,  had 
been  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  nitre  so  abundant  in  the  soil.  Without 
considerable  care  it  was  impossible  to  remove  any  entire,  although  the  sur- 
rounding earth  was  easily  detached  from  them.* 

Human  remains,  more  or  less  perfect,  were  found  in  all  these  sarcophagi. 
Sometimes,  as  the  lid  was  carefully  removed,  I could  almost  distinguish 

* Mr.  Loftus  succeeded  in  bringing  three  specimens  from  the  ruins  of  Wurka  by 
pasting  the  whole  of  the  inside  and  out  with  thick  paper.  By  these  means  they 
were  held  together,  and  carried  on  litters  by  the  Arabs. 


Lid  of  glazed  Coffin. 


ClIAr  XXIV  ] GOLDEN  ORNAMENTS.  475 

the  body,  wrapped  in  its  grave  clothes,  and  still  lying  in  its  narrow  resting- 
place.  But  no  sooner  did  the  outer  air  reach  the  empty  crust  of  humanity 


Glazed  Coffins  from  Babylonia.* 


than  it  fell  away  into  dust,  leaving  only  the  skull  and  great  bones  of  the 
arms  and  legs  to  show  what  these  now  empty  cases  had  once  contained. 
One  or  two  small  cups  or  vases  in  the  same  glazed  pottery,  and  a few 
heads  and  engraved  gems,  were  occasionally  gathered  from  the  crumbling 
remains ; but  no  ornaments  of  gold  or  silver  were  discovered  at  Niffer, 
though  it  appears  that  the  Arabs  frequently  find  them  in  similar  coffins 
from  other  ruins  in  southern  Mesopotamia.  The  tribes  encamping  about 
Wurka  and  other  great  mounds  are  in  the  habit  of  searching  for  the  earth- 
en sarcophagi  by  driving  their  spears  into  the  loose  soil.  When  they  have 
thus  detected  one,  they  dig  it  out  with  their  hands  or  any  rude  instruments 
they  may  possess.  Their  labor  is  frequently  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of 
gold  and  silver  ornaments,  which  are  either  sold  to  the  wandering  silver^ 
smiths  and  melted  down  at  once,  or  else  are  worn  by  the  women.  Mr. 
Loftus  obtained  several  relics  of  this  kind,  which  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  I was  assured  that  golden  objects  of  considerable  size  were  not 
unfrequently  found  by  the  Arabs,  and  Sheikh  Agab  declared  that  in  former 
days  royal  tombs,  with  crowns  and  sceptres  of  solid  gold,  had  occasionally 
been  the  prize  of  some  fortunate  shepherd  who  chanced  to  wander  amongst 
the  ruins  of  the  southern  Jezireh  after  the  soil  had  been  disturbed  by  wa- 
tercourses formed  by  the  winter  rains.  Although  these  accounts  may  be 
exaggerated,  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  at  different  times  objects 
of  large  value  may  have  been  thus  brought  to  light.  It  is  remarkable, 

* These  woodcuts  are  taken  from  coffins  obtained  by  Mr.  Loftus  from  the  ruins  of 
Wurka,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  They  are  precisely  similar  in  form  to  those 
discovered  at  Niffer,  of  which  no  specimens  have  yet  been  brought  to  this  country. 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


476 


[Chap.  XXIV. 


however,  that  there  were  no  ornaments  whatever  in  metal  in  nearly  a hund- 
red coffins  which  I opened  at  Niffer. 

From  a curious  relic,  also  sent  to  this  country  by  Mr.  Loftus,  we  leam 
the  manner  in  which  the  dead  were  placed  in  these  . singular  coffins.  A 
small  model  in  terracotta  represents  the  corpse  of  a man 
in  one  of  the  sarcophagi  I have  described.  The  body 
and  extremities  were  swathed  in  linen,  the  bands  of 
which  are  very  clearly  shown  in  the  clay  figure.  They 
were  then  probably  smeared  over  with  bitumen  to  pre- 
serve them;  the  head  and  hands  were  left  uncovered, 
The  man  represented  in  the  model  wears  a kind  of  flat 
turban,  and  his  hair  falls  in  ringlets  on  his  shoulders. 
His  beard  is  elaborately  curled,  like  that  of  the  ancient 
Assyrians.  In  each  hand  he  holds  a kind  of  mace  with 
a circular  top,  probably  some  religious  emblem,  which 
may  be  compared  with  one  of  similar  form,  frequently 
seen  in  the  hand  of  the  king  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Nine- 
T Body0in^c0odffin°f  & ve^-  The  coffin  in  this  relic  is  open  from  top  to  bot- 
tom, but  it  may  have  been  so  made  in  the  model  to 
show  the  manner  in  which  the  body  was  prepared  and  placed  within  it. 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  number  of  these  earthen  coffins  ; the  up- 
per part  of  the  mound  in  some  places  appeared  to  consist  alrftost  entirely  of 
them.  They  generally  rested  one  upon  the  other,  but  in  some  cases  were 
separated  by  a layer  of  flat  bricks  or  tiles.  As  fast  as  the  fragments  of  one 
were  removed  a second  appeared  beneath  it ; and  notwithstanding  the 
number  thus  taken  away,  I did  not  penetrate  many  feet  beneath  the  sur- 
face. In  the  lower  part  of  Mesopotamia  are  many  ruins  in  which  similar 
remains  are  equally  abundant.  Fragments  of  glazed  pottery,  broken  from 
them,  are  seen  on  every  ancient  site  to  the  south  of  Babylon.  According 
to  Mr.  Loftus,  the  vast  mound  of  Wurka  is  built  almost  entirely  of  such 
coffins,  piled  one  above  the  other,  and  consequently  many  thousands,  or 
rather  hundreds  of  thousands,  must  exist  in  it  alone. 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a very  satisfactory  conclusion  as  to  the  precise 
date  of  these  remains.  My  own  impression  is  that  they  are  comparatively 
modern  ; that  is,  that  they  are  to  be  attributed  to  a period  subsequent  to  the 
fall  of  the  Babylonian  empire,  extending  from  the  second  or  first  century  be- 
fore the  Christian  aera  to  even  the  time  of  the  Arab  invasion.  Colonel  Raw- 
linson  entertains,  I believe,  a different  opinion,  and  would  attribute  them 
to  a much  earlier  period.  If  the  great  mounds  of  Niffer  be  the  remains  of 
a Babylonian  city,  as  they  probably  are,  it  is  evident  that  that  city  must 
have  been  completely  destroyed,  and  its  ruins  covered  with  earth  long  be- 
fore a people,  afterwards  inhabiting  the  country,  could  have  buried  their 
dead  above  them. 

There  appears  to  have  been  a city  at  Niffer  during  the  early  centuries 
of  Christianity;  and -it  may  be  conjectured  that  it  was  built  partly  upon, 


„is>COVERIES  AT  NIFFER. 


477 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

and  partly  around,  the  ancient  ruins  ; the  mound  itself  having  been  used 
as  a necropolis.  Hence  the  coffins,  urns,  and  human  remains  found  so  near 
the  surface,  whilst  beneath  these  remains  are  the  foundations  and  walls 
of  buildings.  As  the  coffins  from  Wurka  are  precisely  of  the  same  nature 
as  those  from  Nifier,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  belong  to 
the  same  period.  Not  having  examined  those  ruins,  I am  unable  to  state 
whether  the  cemetery  is  above  any  ancient  edifices,  or  whether  the  whole 
mound,  as  it  has  been  asserted,*  consists  from  top  to  bottom  of  nothing  else 
but  piled-up  coffins. 

In  one  part  of  the  mound,  in  a kind  of  recess  or  small  chamber  of  brick 
masonry,  was  discovered  a heap  of  pottery  of  a yellow  color,  very  thin  and 
fragile,  much  resembling  that  still  made  at  Baghdad  to  hold  water  in 
hot  weather.  Many  vases  and  cups  were  still  entire.  With  them  were 
fragments  of  glass  bottles,  jars,  and  other  vessels  ; and  several  highly  glazed 
or  enamelled  dishes.  These  relics  appeared  to  be  of  the  same  period  as  the 
sarcophagi.  A large  number  of  coarse  jars  or  urns,  some  nearly  six  feet 
high,  werd  dug  out  of  various  parts  of  the  mound.  They  contained  bones 
of  men  and  animals,  and  their  mouths  had  been  carefully  closed  by  a tile 
or  brick  plastered  with  bitumen. 

Although  many  deep  trenches  were  opened  in  the  ruins,  and  in  the  con- 
ical mound  at  the  north-east  corner,  no  other  remains  or  relics  were  discov- 
ered. With  the  exception  of  a few  massive  foundations,  and  the  bricks 
bearing  a cuneiform  superscription,  I much  doubt  whether  anything  found 
at  Niffer  was  of  the  true  Babylonian  period.  The  Arabs  have  a story  that 
a great  black  stone  exists  somewhere  in  the  ruins.  I had  once  conjectured 
that  it  might  be  the  identical  obelisk  said  to  have  been  brought  by  Semi- 
ramis  from  Armenia  to  Babylon. f After  I had  searched  in  vain  for  it,  I 
was  assured  that  it  was  near  some  mounds  several  miles  to  the  east  of 
Nifier.  I sent  a party  of  workmen  to  the  spot,  but  with  no  better  success. 
On  the  whole,  I am  much  inclined  to  question  whether  extensive  excava- 
tions carried  on  at  Nifier  would  produce  any  very  important  or  interesting 
results. 

In  the  Afaij  bazar  I was  able  to  purchase  a few  relics  from  the  Arabs ; 
they  consisted  chiefly  of  cylinders  and  engraved  gems,  which  I shall  here- 
after describe.  But  even  such  remains  were  far  more  scarce  than  I had 
anticipated.  A ram  in  baked  clay,  with  three  holes  for  holding  colors  or 

* Col.  Rawlinson  has  stated  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xvi.)  that,  “ at  Wurka, 
are  probably  to  be  sought  the  tombs  of  the  old  Assyrian  kings,  which  were  an  object 
of  curiosity  to  Alexander.”  I cannot  agree  with  this  suggestion,  nor,  indeed,  with 
his  identification  of  Wurka  with  the  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  from  whence  Abraham  went 
into  Palestine,  an  identification  it  seems  to  me  opposed  to  all  biblical  and  historic 
testimony,  and  founded  upon  a mere  tradition,  of  which  there  are  a thousand  similar 
current  in  the  country.  It  has  been  suggested  that  Niffer  and  Wurka  may  have  been 
at  some  period  the  public  burial-places  of  Babylon.  This  may  have  been  the  case 
with  regard  to  Wurka,  but  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  coffins  are  found 
above  ruins.  t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  174.  note. 


478 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIY. 


Ram  in  baked  Clay,  from  Niffer. 


ointments,  apparently  Babylonian,  and  a pebble  of  white  marble,  on  which 
are  rudely  engraved  two  goats  before  the  sacred  tree,  and  a few  cuneiform 
characters,  were  brought  to  me  from  some  neighboring  ruin.  Such  were 
all  the  antiquities  I obtained  during  my  visit  to  Niffer.  With  the  pottery 
collected  at  the  mound  they  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

One  of  my  principal  objects  in  journeying  into  these  wild  tracts  of  south- 
ern Mesopotamia,  was  to  visit  and  explore  the  great  mound  of  Wurka. 
These  remains  had  already  been  partly  examined,  as  I have  stated,  by  Mr. 


Fragment  of  engraved  Shell,  from  Wurka. 


Loftus.  A highly  interesting  collection  of  relics,  comprising  inscribed  clay 
tablets,  glazed  pottery,  ornaments  in  metal,  and  engraved  gems,  had  been 
obtained  by  that  gentleman  during  his  short  residence  among  the  ruins. 
They  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Amongst  them,  and  deserving  par* 


Chap.  XXIV.] 


RELICS  FROM  WURKA. 


479 


ticular  notice,  are  the  fragments  of  a shell,* 
on  which  are  engraved  the  heads  of  two 
horses,  apparently  part  of  a subject  repre- 
senting a warrior  in  his  chariot.  The  out- 
line upon  them  is  not  without  spirit,  but 
they  are  principally  remarkable  for  being  al- 
most identical  with  a similar  engraved  shell 
found  in  an  Etruscan  tomb,  and  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  This  is  not  the  only  in- 
stance, as  it  has  been  seen,  of  relics  from 
Assyria  and  Etruria  being  of  the  same  char- 
acter,— showing  a close  connection  between 
the  two  countries  either  direct,  or  by  mu- 
tual intercourse  with  some  intermediate  na- 
tion. The  inscribed  clay  tablets  have  been 
conjectured  by  Col.  Rawlinson  to  be  orders 
upon  the  Babylonian  treasury  for  payment, 
on  presentation,  of  certain  sums  in  gold,  in 
fact  hank  notes,  or  a clay  currency.  That 
they  are  not  all  of  the  Babylonian  period  is 
proved  by  the  name  of  a Persian  king  of 
the  Achsemenian  dynasty  having  been  read 
upon  one  of  them.  They  are  less  well  pre- 
served than  the  more  ancient  documents  in 
the  same  material,  discovered  in  the  Assyrian  ruins,  and  many  of  them 
have  crumbled  away.  This  is  owing  to  the  nitrous  nature  of  the  soil  cov- 
ering the  remains  in  Babylonia,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  clay  out  of  which 
these  objects,  as  well  as  the  pottery  of  the  country,  was  made.  It  throws 
out  a kind  of  white  efflorescence,  and  gradually  falls  to  pieces.  The  in- 
scribed tablets,  however,  have  been  partly  restored  by  the  same  process  as 
the  ivories  from  Nimroud,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  They  have  been 
boiled  in  a glutinous  substance,  which  has  penetrated  into  the  very  heart 

of  the  clay,  and  is  expected  to  prevent 
its  further  decay.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  inscriptions  upon  them,  which 
are,  for  several  reasons,  of  considerable 
importance,  will  ere  long  he  published 
by  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum. 
Amongst  these  relics  were  discovered 
several  small  objects  in  the  shape  of  a 
bull’s  horn,  made  of  a greenish  clay,  and  inscribed  with  several  lines  in  the 
complicated  character  of  Babylon.  The  inscriptions  upon  them  have  not 
yet  been  deciphered. 

Unfortunately  the  state  of  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  marshes  was 
* This  shell  is  the  Tridacna  squamosa. 


Fragment  of  engraved  Shell, 
from  Wurka. 


Inscribed  Object  in  Clay,  from  Wurka. 


480 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV. 


such  that  I was  unable  even  to  make  an  attempt  to  reach  the  remarkable 
ruins  of  Wurka.  The  great  Arab  tribe  of  Montefik,  dwelling  on  the  banks 
of  the  lower  Euphrates,  and  exercising  a certain  control  over  all  the  smaller 
tribes  inhabiting  the  southern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  was  split  into  opposite 
factions  on  account  of  the  rival  pretensions  of  two  chiefs.  Much  blood  had 
already  been  spilt,  and  the  war  was  now  extending  to  the  Afaij.  The  sur- 
rounding tribes  taking  advantage  of  the  general  confusion  and  of  the  un- 
successful attempt  of  the  Pasha  to  subdue  the  Maidan  Arabs,  had  openly 
rebelled  against  the  government,  and  were  laying  waste  the  province  and 
plundering  each  other.  It  was,  indeed,  scarcely  possible  even  to  leave  the 
Afaij  territory,  and  Agab,  who,  like  all  other  Arab  Sheikhs,  was  not  without 
his  rival,  began  to  fear  an  outbreak  amongst  his  own  people.  He  had  al- 
ready been  summoned  to  take  part  in  the  war  between  the  two  Montefik 
chiefs,  and  he  was  anxious  that  I should  be  on  safe  ground  before  his  trou- 
bles commenced.  He,  therefore,  seriously  urged  me  to  return  to  Baghdad. 

The  Sheikh,  with  other  chiefs  of  his  tribe,  was  accustomed  to  pass  the 
evening  in  my  tent.  He  would  on  those  occasions  describe  the  unsettled 
and  dangerous  state  of  the  country,  and  lament  the  insecurity  caused  by  the 
misrule  of  the  Turkish  authorities. 

At  the  same  time  he  would  entertain  me  with  accounts  of  the  districts 
to  the  south  of  the  Afaij,  their  productions,  and  the  manners  of  the  curious 
populations  inhabiting  those  vast  marshes. 

The  greater  part  of  the  country  below  ancient  Babylon  has  now  been  for 
centuries  one  great  swamp.  It  is,  indeed,  what  the  prophet  foretold  it 
should  be,  “ a desert  of  the  sea.”*  The  embankments  of  the  rivers,  utterly 
neglected,  have  broken  away,  and  the  waters  have  spread  over  the  face  of 
the  land.  The  best  known  of  these  marshes  are  the  Lemlun,  formed  by 
the  Euphrates  above  its  confluence  with  the  Tigris  at  Korna.  But  they 
now  only  form  a part  of  those  which  are  yearly  increasing,  and  threaten  to 
cover  the  whole  of  southern  Mesopotamia. 

The  Arab  tribes  inhabiting  them  are,  as  I have  already  observed,  amongst 
the  most  wild  and  ignorant  that  can  be  found  in  this  part  of  Asia.  Their 
intercourse  with  the  Turkish  rulers,  small  as  it  may  be,  for  their  depend- 
ence upon  the  Porte  is  indeed  but  nominal,  does  not  tend  to  raise  them  in 
the  scale  of  humanity.  The  relations  between  them  have  generally  con- 
sisted of  little  more  than  a trial  of  treachery  and  deceit ; and,  whilst  the 
Turk  looks  upon  these  Arabs  as  mere  wild  beasts,  they  in  return  have  lost 
all  confidence  in  the  faith  and  honor  of  the  Ottoman  government.  That 
these  wild  tribes,  however,  are  not  insensible  to  justice  and  to  a feeling  of 
gratitude,  that  even  they — ignorant  and  barbarous  as  they  are — may  be 
easily  governed  and  moved  by  kindness  and  equitable  treatment,  has  been 
proved  by  their  conduct  towards  the  few  English  merchants  and  travellers 
who  have  had  dealings  with  them,  and  have  visited  the  rivers  on  which 
they  principally  dwell.  When,  on  more  than  one  occasion  during  my  res- 

* Isaiah,  xxi.  1. 


THE  AFAU  ARABS. 


481 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

idence  in  the  East,  the  navigation  of  the  Tigris  had  been  completely  inter- 
rupted, and  all  vessels  belonging  to  the  Turkish  government  and  its  sub- 
jects had  been  stopped  or  plundered,  so  that  the  communication  between 
Busrah  and  Baghdad  had  entirely  ceased,  a British  merchant  was  able  to 
bring  up  his  own  boats  laden  with  valuable  cargoes  through  the  midst 
of  crowds  of  armed  men  who  lined  the  banks.  For  these  Arabs  knew 
that  in  their  dealings  with  Englishmen,  they  had  been  treated  with  just- 
ice and  kindness,  and  that  the  black-mail  they  levied,  however  contrary  to 
our  treaties  with  the  Porte,  when  once  agreed  to,  had  always  been  hon- 
estly paid. 

This  respect  for  the  British  name  is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the  ad- 
mirable conduct  and  management  of  Captain  Jones  during  the  time  he  has 
commanded  the  steamer  on  the  Tigris.  He  has  succeeded,  during  his  in- 
tercourse with  the  Arabs,  in  removing  the  evil  consequences  of  several  high- 
ly imprudent  and  ill-advised  acts  committed  by  those  who  were  employed 
some  years  ago  in  the  navigation  of  the  river. 

These  Arabs  are  of  the  Sheeah  sect  of  Mussulmans,  and  belong  to  the 
great  tribes  of  Rubbiyah  and  Ahl  Maidan.  Each  tribe  has  innumerable 
subdivisions,  with  distinct  names  and  separate  and  independent  Sheikhs. 
They  live  in  mat  huts  and  in  small  black  tents.  Their  chief  wealth  con- 
sists in  vast  herds  of  buffalos,  and  they  are,  on  the  whole,  notwithstanding 
the  wretched  appearance  of  their  dwellings  and  the  scanty  clothing  of  both 
men  and  women,  richer  than  most  Arab  tribes.  This  is  to  be  attributed 
to  their  having  hitherto  been  able,  in  their  almost  inaccessible  retreats,  to 
defy  the  Turkish  authorities. 

Their  buffalos  supply  them  with  large  quantities  of  butter  and  milk  ; the 
former  is  exported,  and  is  a considerable  article  of  trade.  These  hideous 
animals  appear  to  thrive  in  the  marshy  lands,  and  some  districts  actually 
swarm  with  them.  They  are  generally  inoffensive  and  easily  managed. 
Sometimes,  however,  a male  will  suddenly  leave  the  herd,  and  from  some 
cause  go  mad,  attacking  every  one  within  its  reach.  It  is  then  very  dan- 
gerous, and  a strong  party  of  armed  men  sally  forth  to  destroy  it.  The 
Arabs  say  that  the  animal  is  irritated  by  the  smell  of  soap,  and  that  it  will 
even  run  at  persons  who  have  recently  washed  their  clothes. 

These  tribes  have  also  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  but  the  animals  are 
small,  and  their  wool  thin,  and  generally  too  coarse  to  form  an  article  of 
commerce.  They  raise  very  little  corn  and  barley ; rice  of  an  inferior 
quality  forms  their  principal  food. 

The  marshes  and  the  jungles  near  the  rivers  are  the  retreats  of  many 
kind  of  wild  animals.  Lions  abound.  I have  seen  them  frequently,  and 
during  the  excavations  at  Niffer  we  found  fresh  traces  of  their  footsteps  al- 
most daily  amongst  the  ruins.  The  Maidan  Arabs  boast  of  capturing  them 
in  the  following  manner,  and  trustworthy  persons  have  assured  me  that 
they  have  seen  the  feat  performed.  A man  having  bound  his  right  arm 
with  stripa  of  tamarisk,  and  holding  in  his  hand  a strong  piece  of  the  same 

Hh 


482 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV 


wood,  about  a foot  or  more  in  length,  hardened  in  the  fire  and  sharpened 
at  both  ends,  will  advance  boldly  into  the  animal’s  lair.  When  the  lion 
springs  upon  him,  he  forces  the  wood  into  the  animal’s  extended  jaws, 
which  will  then  be  held  open  whilst  he  can  dispatch  the  astonished  beast 
at  his  leisure  with  the  pistol  that  he  holds  in  his  left  hand. 

The  Arabs  declare  that  a small  animal,  called  a “ Nees,”  watching  its 
opportunity  in  a tree,  will  spring  upon  the  lion’s  back,  and  resisting  every 
attempt  of  the  infuriated  animal  to  shake  it  off,  will  suck  the  blood  of  its 
victim  until  it  expires.  I do  not  know  the  origin  of  this  tale,  which  is  no 
doubt  a mere  fiction  ; I have  frequently,  however,  met  Arabs  who  have, 
sworn  that  they  have  actually  seen  the  Nees  on  the  lion. 

In  the  jungles  are  also  found  leopards,  lynxes,  wild  cats,  wolves,  hyenas, 
jackals,  deer,  porcupine’s,  boars  in  vast  numbers,  and  other  animals.  Wild 
fowl,  cranes,  and  bustards  abound,  and  that  beautiful  game-bird  the  franco- 
lin,  or  black  partridge,  swarms  in  the  low  brushwood.  The  Arabs  shoot 
them  with  ball.  The  marshes  are  full  of  fish,  which  attain  a considerable 
size.  They  are  chiefly,  I believe,  a kind  of  barbel.  Their  flesh  is  coarse 
and  full  of  bones,  but  they  afford  the  Arabs  a constant  supply  of  food. 
They  are  generally  taken  by  the  spear. 

Although  the  inhabitants  of  the  marshes  recognise  some  of  the  laws  of 
the  Bedouins,  they  are  wanting  in  many  of  the  virtues  of  the  Arabs  of  the 
Desert.  They  have,  however,  several  customs  relating  to  the  duties  of 
hospitality,  which  are  rigidly  adhered  to.  To  say  of  a Maidan  “ that  he 
has  sold  bread,”  is  to  offer  him  the  greatest  of  insults.  To  part  with  a 
loaf  for  money  is  accounted  an  act  bringing  disgrace  not  only  upon  the  per- 
petrator, but  upon  his  whole  family.  I found  this  peculiar  custom  exceed- 
ingly inconvenient  during  my  residence  amongst  the  Afaij.  Sheikh  Agab 
insisted  upon  giving  daily  to  my  large  party  their  supplies  of  bread ; and 
it  was  impossible  to  obtain  it  in  any  other  manner.  Even  its  sale  in  the 
public  market  was  forbidden.  I was,  at  length,  compelled  to  send  to  a 
considerable  distance  for  flour,  and  then  to  employ  my  own  workmen  in 
baking  it.  The  same  scruples  do  not  exist  with  regard  to  other  articles  of 
food.  They  are  sold  in  the  bazar,  as  in  all  Eastern  towns. 

Every  encampment  and  collection  of  huts,  however  small,  belonging  to 
the  Afaij  and  other  Arabs  of  the  Jezireh,  has  a museef,  or  guest-house.  It 
is  generally  kept  up  by  the  Sheikh  of  the  community,  and  is  the  resort  of 
the  men  of  the  tribe,  who  meet  in  it  during  the  day  to  discuss  public  affairs, 
or  to  pass  their  time  in  listening  to  storytellers  and  gossip-mongers.  Here 
the  traveller  is  hospitably  entertained,  and  is  supplied  with  food  for  himself 
and  his  horse  without  any  return  whatever  being  expected.  It  would,  in- 
deed, be  considered  an  insult  to  offer  payment  to  the  owner  of  the  museef. 
Even  in  their  intercourse  with  Europeans  these  Arabs  have  not  yet  learned 
tq  receive  money  from  travellers  ; and  although  a cloak,  a silk  dress,  a pair 
of  hoots,  or  any  present  of  this  kind  is  readily  accepted  by  the  entertainer, 
it  is  rather  looked  upon  as  a mark  of  honor  and  favor  conferred  upon  him, 


RETURN  TO  BAGHDAD. 


483 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

than  as  an  acknowledgment  for  his  hospitality.  In  encampments  of  com- 
paratively wealthy  tribes,  almost  every  person  of  any  substance  has  his 
museef  always  open  for  the  reception  of  strangers,  and  even  in  the  Souk  of 
the  Afaij,  a coffee-house,  or  place  of  public  entertainment,  is  unknown.  A 
stranger,  according  to  custom,  may  remain  three  days  as  a guest  without 
being  asked  any  questions.  After  that  time,  unless  invited  to  continue,  he 
must  leave  the  museef,  but  he  can  take  up  his  abode  in  another  for  the 
same  period,  and  thus  stop  in  the  encampment  until  he  has  visited  all  those 
who  receive  guests.  On  arriving,  the  traveller  is  immediately  offered  cof- 
fee, and  during  his  stay  he  receives  two  meals  a-day ; a breakfast  in  the 
morning  about  ten  o’clock,  and  dinner  soon  after  sunset.  All  those  who 
happen  to  be  in  the  museef  are  invited  to  eat  at  the  same  time.  At  night 
he  is  generally  supplied  with  a carpet  or  mat  to  sleep  upon,  and  sometimes 
with  a coverlet.  The  museefs  of  the  great  chiefs  are  usually  crowded  with 
guests  and  strangers. 

In  the  souk  or  bazar,  of  the  Afaij  tribe,  were  exposed  for  sale  a few  com- 
mon Manchester  prints — those  world- wide  evidences  of  the  extent  of  Brit- 
ish trade — English  stuffs  (printed  and  dyed  at  Baghdad,  called  tangebs), 
keffiehs,  Damascus  silks,  striped  abas,  dates,  rice,  coffee,  spices,  powder  and 
arms,  the  usual  stores  of  an  Eastern  market.  A few  Christian  jewellers 
fashion  gold  and  silver  ornaments  for  the  women,  and  an  occasional  pedlar 
from  Hillah  or  Baghdad  excites  the  admiration  of  the  Arabs  by  the  display 
of  a stock  of  coarse  knives,  and  common  European  hardware. 

The  dampness  of  the  soil  upon  which  my  tent  was  pitched,  and  the  un- 
wholesome air  of  the  surrounding  marshes,  brought  on  a severe  attack  of 
pleurisy  and  fever.  I was  soon  unable  to  move  from  my  bed,  and  was  re- 
duced at  length  to  a state  of  extreme  weakness.  Fortunately  it  occurred 
to  me  to  use  a blistering  fluid  given  to  me  for  an  injured  horse,  or  I should 
probably  not  again  have  left  the  Afaij  swamps.  Notwithstanding  the  se- 
verity of  the  remedy  it  gave  me  immediate  relief,  and  when  Hormuzd  join- 
ed me  on  the  28th  of  January,  I resolved  to  make  an  attempt,  without  fur- 
ther delay,  to  reach  Baghdad,  where  I could  obtain  medical  aid.  To  add 
to  our  misfortunes,  the  rain  fell  in  unceasing  torrents  for  four  days,  and  of 
course  soon  made  its  way  through  our  tents.  The  waters  of  the  marsh  be- 
gan to  rise  perceptibly,  and  the  Afaij  were  preparing  to  abandon  their  mal 
huts,  and  to  seek,  in  their  light  tiradas,  a safer  retreat. 

Some  days  elapsed,  however,  before  I could  rise  from  my  carpet.  The 
state  of  affairs  was  daily  getting  worse.  Abde  Pasha  had  been  sudden- 
ly deprived  of  his  government  by  the  Porte  on  account  of  the  failure  of 
his  expedition  against  the  Kazail  Arabs,  and  his  fall  had  increased  the 
general  anarchy.  It  was  only  by  joining  a large  party  of  horsemen  on  their 
way  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the  south  that  Hormuzd  had  been  able  to  reach 
Niffer.  I found  that  it  was  quite  impossible  to  penetrate  further  into  Mes- 
opotamia, and  that  by  remaining  much  longer  amongst  the  Afaij  we  ran 
the  risk  of  being  cut  off  from  Baghdad  altogether.  I determined,  there- 


484 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV. 

fore,  to  strike  once  more  into  the  Desert,  where  we  were  less  likely  to  meet 
with  hostile  Arabs  than  in  the  beaten  tracks,  and  to  make  a forced  march 
to  some  village  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hillah. 

Fortunately  I had  my  own  riding  horse  with  me,  and  his  easy  paces  en- 
abled me  to  undertake  the  journey  although  in  a state  of  complete  exhaust- 
ion. On  the  2d  of  February,  I took  leave  of  Agab,  and  pitched  my  tents 
for  the  night  beneath  the  mounds  of  Niffer.  Before  dawn  on  the  following 
morning  we  were  urging  our  horses  over  the  desert  plains  of  the  centre  of 
Mesopotamia.  Two  armed  adherents  of  the  Sheikh  were  with  us,  rather 
to  act  as  guides  than  to  protect  us  from  enemies.  We  travelled  without 
any  cause  for  alarm  as  far  as  the  great  ruin  of  Zibbliyah.  A large  bodv 
of  horsemen  then  suddenly  appeared  in  the  distance.  We  ascended  the 
mound,  and  prepared  to  defend  ourselves  from  this  elevated  position.  But 
either  the  Arabs  did  not  perceive  us,  or  were  bent  upon  some  warlike  ex- 
pedition which  did  not  admit  of  delay,  for  they  passed  onwards,  and  left  us 
to  continue  our  journey. 

Zibbliyah  closely  resembles  the  celebrated  ruin  of  Akkerkuf  near  Bagh- 
dad. It  rises  from  a heap  of  rubbish  in  the  centre  of  the  Desert,  and 
consists  of  a solid  mass  of  large,  crumbling,  sun-dried  bricks,  between  the 
courses  of  which,  at  certain  intervals,  are  layers  of  reeds  as  in  many  of  the 
Babylonian  buildings.  It  is  apparently  rather  the  remains  of  a compact, 
tower  or  platform  than  of  the  walls  of  an  edifice,  and  may  have  served  as 
the  substructure  of  a temple  or  altar,  like  the  Birs  Nimroud,  and  other 
similar  mounds.  Those  w7ho  were  with  me  could  find  no  fragments  of  in- 
scribed bricks  or  pottery  in  their  hasty  search. 

We  saw  no  human  habitation  until  long  after  nightfall,  when  we  reached 
the  small  Arab  hamlet  of  Bashayi.  It  was  surrounded,  for  defence,  by  a 
low  mud  wall,  and  some  time  was  spent  in  a parley  and  explanation 
before  the  timid  inhabitants  would  open  their  gates  to  so  large  a com- 
pany of  strangers.  I could  hardly  remain  in  my  saddle  until  their  fears 
were  set  at  rest,  and  we  were  admitted  within  the  inclosure.  At  length 
I tottered  into  a wretched  hovel,  thick  with  smoke,  and  sank  down  ex- 
hausted, after  a ride  of  fourteen  hours  and  a fortnight’s  complete  abstinence 
from  food. 

My  poor  Jebour  workmen  being  on  foot  had  been  unable  to  keep  up  with 
the  caravan  during  our  forced  march.  They  did  not  reach  the  village  un- 
til daybreak,  and  then  in  a very  sorry  plight,  for  they  were  stripped  to  the 
skin.  They  had  approached,  in  search  of  water,  the  tents  of  some  Arabs, 
and  falling  in  with  a plundering  party  had  been  robbed  of  every  thing  and 
left  naked  in  the  Desert. 

Next  morning  I had  scarcely  strength  to  mount  my  horse.  Hormuzd 
turned  off  to  Hillah  to  put  a stop  to  the  excavations  at  Babylon.  With 
the  caravan  I made  another  forced  march  in  the  beaten  track  to  Baghdad, 
and  reached  the  khan  of  Iskanderiyah. 

We  were  now  within  a few  hours  of  the  end  of  our  journey,  and  leaving 


PALACE  OF  CTESIPHON. 


485 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

the  servants  and  baggage  to  follow  at  leisure,  I quitted  the  khan  with  the 
Bairakdar  before  dawn  to  canter  into  Baghdad.  As  the  sun  rose  from  the 
sea-like  plain,  the  great  ruin  of  Ctesiphon  appeared  above  the  eastern  ho- 
rizon. The  remains  of  this  famous  palace  of  the  Persian  kings  have  often 
been  described  : a vaulted  hall,  exceeding  150  feet  in  depth  and  about  106 
feet  high,  forms  the  centre  of  the  building.  It  is  completely  open  at  one 
end  to  the  air,  but  on  both  sides  of  it  are  wings,  divided  into  several  floors, 
each  containing  dwelling  apartments.  Such  is  the  plan  of  most  modern 
Persian  houses,  in  which  a great  Iwan,  or  open  chamber  for  summer  resi- 
dence, is  flanked  by  sleeping  and  other  rooms,  forming  separate  stories  to  the 
height  of  the  centre  hall.  The  exterior  of  the  palace  of  Ctesiphon  is  orna- 
mented with  pilasters,  cornices,  and  arches  of  brickwork,  now  fast  falling 
to  decay,  but  probably  once  covered  with  fine  plaster,  or  partly  cased  with 
stone.  The  architecture  is  peculiar  to  the  time  of  the  Parthian  and  Sas- 
sanian  dynasties,  being  a mixture  of  Western  and  Eastern  forms  and  dec- 
orations, resulting  from  the  long  connection  between  the  Persian  and  Ro- 
man empires.  Byzantine  architects  were  probably  employed  in  the  erec- 
tion of  many  of  the  great  edifices  founded  by  the  Arsaces  and  Chosroes  ; 
and  in  the  style  of  the  ornaments  and  of  the  sculptured  figures  occasional- 
ly found  on  buildings  of  those  periods,  as  at  A1  Hadhr  and  in  various  parts 
of  southern  Persia,  may  be  traced  the  corrupt  taste  and  feeble  outline  of 
the  artists  of  Constantinople. 

This  ruin,  with  a few  mounds  and  heaps  of  rubbish  scattered  around  it, 
is  ail  that  now  remains  of  the  capital  of  the  Parthian  empire.  On  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Tigris  long  lines  of  earthen  ramparts,  forming  a 
quadrangle  and  inclosing  the  usual  signs  of  former  habitations,  mark 
the  site  of  the  city  built  by  Seleucus  after  the  last  fall  of  Babylon. 

The  victorious  Arabs,  under  Saad,  the  general  of  the  Caliph  Omar,  pil- 
laged Ctesiphon  after  they  had  overthrown  the  Persian  armies  in  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Cadesia,  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  the  Hegira.  They  found 
in  the  palace  the  throne,  the  crown,  and  the  standard  of  the  Persian  kings, 
together  with  a carpet  which  covered  the  floor  of  the  great  hall,  and  was 
of  such  extraordinary  beauty  and  value  that  it  excited  the  wonder  of  the 
conquerors,  and  was  considered  amongst  the  most  precious  spoil  taken  from 
their  enemies.* 

* Gibbon,  in  the  51st  chapter  of  his  Decline  and  Fall,  has,  with  his  usual  elo- 
quence, described  the  capture  and  plunder  of  Ctesiphon.  He  thus  mentions  the  cel- 
ebrated carpet  alluded  to  in  the  text : — “ One  of  the  apartments  of  the  palace  was 
decorated  with  a carpet  of  silk,  sixty  cubits  in  length,  and  as  many  in  breadth.  A 
paradise  or  garden  was  depictured  on  the  ground : the  flowers,  fruits,  and  shrubs 
were  imitated  by  the  figures  of  the  gold  embroidery  and  the  colors  of  the  precious 
stones;  and  the  ample  square  was  encircled  by  a variegated  and  verdant  border. 
The  Arabian  general  persuaded  the  soldiers  to  relinquish  their  claim,  in  the  reason- 
able hope  that  the  eyes  of  the  caliph  would  be  delighted  with  the  splendid  workman- 
ship of  native  industry.  Regardless  of  the  merit  of  art  and  the  pomp  of  royalty,  the 
rigid  Omar  divided  the  prize  among  his  brethren  of  Medina.  The  picture  was  de- 


9 


486 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXIV. 

Ctesiphon  and  Seleucia  received  from  the  Arabs  the  name  of  A1  Madain, 
or  the  twin  cities.  When  Baghdad  was  founded  on  the  Tigris,  a few  miles 
above  them,  the  Caliph  A1  Mansour  wished  to  pull  down  the  palace  of 
Chosroes  for  materials  to  build  his  own  capital.  His  vizir,  who  had  re- 
cently turned  from  the  Magian  religion,  endeavored  to  dissuade  him.  The 
caliph  upbraided  him  for  being  hut  an  insincere  convert  to  Islam,  and  foi 
sympathising  with  those  who  still  professed  his  former  faith,  and  whose 
monuments  he  therefore  wished  to  preserve.  The  attempt  to  destroy  the 
vast  edifice  was  fruitless  ; but  when  it  was  about  to  he  abandoned,  the  vizir 
urged  his  master  to  persevere,  exclaiming,  “ that  if  he  now  ceased  to  pull 
down  the  palace,  history  would  say  that  A1  Mansour  with  all  his  power 
was  unable  to  overthrow  that  which  another  prince  had  built.”* 

I did  not  visit  Ctesiphon  on  this  occasion  ; the  river  separated  me  from 
the  ruins,  and  I only  mention  them  in  this  place  to  describe  a remarkable 
effect  of  mirage  which  I witnessed  as  I rode  towards  Baghdad.  As  the 
quivering  sun  rose  in  unclouded  splendor,  the  palace  was  transformed  into 
a vast  arcade  of  enormous  arches  resting  upon  columns  and  masses  of  ma- 
sonry. Gradually  this  arcade  was,  as  it  were,  compressed  like  the  slides 
of  a telescope,  but  the  building  gained  in  height  what  it  lost  in  length,  and 
one  arch  slowly  appeared  above  the  other,  until  the  ruin  assumed  the  shape 
of  a tower  reaching  to  the  sky,  and  pierced  from  the  base  to  the  summit 
by  innumerable  arches.  In  a few  minutes  this  strange  edifice  began  to 
melt  away  into  air,  and  I saw  a magnified,  though  perfect  image  of  the 
palace  ; hut  upon  it  was  its  exact  counterpart  upside  down.  Other  equally 
singular  changes  succeeded  until  the  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens,  and  the 
ruin  at  length  disappeared  in  the  distance.  The  small  bushes  of  camel- 
thorn  scattered  over  the  Desert  were  during  this  time  turned  into  forest 
trees,  and  a transparent  lake  imaged  for  a fleeting  hour  in  its  counterfeit 
waters  the  varying  forms  of  the  unsubstantial  edifice.  Although  I have 
seen  many  extraordinary  effects  of  mirage  during  my  wanderings  in  the 
East,  I scarcely  remember  to  have  witnessed  one  more  striking  or  more 
beautiful  than  that  near  the  ruins  of  Ctesiphon. t 

stroyed ; but  such  was  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  materials,  that  the  share  of  Ali  alone 
was  sold  for  twenty  thousand  drams.”  It  was  in  the  palace  of  Ctesiphon  also  that 
the  Arabs  found  the  camphor  used  by  the  Persians  to  mix  with  the  wax  for  illu- 
minating the  halls.  They  took  it  for  salt,  and  did  not  discover  their  mistake  until 
they  had  mixed  it  with  their  bread. 

* A similar  story  is  related  by  D’Herbelot.  See  his  Bibliotheque  Orientale,  under 
the  title  of  Madain. 

t I witnessed  another  very  remarkable  effect  of  mirage  in  the  early  spring  of  1840, 
when  riding  one  morning  over  the  plains  near  Bir,  on  the  Euphrates.  Suddenly,  as 
if  by  enchantment,  a magnificent  city,  standing  on  the  borders  of  a lake,  rose  before 
me.  Palaces,  domes,  towers,  and  the  spires  of  Gothic  cathedrals  were  reflected  in 
the  blue  waters.  The  deception  was  so  complete,  the  appearance  so  real,  that  I 
could  scarcely  believe  some  mighty  capital  had  not  been  by  magic  transported  into 
the  Desert.  There  was  scarcely  a stone  or  a bush  to  account  for  this  singular  phe- 
nomenon. 


ARRIVAL  AT  BAGHDAD. 


487 


Chap.  XXIV.] 

I had  but  just  strength  left  me  to  reach  the  gates  of  Baghdad.  Once 
in  the  city,  under  the  friendly  care  of  Dr.  Hyslop,  I soon  recovered  my 
health,  and  was  ready  to  start  on  fresh  adventures. 


Arab  Sheep. 


r 


Nestorian  and  Arab  Workmen,  with  Jar  discovered  at  Nimroud. 


CHAPTER  XXY. 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  DEPARTURE. SAHIMAN. PLUNDER  OF  HIS  CAMELS. LEAVE  BAGHDAD. 

JOURNEY  THROUGH  MESOPOTAMIA. EARLY  ARAB  REMAINS. THE  MEDIAN  WALL. 

TEKRIT. HORSES  STOLEN. INSTANCES  OF  BEDOUIN  HONESTY. EXCAVATIONS  AT  KALAH 

SHERGHAT. REACH  MOSUL. DISCOVERIES  DURING  ABSENCE. NEW  CHAMBERS  AT  KOU- 

YUNJIK. DESCRIPTION  OF  BAS-RELIEFS. EXTENT  OF  THE  RUINS  EXPLORED. BASES  OF 

PILLARS. SMALL  OBJECTS. — ROMAN  COINS  STRUCK  AT  NINEVEH. HOARD  OF  DENARII. 

GREEK  RELICS. ABSENCE  OF  ASSYRIAN  TOMBS FRAGMENT  WITH  EGYPTIAN  CHAR- 
ACTERS.  ASSYRIAN  RELICS. REMAINS  BENEATH  THE  TOMB  OF  JONAH. DISCOVERIES 

AT  SHEREEF-KHAN. — AT  NIMROUD. NAMES  OF  NEW  KINGS. ASSYRIAN  WEIGHTS. EN- 

GRAVED CYLINDERS. 

There  was  no  hope  of  improvement  in  the  state  of  the  country  round 
Baghdad.  The  Pasha  had  left  the  dam  of  the  Hindiyah,  which  shortly 
after  again  gave  way,  and  afforded  fresh  retreats  to  the  Arabs.  Under 
these  circumstances,  and  for  other  reasons,  I deemed  it  prudent  to  give  up 
for  the  time  the  excavations  in  the  ruins  of  Babylonia.  When  tranquillity 
had  been  to  some  extent  restored  in  the  pashalic,  an  expedition  might  he 


RETURN  TO  MOSUL. 


489 


Chap.  XXV.] 

undertaken  either  by  myself,  or  by  some  other  traveller,  with  better  pros- 
pects of  success. 

The  Shammar  Bedouins  were  now  moving  northwards  towards  their 
spring  and  summer  pastures.  I had  been  in  continual  communication  with 
the  sons  of  Rishwan.  Suttum,  whose  wife’s  imperious  temper  still  kept 
him  apart  from  his  family,  had  encamped  during  the  winter  with  another 
branch  of  the  tribe  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tekrit.  It  was  suspected  that 
he  had  been  privy  to  more  than  one  successful  attack  on  the  Turkish  post, 
and  on  certain  treasure  convoys  belonging  to  the  government.  His  tents 
and  those  of  his  friends  had  been  wantonly  fired  upon  by  a party  of  Turkish 
soldiers  floating  down  the  river  on  a raft,  and  it  was  only  natural  that  he 
should  take  his  revenge.  The  roads  between  Baghdad  and  Mosul  were 
completely  closed  by  bands  of  Bedouins,  who  plundered  every  caravan  that 
came  within  their  reach.  Sahiman  and  Mijwell  had  accompanied  their 
father  to  the  plains  of  southern  Babylonia.  The  latter  had  been  severely 
wounded  in  some  affray.  Although  the  Shammar  had  laid  waste  the  vil- 
lages and  plundered  the  sedentary  tribes  belonging  to  the  pashalic  of  Bagh- 
dad, the  government  was  not  sufficiently  strong  to  send  troops  against  them. 
The  Pasha,  indeed,  was  glad  enough  to  get  rid  of  these  troublesome  visitors, 
and  to  assist  them  in  their  return  to  the  north,  by  sending  them  boats  to 
cross  the  marshes  and  great  canals.  Had  these  natural  barriers  been  de- 
fended by  a few  armed  men,  the  Bedouins  would  have  been  caught  in  a 
trap,  and  must  have  shortly  yielded  to  the  Turkish  authorities,  for  they 
could  neither  retreat  nor  advance. 

As  Sahiman  was  journeying  northwards  with  the  rest  of  his  tribe,  I 
thought  this  a good  opportunity  of  following  under  his  protection  the  direct 
track  to  Mosul  through  the  Desert  and  along  the  western  bank  of  the  Ti- 
gris. He  at  once  consented  to  escort  me,  only  stipulating  that  I should  ob- 
tain permission  from  the  Pasha  for  his  camels  and  flocks  to  pass  through 
the  suburbs  of  Baghdad,  instead  of  following  the  longer  and  more  difficult 
road  through  the  marshes,  like  those  of  the  rest  of  the  tribe.  The  request 
was  granted,  and  a guarantee  was  given  to  me  by  the  governor  and  the 
commander  in  chief  of  the  troops,  that  my  Bedouin  friend,  with  his  family 
and  property,  should  cross  the  city  in  safety.  They  had  no  sooner,  how- 
ever, entered  the  gates,  than  they  were  fallen  upon  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  quarter,  aided  by  a body  of  irregular  troops  and  Agayls.  Abandoning 
nearly  eight  hundred  camels,  Sahiman  and  his  brother  Arabs  fled  into  the 
Desert. 

Warmly  supported  by  Capt.  Kemball,  I remonstrated  indignantly  against 
this  act  of  treachery.  The  Turkish  authorities  declared  that  it  was  an  ac- 
cident beyond  their  control,  and  at  length  adopted  means  to  recover  the 
stolen  camels.  It  was,  however,  with  some  difficulty,  that  I was  able  to 
find  Sahiman,  and  then  to  induce  him  to  return  to  Baghdad.  Eventually 
the  greater  part  of  his  property  was  restored  to  him.  It  is  thus  that  the 
Bedouins  are  encouraged  in  continual  enmity  to  the  Porte,  and  that  their 


490 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXY 

reliance  on  the  good  faith  of  the  Turks  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns  has 
been  completely  destroyed. 

This  untimely  occurrence,  as  well  as  repeated  attacks  of  fever,  delayed 
my  departure  for  some  days,  and  it  was  not  until  the  27th  of  February  that, 
bidding  adieu  to  my  good  friends  of  Baghdad,  I crossed  the  Tigris  by  the 
crazy  bridge  of  boats,  and  took  the  crowded  road  to  Kathimain.  There  I 
passed  the  night  beneath  the  hospitable  roof  of  the  Nawab  of  Oude.  At 
daybreak  on  the  following  morning,  under  the  guidance  of  Sahiman,  and 
accompanied  by  Hormuzd,  the  Jebours,  and  my  servants,  I left  the  sacred 
suburb,  and  followed  a beaten  track  leading  to  the  Desert.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  windings  of  the  river,  we  struck  across  the  barren  plain.  The 
low  houses  of  Kathimain  soon  disappeared  from  our  sight,  but  for  some  miles 
we  watched  the  gilded  domes  and  minarets  of  the  tombs  of  the  Imaums, 
rising  above  the  dark  belt  of  palms,  and  glittering  in  the  rays  of  the  morn- 
ing sun.  At  last  they  too  vanished,  and  I had  looked  for  the  last  time  upon 
Baghdad.  We  were  now  in  as  complete  a wilderness  as  if  we  had  been 
wandering  in  the  midst  of  Arabia,  and  not  within  a few  miles  of  a great 
city.  Not  a living  creature  broke  the  solitude.  Here  and  there  we  saw 
the  sites  of  former  encampments,  but  the  Arabs  had  long  since  left  them, 
either  to  move  further  into  the  Desert,  or  to  seek  security  from  an  enemy 
amongst  the  date  groves  on  the  banks  of  the  river. 

We  travelled  with  speed  over  the  plain,  and  in  four  hours  and  a half 
passed  the  ruins  of  a large  caravanserai,  called  Tarmiyah.  After  a ride 
of  nine  hours  we  found  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  the  palm  trees  of  a village 
called  Summaichah,  formerly  a town  of  some  importance,  and  still  watered 
by  the  Dujail,  a wide  and  deep  canal  of  the  time  of  the  Caliphs,  derived 
from  the  Tigris.  The  inhabitants  seeing  horsemen  in  the  distance  armed 
themselves  hastily,  anticipating  an  attack.  They  met  us  at  some  distance 
from  their  dwellings,  firing  their  guns,  brandishing  their  naked  scimitars, 
and  shouting  their  war-cry.  Finding  that  we  were  travellers  and  friends 
they  escorted  us  to  the  house  of  their  Sheikh,  Hashem,  who  immediately 
slew  a sheep,  and  made  other  hospitable  preparations  for  our  entertainment. 
This  chief,  although  now  ruling  over  a stationary  tribe  who  till  the  soil,  is 
of  Shammar  descent,  and  is  married  to  a Bedouin  lady.  As  his  wife,  how- 
ever, will  not  condescend  to  live  within  four  walls,  he  is  obliged  to  compro- 
mise matters  by  passing  one  half  of  the  year  under  her  tent,  and  the  other 
in  his  hovel  amongst  his  own  people.  As  we  expected  to  fall  in  with  her 
tribe  during  our  journey  northwards,  he  entrusted  me  with  a bundle  of  em- 
broidered cloaks  and  colored  kerchiefs  as  presents  to  her  and  her  kin.  His 
museef  was  crowded  with  Bedouins,  for  amongst  the  Arabs  the  hospitality 
of  Hashem  had  become  a proverb.  Summaichah,  too,  being  on  the  edge 
of  the  Desert,  is  convenient  for  hearing  news  from  the  town,  and  as  a place 
of  meeting  before  or  after  plundering  expeditions,  although  a Turkish  mu- 
dir,  with  a garrison  of  a dozen  half-starved  Albanians,  resides  within  the 
walls  of  its  ruined  serai. 


JOURNEY  TO  MOSUL. 


491 


Chap.  XXV.] 

The  plain  on  all  sides  is  intersected  by  the  remains  of  innumerable  ca- 
nals and  watercourses,  derived  from  the  Tigris  and  the  Dujail.  Their  lofty 
banks  narrow  the  view,  and  it  was  only  as  we  passed  over  them,  after  quit- 
ting Summaichah,  that  we  saw  the  distant  palm  groves  of  the  large  vil- 
lage of  Belled.  Scouts  had  been  stationed  on  the  higher  mounds,  far  and 
near,  to  give  notice  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  approach  of  Bedouins,  that 
the  flocks  might  be  driven  within  the  walls.  They  had  quickly  spread 
the  alarm  when  they  saw  us  drawing  near,  and  a body  of  armed  men  ap- 
peared in  the  distance  ready  to  meet  the  supposed  robbers.  We  left  them 
and  their  village  to  the  right,  and  passed  through  the  ruins  of  an  Arab  town 
of  the  time  of  the  Caliphs.  Beyond  it  we  crossed  the  Dujail,  by  a falling 
bridge  of  four  large  arches,  with  a small  arch  between  each.  The  beauty 
of  the  masonry,  the  ornamental  inscriptions,  and  rich  tracery  of  this  ruin, 
showed  that  it  was  of  the  best  period  of  Arab  architecture.^ 

To  the  north  of  the  Dujail  we  wound  through  a perfect  maze  of  ancient 
canals  now  dry.  It  required  the  practised  eye  of  the  Bedouin  to  follow  the 
sand-covered  track.  About  eight  miles  beyond  the  bridge  the  embank- 
ments suddenly  ceased.  A high  rampart  of  earth  then  stretched  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  see,  to  the  right  and  to  the  left.  At  certain  distances  were 
mounds,  forming  square  inclosures,  like  ruined  outworks.  A few  hundred 
yards  in  advance  was  a second  rampart,  much  lower  and  narrower  than 
the  first.  We  had  reached  what  some  believe  to  be  the  famous  Median 
wall,  one  of  the  many  wonders  of  Babylonia,  built  by  the  Babylonians  from 
river  to  river  across  Mesopotamia,  to  guard  their  wealthy  city  and  thickly- 
peopled  provinces  against  invasion  from  the  north.  Captain  Jones,  how- 
ever, who  has  examined  these  remains  with  more  care  and  for  a greater 
distance  than  any  other  traveller,  or  than  I could  do  during  a hasty  jour- 
ney, is  of  opinion  that  they  are  not  those  of  a wall  of  defence,  but  merely 
of  an  embankment,  stretching  for  miles  inland,  and  originally  raised  to  pro- 
tect the  lower  country  from  inundations,  and  to  regulate  its  irrigation.  I 
confess  that  my  own  impression,  even  after  this  explanation,  was  in  favor 
of  the  rampart.  At  any  rate,  if  this  be  not  the  Median  wall,  no  traces  of 
which  have  been  as  yet  found  in  any  other  part  of  Mesopotamia,  it  appear- 
ed to  me  to  be  a regular  line  of  fortification.  It  is  called  by  the  Arabs,  at 
the  place  we  crossed  it,  Farriyah  ; elsewhere,  the  Sidr  al  Nimroud.  or  the 
rampart  of  Nimrod. 

To  the  north  of  it  there  are  no  canals  or  watercourses  except  the  Dujail, 
which  was  derived  from  the  Tigris  a little  above  it,  and  passes  through 
the  mounds  ; an  additional  proof,  it  appears  to  me,  that  the  remains  are 
those  of  a wall,  and  not  of  an  embankment  against  floods.  Beyond  the 
Median  wall  we  entered  upon  undulating  gravelly  downs,  furrowed  by 
deep  ravines,  and  occasionally  rising  into  low  hills.  With  the  rich  allu- 
vial soil  of  Babylonia,  we  had  left  the  boundaries  of  the  ancient  province. 

* It  is  called,  I believe,  the  bridge  ofHarba,  and  was  built  by  the  caliph  Montasser 
BiUah. 


492 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 

The  hanks  of  the  Tigris  are  here,  in  general,  too  high,  and  the  face  of  the 
country  too  unequal,  to  admit  of  artificial  irrigation  being  carried  far  inland 
by  watercourses  derived  from  the  river. 

The  spiral  tower,  the  dome,  and  the  minarets  of  Samarrah  at  length  ap- 
peared above  the  eastern  horizon,  and  we  rode  towards  them.  After  nine 
hours  and  a half’s  journey  we  encamped  for  the  night  on  the  Tigris  oppo- 
site to  the  town.  As  the  sun  went  down  we  watched  the  women  who,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  river,  came  to  fetch  their  evening  supplies  of  water, 
and  gracefully  bearing  their  pitchers  on  their  heads  returned  to  the  gates. 
But  on  our  bank  the  solitude  was  only  broken  by  a lonely  hysena  coming 
to  drink  at  the  stream,  and  the  hungry  jackals  that  prowled  round  our 
tents.  The  ruins  of  an  early  Arab  town,  called  Ashik,  stood  on  a hill  in 
the  distance,  and  near  our  camping  place  were  the  deserted  walls  of  a more 
recent  settlement. 

On  the  third  day' of  our  journey  another  ride  of  nine  hours  and  a half, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  brought  us  to  Tekrit.  We  passed,  and  ex- 
changed salutations  with,  one  or  two  parties  of  Bedouin  horsemen,  going 
to  and  fro  in  search  of  pasture  for  their  sheep.  Further  inland  we  could 
see  the  vast  herds  of  camels  and  the  flocks  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Ahl 
Mohammed,  whose  tents  were  concealed,  as  is  the  custom,  in  the  sheltered 
ravines.  These  Arabs  kept  the  small  town  of  Tekrit  in  a state  of  siege, 
and  its  supplies  having  been  cut  off,  we  had  some  difficulty  in  getting  pro- 
visions for  ourselves  and  our  horses. 

We  were  not  sorry  to  leave  Tekrit,  whose  inhabitants  did  not  belie  a no- 
toriously bad  character.  Our  halting-place,  after  crossing  for  seven  hours 
and  a half  the  same  undulating  gravelly  downs,  was  near  the  ruins  of  a 
fine  old  khan,  called  Karnaineh,  once  standing  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
but  now  nearly  a mile  from  it.  Next  morning  we  struck  inland,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  precipitous  hills  of  Makhoul,  at  whose  very  feet  sweeps  the 
Tigris.  They  form  part  of  a long  isolated  limestone  range  which  com- 
mences with  the  Sinjar,  runs  through  the  centre  of  Mesopotamia,  crosses 
the  river  near  Khan  Karnaineh,  then  takes  the  name  of  Hamrin,  and  ap- 
proaching the  mountains  of  Luristan  continues  parallel  with  them  to  the 
Persian  province  of  Fars.  In  the  Makhoul  hills  are  several  ruins.  Some 
falling  walls  and  towers  hanging  over  the  Tigris,  and  once,  probably,  the 
stronghold  of  a freebooter,  who  levied  black-mail  on  travellers,  are  called  by 
the  Arabs  the  “ Castle  of  the  Giants,”  and  are  said  to  be  the  dwelling- 
place  of  jins  and  various  other  supernatural  beings. 

Our  track  led  through  a perfect  wilderness.  We  found  no  water,*  nor 
saw  any  moving  thing.  When  after  a long  ride  of  about  eleven  hours  we 
reached  some  brackish  springs,  called  Belaliss,  the  complete  solitude  lulled 
us  into  a feeling  of  security,  and  we  all  slept  without  keeping  the  accus- 

* There  were  two  watering  stations  at  a considerable  distance  to  the  left  of  us. 
The  first  (about  eight  hours  from  Karnaineh)  called  Sultaniyah ; the  second  (nine 
hours  and  a half),  Mangour.  They  are  encamping  places  of  the  Shammar. 


JOURNEY  TO  MOSUL. 


493 


Chap.  XXY.] 

torned  watch.  I was  awoke  in  the  middle  of  the  night  by  an  unusual 
noise  close  to  my  tent.  I immediately  gave  the  alarm,  but  it  was  too  late. 
Two  of  our  horses  had  been  stolen,  and  in  the  darkness  we  could  not  pur- 
sue the  thieves.  Sahiman  broke  out  in  reproaches  of  himself  as  the  cause 
of  our  mishap,  and  wandered  about  until  dawn  in  search  of  some  clue  to 
the  authors  of  the  theft.  At  length  he  tracked  them,  declared  unhesita- 
tingly that  they  were  of  the  Shammar,  pointed  out,  from  marks  almost  im- 
perceptible to  any  eye  but  to  that  of  a Bedouin,  that  they  were  four  in 
number,  had  left  their  delouls  at  some  distance  from  our  tents,  and  had 
already  journeyed  far  before  they  had  been  drawn  by  our  fires  to  the  en- 
campment. These  indications  were  enough.  He  swore  an  oath  that  he 
would  follow  and  bring  back  our  stolen  horses  wherever  they  might  be,  for 
it  was  a shame  upon  him  and  his  tribe  that,  whilst  under  his  protection  in 
the  Desert,  we  had  lost  any  thing  belonging  to  us.  And  he  religiously  kept 
his  oath.  When  we  parted  at  the  end  of  our  journey,  he  began  at  once  to 
trace  the  animals.  After  six  weeks’  search,  during  which  he  went  as  far 
as  Ana  on  the  Euphrates,  where  one  had  been  sold  to  an  Arab  of  the  town, 
he  brought  them  to  Mosul.  I was  away  at  the  time,  but  he  left  them  with 
Mr.  ftassam,  and  returned  to  the  Desert  without  asking  a reward  for  per- 
forming an  act  of  duty  imperative  on  a Bedouin,  j Such  instances  of  hon- 
esty and  good  faith  are  not  uncommon  amongst  the  wandering  Arabs,  as  I 
can  bear  witness  from  personal  experience. 

Mr.  Rassam  frequently  sent  Suttum  across  the  Desert  with  as  much  as 
five  or  six  hundred  pounds  in  money,  and  always  with  the  most  complete 
confidence.  His  only  reward  was  an  occasional  silk  dress,  or  one  or  two 
camel  loads  of  corn  for  his  family,  the  whole  of  the  value  of  a few  shillings.* 
Of  late  years  the  wool  of  the  Bedouin  sheep  has  been  in  considerable  de- 
mand in  the  European  markets,  and  a large  trade  in  this  article  has  al- 
ready been  opened  with  the  Shammar.  Money  is  generally  advanced  some 
months  before  the  sheep  are  sheared,  to  enable  the  Arabs  to  buy  their  win- 
ter stock  of  provisions.  Mr.  Rassam  has  thus  paid  beforehand  several  thou- 
sand pounds  without  any  written  or  other  guarantee  whatever.  The  tribes 
leave  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town,  and  are  not  again  heard  of  until  their 
long  strings  of  camels  are  seen  bringing  the  promised  wool.  I remember 
a Bedouin  coming  all  the  way  alone  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Baghdad 
to  pay  Mr.  Rassam  a trifling  sum,  I think  between  three  and  four  shillings, 
the  balance  of  a wool  account  between  them. 

A youth  of  the  great  tribe  of  the  Aneyza  having  quarrelled  with  his  par- 
ents, ran  away  and  came  to  Mosul,  when  he  entered  as  a student  in  a 
college.  He  became  a Mullah,  and  had  almost  forgotten  his  early  friends, 
when  the  tribe,  driven  by  a famine  from  the  Syrian  desert,  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  and  encamped  near  the  town  to  buy  corn.  Ibn  Gayshish, 
their  Sheikh,  hearing  by  chance  that  the  fugitive  was  still  alive,  and  now 

* I have  lately  learnt,  to  my  great  grief,  that  poor  Suttum  has  been  killed  in  some 
affray  with  the  Aneyza. 


494 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXY. 


a member  of  the  priesthood,  sent  a messenger  to  him  to  say,  that  since  he 
had  quitted  his  tents  his  father  had  died,  and  had  left  a certain  number 
of  camels,  which  had  been  divided  according  to  the  law  amongst  his  family. 
Those  allotted  to  him  had  been  in  the  safe  keeping  of  the  tribe,  and  had 
increased  yearly.  The  chief  was  now  ready  to  do  with  them  as  their 
rightful  owner  might  direct. 

Mr.  Rassam  had,  at  my  request,  sent  a party  of  Jebours  to  renew  the 
excavations  at  Kalah  Sherghat,  which  had  been  very  imperfectly  exam- 
ined. The  springs  of  Belaliss  are  separated  from  the  shoulder  of  the  Ge- 
bel  Makhoul,  which  overhangs  the  ruins,  by  a wild  rocky  valley,  called 
Wadi  Jehannen,  the  Yalley  of  Hell.  We  crossed  it  and  the  hills  in  about 
three  hours  and  a half,  and  came  suddenly  upon  the  workmen,  who,  of 
course,  took  us  for  Bedouin  plunderers,  and  prepared  to  defend  themselves. 
They  had  opened  trenches  in  various  parts  of  the  great  mound,  but  had 
made  no  discoveries  of  any  importance,  and  I am  inclined  to  doubt  whether 
an  edifice  containing  any  number  of  sculptures  or  inscriptions  ever  existed 
on  the  platform.  Fragments  of  a winged  bull  in  the  alabaster  of  the  Nine- 
veh palaces,  part  of  a statue  in  black  stone  with  a few  cuneiform  charac- 
ters, and  pieces  of  a large  inscribed  slab  of  copper,  were,  it  is  true,  found  in 
the  ruins  ; but  these  remains  were  scarcely  sufficient  to  warrant  the  contin- 
uation of  the  excavations  on  a spot  so  difficult  of  access,  and  exposed  to  so 
much  risk  from  the  Desert  Arabs.  I collected  the  fragments  of  a large  in- 
scribed cylinder  in  baked  clay,*  and  a copper  cup,  a few  vases  in  common 
pottery,  and  some  beads,  which  had  been  taken  from  tombs  similar  to  those 
before  opened  on  the  mound. 

We  encamped  in  the  jungle  to  the  north  of  the  ruins,  and  were  visited 
by  fifteen  men  of  the  Albou  Mohammed,  who  frankly  confessed  that  they 
were  thieves,  out  on  their  vocation.  As  the  tribe  does  not  bear  a very  good 
character  for  honesty,  and  as  it  might  have  struck  our  guests  that  they  had 
no  need  of  going  further  to  fulfil  the  object  of  their  journey,  we  violated 
the  duties  of  hospitality,  and  put  some  of  them  in  irons  for  the  night,  as  a 
guarantee  for  the  good  conduct  of  the  rest. 

I ordered  the  Jebours  to  leave  Kalah  Sherghat,  and  to  return  with  us  to 
Mosul.  We  now  travelled  through  a country  which  I have  before  de- 
scribed.! Abd’rubbou  with  his  Jebours  were  encamped  in  the  rich  pas- 
tures of  Jernaf.  He  came  out  with  his  horsemen  to  meet  us.  We  eat 
bread  in  his  tent,  stopped  for  the  night  near  the  bitumen  springs  of  the  Ki- 
yarah,  and  gallopped  the  following  day  into  Mosul. 

Mr.  Bell,  who  had  been  sent  to  Assyria  by  the  Trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  to  succeed  Mr.  Cooper  as  artist  to  the  expedition,  had  arrived  in 
the  town  two  days  before.  I rode  with  him  without  delay  to  Kouyunjik. 

* Of  the  same  size  and  form  as  that  containing  the  records  of  Essarhaddon,  given 
by  me  to  the  British  Museum.  It  has  been  only  partly  restored,  and  the  inscription 
which  appears  to  be  historical,  has  not  yet  been  deciphered. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  ch.  xii. 


SCULPTURES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. 


495 


Chap.  XXV.] 

to  examine  the  excavations  made  during  my  absence.  I will  now  describe 
the  sculptures  uncovered  whilst  I was  at  Baghdad  and  after  my  return  to 
Mosul,  previous  to  my  departure  for  England. 

To  the  north  of  the  great  centre  hall*  four  new  chambers  had  been  dis- 
covered. The  firstf  was  96  feet  by  23.  On  its  walls  were  represented  the 
return  of  an  Assyrian  army  from  war,  with  their  spoil  of  captives  and  cat- 
tle. The  prisoners  were  distinguished  by  a cap  turned  back  at  the  top, 
not  unlike  the  Phrygian  bonnet  reversed,  short  tunics,  and  a broad  belt. 
The  women  had  long  curls  falling  over  their  shoulders,  and  were  clothed 
in  fringed  robes.  The  fighting-men  of  the  conquered  tribe  wore  a simple 
fillet  round  their  short  hair  ; a tunic,  falling  in  front  to  the  knee,  and  be- 
hind, to  the  calf  of  the  leg ; a wavy  girdle,  and  a cross-belt  round  their 
breasts,  ending  in  two  large  tassels.  At  their  backs  they  carried  a quiver 
topped  by  a circular  ornament.  The  captives  bore  small  squares,  which, 

from  their  apparent  weight,  were 
probably  meant  to  represent  ingots 
of  gold,  or  some  other  metal.  Their 
beasts  of  burden  were  laden  with 
the  same  objects.  A kneeling  cam- 
el, receiving  its  k load,  was  designed 
with  considerable  truth  and  spirit. 
The  legs  bent  under,  the  tail  raised, 
the  foot  of  the  man  on  the  neck  of 
the  animal  to  keep  it  from  rising, 
whilst  a second  adjusts  the  burden 
Loading  a Camel  (Kouyunjik).  fr0m  behind,  form  a group  seen  ev- 

ery day  in  the  Desert  and  in  an  Eastern  town.  The  camel  saddle,  too, 
nearly  resembled  that  still  used  by  the  Arabs.  The  women  rode  on  mules, 


and  in  carts  drawn  by  these  animals  and  sometimes  by  men.  Asses  and 
waggons  bore  caldrons  and  sacks,  probably  containing  corn.  One  bas-re- 
lief represented  captives  resting  ; two  unharnessed  mules  stood  eating  their 
barley  in  front  of  the  loaded  cart ; a woman  seated  on  a stone  held  her 
child  upon  her  knees,  whilst  her  husband  drank  water  from  a cup. 

This  chamber  opened  at  one  end  into  a small  room,t  23  feet  by  13.  Oil 

* No.  XIX.  Plan  I.  f No.  XLIII.  same  Plan. 

X No.  XLIV  same  Plan. 


496 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 


its  walls  were  represented  a captive  tribe,  dressed  in  short  tunics,  a skin 
falling  from  their  shoulders,  boots  laced  up  in  front,  and  cross-bands  round 
their  legs  ; they  had  short,  bushy  hair  and  beards. 

In  the  outer  chamber  two  doorways  opposite  the  grand  entrances  into  the 


great  hall,  led  into  a parallel  apartment,  62  feet  by  16  feet.*  On  its  walls 
was  represented  the  conquest  of  the  same  people,  wearing  the  reversed 
Phrygian  bonnet.  There  were  long  lines  of  prisoners  ; some  in  carts,  others 
on  foot.  The  fighti^-men,  armed  with  bows  and  quivers,  were  made  to 
bear  part  of  the  spoil!  *In  the  costumes  of  the  warriors  and  captives,  and 
in  the  forms  of  the  waggons  and  war-carts,  these  bas-reliefs  bore  a striking 
resemblance  to  the  sculptures  of  the  son  of  Essarhaddon,  described  in  a pre- 
vious chapter.!  It  may,  therefore,  be  inferred  that  the  conquest  of  the  same 
nation  was  "'celebrated  in  both,  and  that  on  these  walls  we  have  recorded 
the  successful  wars  of  Sennacherib  in  the  country  of  Susiana  or  Elam.t 
This  chamber,  like  the  one'  parallel  to  it,  led  at  one  end  into  a small 
room  17  feet  square. § On  its  walls,  the  campaign  recorded  in  the  adjoin- 
ing chamber  had  been  continued.  The  bas-reliefs  still  preserved  repre- 
sented the  king  in  his  chariot  receiving  the  captives  ; musicians  playing  on 
harps  before  him  ; mountains  and  forests,  and  a castle  whose  name,  written 

- Hh  Mk  (?)  HMf 

has  not  been  identified  or  deciphered.il 

These  rooms  completed  the  discoveries  on  the  southern  side  of  the  palace. 
On  the  northern  side  of  the  same  edifice,  and  on  the  river-face  of  the  plat- 
form, one  wall  of  a third  great  hall  had  been  uncovered ; the  other  walls 
had  not  been  excavated  at  the  time  of  my  departure  from  Mosul.  From 

* No.  XLVI.  Plan  I t See  Chapter  20. 

t See  Plate!  33  and  34.  of  the  2nd  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh  for  draw- 
ings of  several  of  the  bas-reliefs  in  the  two  chambers.  § No.  XLVII.  Plan  L 
II  These  bas-reliefs  were  amongst  those  which  had  not  been  drawn  at  the  time 
of  my  departure.  I am  not  aware  whether  Mr.  Hodder,  the  artist  chosen  by  the 
Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  as  the  successor  of  Mr.  Bell,  has  since  made  copies 
of  them. 


Chap.  XXV.] 


SCULPTURES  AT  KOUYUNJIK 


497 


the  very  ruinous  state  of  this  part  of  the  building,  and  from  the  small  accu- 
mulation of  earth  above  the  level  of  the  foundations,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  sculptures  still  exist  in  it.  The  standing  wall  had  three  entrances,* 
the  centre  formed  by  winged  lions,  and  the  others  by  fish  gods.  Of  the  bas- 
reliefs  only  fragments  now  remained.  In  one  set  was  depictured  the  con- 
quest of  another  tribe  dwelling  in  the  marshes  of  southern  Mesopotamia. 
The  Assyrians  pursued  their  enemies,  in  wicker  boats,  such  as  I have  de- 
scribed in  my  account  of  the  Afaij  Arabs  ; and  on  the  islands  formed  by 
the  small  streams  flowing  through  the  morass,  were  Assyrian  warriors  on 
horseback.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  woodcut  how  closely  the 


country  resembled  that  now  inhabited  by  the  Afaij  tribes.  The  captive 
women  wore  long  robes  fringed  and  embroidered.  The  palm-tree  flourish- 
ed on  the  dry  land  outside  the  swamps. t 
* No.  LXIV.  Plan  I.  t See  also  PI.  27.  of  the  2d  ser.  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

Ii 


498 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 


On  the  same  side  of  the  hall  was  represented  the  conquest  of  a second 
nation,  whose  men  were  clothed  in  long  garments,  and  whose  women  -wore 
turbans,  with  veils  falling  to  their  feet.  The  Assyrians  had  plundered 
their  temples,  and  were  seen  carrying  away  their  idols.  “ Of  a truth. 
Lord,  the  kings  of  Assyria  have  laid  waste  all  the  nations  and  their  coun- 
tries, and  have  cast  their  gods  into  the  fire ; for  they  were  no  gods,  hut 
the  work  of  men’s  hands,  wood  and  stone ; therefore  they  have  destroyed 
them.”*  Unfortunately  the  bas-reliefs  were  so  much  injured  that  the  na- 
ture of  these  images  could  not  be  satisfactorily  ascertained.  The  figures 
appeared  to  he  beardless,  with  the  exception  of  one,  which  is  that  of  a man 
raising  his  right  arm,  and  bearing  a mace.f 

The  three  entrances  led  into  one  chamber  86  feet  by  244  On  its  cal- 
cined walls  were  only  the  faint  traces  of  bas-reliefs.  I could  distinguish  a 
line  of  chariots  in  a ravine  between  mountains,  warriors  throwing  logs  on 
a great  burning  pile  of  wood,  castles  on  the  tops  of  hills,  Assyrians  carrying 
away  spoil,  amongst  which  was  a royal  umbrella,  and  the  king  on  his 
throne  receiving  his  army  on  their  return  from  battle  with  the  captives  and 
booty.  The  walls  of  a small  room§  opening  into  the  northern  end  of  this 
chamber  had  almost  entirely  disappeared.  The  fragments  found  in  the 
rubbish  showed  that  they  had  also  been  covered  with  sculpture. 

Opposite  to  and  corresponding  with  the  three  entrances  from  the  hall 
were  three  other  doorways  leading  into  a parallel  chamber  of  somewhat 
smaller  dimensions. H Parts  of  four  slabs  were  the  only  sculptures  suffi- 
ciently well  preserved  to  be  drawn  : they  represented  the  siege  of  a great 
city,  whose  many-towered  walls  were  defended  by  slingers,  archers,  and 
spearmen.  The  king  himself  in  his  chariot  was  present  at  the  attack. 
Around  him  were  his  warriors  and  his  led-horses. 

Three  more  chambers  were  discovered  in  this  part  of  the  building. 
They  were  on  the  very  edge  of  the  river-face  of  the  mound.  The  walls 
of  the  outer  roomU  had  been  almost  entirely  destroyed.  An  entrance, 
formed  by  colossal  winged  figures,  led  from  it  into  a second  chamber, 
about  24  feet  square,  in  which  the  sculptures  were  still  partly  preserved. 
Amongst  the  bas-reliefs  was  another  battle  in  a marsh.  The  Assyrian 
warriors  were  seen  fighting  in  boats,  and  bringing  their  captives  to  the 
shore,  one  of  the  vessels  being  towed  by  a man  swimming  on  an  inflated 
skin.**  Sennacherib  himself,  in  his  chariot,  in  the  midst  of  a grove  of 
palm-trees,  received  the  prisoners,  and  the  heads  of  the  slain.  Above  him 
was  the  following  short  epigraph,  commencing  with  his  name  and  title, 
which  I have  omitted,  as  they  were  written  in  the  usual  form. ft 

* Isaiah,  xxxvii.  18, 19. 

t Plate  30.  of  the  2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh. 

% No.  LXV.  Plan  I.  $ No.  LXVI.  same  Plan,  26  feet  by  19. 

II  No.  LXVII.  same  Plan.  Its  length  was  about  82  feet,  and  its  breadth  16. 

f No.  LXXI.  same  Plan.  **  No.  LXX.  same  Plan. 

ft  See  Plate  28.  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  2d  series. 


Chap.  XXV.] 


SCULPTURES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. 


499 


l-  -si  *0  raw  if  \ r-w  fi 
®r  -en  -in  4~m  -n<i  SUSS 


0 !!<  <1-  -IW  M “I<  <T<® 


X\ 

44 


This  inscription  appears  to  read,  “ Sennacherib,  king  of  the  country  of 
Assyria,  the  spoil  of  the  river  Agammi,  from  the  city  of  Sakrina”  (the  last 
line  not  interpreted).  Although  the  name  of  this  city  has  not  yet  been 
found,  as  far  as  I know,  in  the  records  on  the  bulls  and  on  other  monu- 
ments of  the  same  king,  yet  the  mention  of  the  river  enables  us  to  recog- 
nise in  the  bas-reliefs  a representation  of  part  of  the  campaign,  undertaken 
by  Sennacherib,  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  against  Susubira  the  Chal- 
dsean  : whose  capital  was  Bittul,  on  the  same  stream. f Although  the  river 
itself  has  not  as  yet  been  identified,  it  is  evidently  either  a part  of  the  Ti- 
gris or  Euphrates,  or  one  of  their  confluents,  near  the  Persian  Gulf.  We 
have  no  difficulty,  indeed,  in  determining  the  site  of  the  country  whose  con- 
quest is  depictured.  The  marshes  and  palm-trees  show  that  it  must  have 
been  in  southern  Mesopotamia,  or  in  the  districts  watered  by  the  Shat  el 
Arab. 

A great  retinue  of  charioteers  and  horsemen  appear  to  have  followed 
Sennacherib  to  this  war.  Large  circular  shields  were  fixed  to  the  sides  of 
the  chariots  represented  in  the  sculptures. 


The  third  chamber, | entered  from  that  last  described  through  a door- 
way guarded  by  colossal  eagle-footed  figures,  contained  the  sculptured  rec- 
ords of  the  conquest  of  part  of  Babylonia,  or  of  some  other  district  to  the 

* One  character  is  wanting  at  the  end  of  each  line.  t See  ante,  page  123. 

t No.  LXIX.  Plan  I.  About  23  feet  by  19. 


500 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 

south  of  it.  Long  lines  of  chariots,  horsemen,  and  warriors,  divided  into 
companies  according  to  their  arms  and  their  costume,  accompanied  the 
king.  The  Assyrians  having  taken  the  principal  city  of  the  invaded  coun- 
try, cut  down  the  palm-trees  within  and  without  its  walls.  Men  beating 


Assyrians  cutting  down  the  Palm  Trees  belonging  to  a captured  City  (Kouyunjik). 


drums,  such  as  are^still  seen  in  the  same  country,  and  women  clappipg 
their  hands  in  cadence  to  their  song,  came  out  to  greet  the  conquerors. 
Beneath  the  walls  was  represented  a great  caldron,  which  appears  to  have 
been  supported  upon  metal  images  of  oxen  ; perhaps  a vessel  resembling 
the  brazen  sea  of  the  temple  of  Solomon.^ 

Such  were  the  discoveries  in  the  ruined  palace  of  Sennacherib  at  the 
time  of  my  departure  for  Europe.  In  this  magnificent  edifice  I had  opened 
no  less  than  seventy-one  halls,  chambers,  and  passages,  whose  walls,  al- 
most without  an  exception,  had  been  panelled  with  slabs  of  sculptured  ala- 
baster recording  the  wars,  the  triumphs,  and  the  great  deeds  of  the  Assyrian 
king.  By  a rough  calculation,  about  9880  feet,  or  nearly  two  miles,  of  bas- 
reliefs,  with  twenty-seven  portals,  formed  by  colossal  winged  bulls  and  lion- 
sphinxes,  were  uncovered  in  that  part  alone  of  the  building  explored  during 
my  researches.  The  greatest  length  of  the  excavations  was  about  720  feet, 
the  greatest  breadth  about  600  feet.f  The  pavement  of  the  chambers  was 
from  20  to  35  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  mound. 

A glance  at  the  general  plan  will  show  that  only  a part  of  the  palace 
has  been  explored,  and  that  much  still  remains  underground  of  this  enor- 
mous structure.  Since  my  return  to  Europe  other  rooms  and  sculptures 
have  been  discovered.  Both  to  the  north  and  to  the  east  of  the  ruins  com- 
prised in  the  plan,  I had  found  traces  of  chambers,  and  the  fragments  of 

* 1 Kings,  vii.  23 — 25.  The  brazen  sea  of  Solomon  stood  upon  twelve  oxen,  three 
facing  each  cardinal  point.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Assyrian  sculptor  fre- 
quently represented  only  one  figure  to  signify  many,  and  that  more  than  one  ox  prob- 
ably supported  the  vessel  portrayed  in  this  bas-relief. 

t These  measurements  merely  include  that  part  of  the  palace  actually  excavated. 


DISCOVERIES  AT  KOUYUNJIK. 


501 


Chap.  XXV.] 

bas-reliefs.  The  excavations  having  been  carried  to  the  very  edge  of  the 
mound,  to  the  south  and  the  west,  nothing,  of  course,  remains  to  be  discov- 
ered on  those  sides.  How  far  any  of  the  unexplored  parts  of  the  palace 
may  still  be  preserved,  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  conjecture. 

The  excavations  were  not  limited  to  the  corner  of  Kouyunjik  containing 
the  palace.  Deep  trenches  and  tunnels  were  opened,  and  experimental 
shafts  sunk  in  various  parts  of  the  mound.  Enormous  walls  and  founda- 
tions of  brick  masonry,  fragments  of  sculptured  and  unsculptured  alabaster, 
inscribed  bricks,  numerous  small  objects,  and  various  other  remains,  were 
discovered  * To  the  north  of 
the  ruins,  on  the  same  level,  and 
resting  upon  a pavement  of 
limestone  slabs,  were  found  four 
circular  pedestals.  They  ap- 
peared to  form  part  of  & double 
line  of  similar  objects,  extending 
from  the  edge  of  the  platform 
to  an  entrance  to  the  palace, 
and  may  have  supported  the 
wooden  columns  of  a covered 
way,  or  have  served  as  bases 
to  an  avenue  of  statues. f The 
earth  not  having  been  suffi- 
ciently cleared  away  around 

. 1 T 11  . , • Assyrian  Pedestal,  from  Kouyunjik. 

them,  I was  unable  to  ascertain 

whether  there  was  more  than  a double  row.  They  were  amongst  the 
very  few  architectural  remains  dug  out  at  Nineveh.  The  ornament  upon 
them  is  not  inelegant,  and  is  somewhat  Saracenic  in  its  character. 

I will  now  describe  some  of  the  most  interesting  small  objects  discovered 
in  the  earth  and  rubbish  during  the  excavations  at  Kouyunjik.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  mound  within  which  was  the  buried  palace  was 
used  more  than  once,  and  by  more  than  one  distinct  people,  for  the  site  of 
a castle,  if  not  of  a town.  We  know  that  Nineveh  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  the  united  armies  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians ; yet  we  find  Meher- 
dates  taking  the  castle  of  Ninos,  and  the  same  place  is  mentioned  by  sev- 
eral later  authors. $ 

Coins  of  more  than  one  Homan  emperor  were,  according  to  the  super- 

* Since  my  departure  a fine  entire  bas-relief  has,  I understand,  been  found  near  the 
ruined  tomb  in  the  centre  of  the  mound. 

t The  distance  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  pedestals  facing  each  other  was  9 feet 
3 inches;  their  diameter,  ll£  inches  in  the  narrowest,  and  2 feet  7 inches  in  the 
broadest  part.  The  second  pair  found  were  about  84  feet  distant  from  the  first. 
There  were  the  remains  of  a wall  of  sun-dried  bricks  6 feet  3 inches  from  the  centre, 
of  one  of  the  pedestals. 

t Tacit.  Ann.  lib.  xii.  c.  13.,  and  Afnmianus  Marcell.  1.  xxiii.  c.  20.  The  latter  au- 
thor especially  mentions  that  the  town  had  belonged  to  the  Persians. 


502 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV 


Coin  of  Trajan,  struck  at  Nineveh. 


scription,  struck  at  Nineveh.  One  bears  the  head  of  Trajan,  and,  on  the 
reverse,  the  legend  AUG.  FELI.  NINI.  CLAV.  (col.),  round  an  eagle  with 
expanded  wings  between  two  military  standards.  Another  has  on  one  side 

the  head  of  the  Emperor  Max' 
iminus,  and  on  the  reverse  a 
naked  figure  holding  an  object 
resembling  a bull’s  head  in  one 
hand,  with  the  legend  COL. 
NINIVA  CLAVD.  It  would 
appear  from  these  coins  that 
Claudius,  who  established 
many  colonies  in  the  East,  was 
the  founder  of  one  called  after 
him  Niniva  Claudiopolis.* 

As  buildings  thus  appear  to 
have  been  erected  at  various 
times  on  the  mound,  we  ac- 
cordingly find  in  the  rubbish 
remains  of  various  periods. 
Whilst  excavating  the  Assyr- 
ian palace,  we  came  upon  many  foundations  actually  constructed  of  frag- 
ments of  sculpture  from  that  edifice,  which  had 
evidently  been  broken  for  the  purpose  from  the 
slabs  panelling  the  walls.  Amongst  the  relics  oc- 
casionally brought  to  me  by  the  workmen  were 
a few  fragments  of  pottery,  and  coins,  and  ill-cut 
gems  with  inscriptions  in  the  Pehlevi  character, 
of  the  time  of  the  Sassanian  kings  of  Persia,  that 
is,  from  the  first  half  of  the  third  to  the  seventh 
century  after  Christ.  Of  the  Roman  period  we 
have  terracotta  figures  and  lamps,  and  a hoard  of 
eighty-nine  silver  denarii  of  the  Emperors  Ves- 
pasian, Titus,  Domitian,  Trajan,  Antoninus  Pius, 

Fragment  of  stamped  Pottery  Marcus  Aurelius,  Lucius  Verus,  Commodus,  and 
from  Kouyunjik,  probably  of  - 

the  Persian  Period.  Septimius  Se verus,  according  to  the  dates  on  the 

coins  themselves,  from  a.  d.  74  to  a.  d.  201.  Mr.  R.  Stuart  Poole,  of  the 
British  Museum, — to  whom  I am  indebted  for  a list  and  description  of 


Coin  of  Maximinus,  struck  at  Nineveh. 


* There  is  a Greek  coin,  bearing  on  the  obverse  a female  head  wearing  a turreted 
crown,  and,  on  the  reverse,  the  legend  ATOT2IEHN 
T(uy)  npos  TO (N)  KAITPON,  surrounding  a palm  branch 
and  an  arrow.  This  coin  was  first  assigned  by  Mil- 
lingen  (Anc.  Uned.  Coins,  Lond.  4to.  1837,  p.  82.)  to  Atu- 
sia,  which,  being  near  the  Caprus,  or  lesser  Zab,  was 
not  far  from  Nineveh.  The  symbol  of  the  arrow  appears  to  denote  the  Tigris,  whilst 
the  palm  branch  marks  the  country.  I am  indebted  to  Mr.  Yaux  for  a notice  of  this 
coin. 


ROMAN  DENARII. 


503 


Chap.  XXV.] 

these  coins, — conjectures,  with  much  probability,  that  they  were  buried  by 
a Roman  soldier  during  the  second  expedition  undertaken  by  Severus 
against  the  Arabs  of  Mesopotamia  (a.  d.  202),  or  during  the  Parthian  war, 
carried  on  by  the  same  emperor.  The  number  of  coins  of  Commodus,  and 
the  fact  that  there  are  none  of  any  emperor  after  Severus,  lead  to  the  belief 
that  the  hoard  was  buried  about  this  time.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  too,  that 
the  latest  have  few,  if  any,  marks  of  having  been  in  circulation.  Unfor- 
tunately there  are  no  coins  amongst  them  actually  struck  at  Nineveh,  al- 
though they  mostly  belong  to  Eastern  cities.  A few  of  the  reverses  are  of 
considerable  rarity,  and  one  or  two  are  not  found  in  the  extensive  collection 
of  the  British  Museum.* 

Of  the  time  of  the  Seleucnhe  and  of  the  Greek  occupation  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia,  we  have  several  relics  : amongst  them  a small  head  of  Hercu- 
les, with  the  eyes  inlaid  in  ivory,  one  or  two  figures  in  terracotta,  some  cop- 
per and  glass  vessels,  and  various  objects  in  pottery  and  bronze.  To  this 
period  I am  now  inclined  to  attribute  the  earthen  sarcophagi,  the  great  jars, 
and  other  sepulchral  remains  found  at  Nimroud,  Kalah  Sherghat,  Kou- 
yunjik,  and  in  other  Assyrian  mounds,!  which,  when  my  former  work  was 
written,  I believed  to  belong  to  a much  earlier  epoch.  Since  my  return 
to  England  Mr.  Vice-consul  Rassam  has  discovered  at  Kouyunjik  several 
tombs  built  of  slabs  of  stone,  and  apparently  of  even  a later  date,  for  in  one 
of  them,  I understand,  was  found  a gold  coin  of  the  Emperor  Maximinus. 
They  contained,  however,  very  interesting  relics  in  the  same  precious  rnetal 
and  in  glass.  In  one  of  them  was  a thin  golden  mask,  still  preserved, 
which  perfectly  retained  the  features  of  the  corpse.^  Mr.  Rassam  informs 
me  that  most  of  these  tombs  had  been  previously  broken  into  and  rifled  of 
their  contents. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  the  most  careful  search,  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  around  Mosul,  I have  been  unable  to  find  one  un- 
doubted Assyrian  tomb,  nor  can  I conjecture  how  or  where  the  people  of 
Nineveh  buried  their  dead.  The  sepulchral  chambers  in  the  hills  so  fre- 

* Of  the  denarii  not  in  the  British  Museum  are, — Obv.  Head  of  M.  Aurelius,  AV- 
R.ELIVS  . CAES  . ANTON.  . . . ; rev.  military  figure  standing,  TR  . POT . X . COS 
. . . : Obv.  Head  of  same  emperor,  . . . TON  . AVG  . PII  . F . ; rev.  Securitas  (1) 

standing, COS  . II. : Obv.  Head  of  Commodus  ....  AEL  . AVREL . COMM 

AVG.  P . FEL  . ; rev.  Ceres  (1)  standing,  P . M . TR.  . P . XVII.  IMP.  VIII.  COS. 

VII.  P . P (a  variety) : Obv.  Head  of  Commodus  . . . [A]EL  . AVREL  . COMM  . 

AVG ; rev.  Female  figure  with  caduceus  and  cornucopia,  standing  . . . IMP 

VIII.  COS.  VII.  P . P. 

t Of  the  same  period,  I conjecture,  was  the  row  of  jars  discovered  at  Khorsabad, 
and  represented  in  M.  Botta’s  work  on  Assyria. 

X A similar  mask  of  thin  gold  was  discovered  in  a tomb  opened  by  the  officers  of 
the  Euphrates  expedition  on  the  banks  of  that  river.  It  is  preserved,  I believe,  in 
the  museum  of  the  East  India  Company.  The  tombs  opened  at  Kouyunjik  were  de- 
scribed in  the  public  prints  as  being  those  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  Similar  tombs,  con- 
taining gold  and  silver  ornaments,  beads,  &c.,  appear  to  have  been  occasionally  found 
by  the  Arabs  amongst  the  ruins.  See  Rich’s  Kurdistan,  vol.  ii.  p.  126. 


Glass  Objects. 


Bronze  Lamp  (?). 


Earthen  Lamp. 


Earthen  Jar. 


Earthen  Jar. 


Greek  or  Roman  Relics  from  Kouynnjik. 


ASSYRIAN  RELICS. 


50  5 


Chap.  XXV.] 

quently  described  in  these  pages,  are  unquestionably  of  a comparatively 
late  period  The  rocky  gullies  outside  and  between  the  inclosure  walls  of 
Kouyunjik  have  been  examined  over  and  over  again  with  the  greatest  care 
for  traces  of  tombs,  but  in  vain.  In  the  numerous  isolated  conical  mounds 
scattered  over  the  face  of  the  country,  I have  detected  nothing  to  show 
that  they  were  places  of  sepulture.  It  must,  however,  be  confessed  that 
they  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  excavated.  Further  experiments  should 
be  made  in  them,  and  tunnels  opened  into  their  very  foundations.  The 
only  Assyrian  sepulchre  hitherto  discovered  is  probably  the  vaulted  cham- 
ber in  the  high  mound  of  Nimroud,  which  may  have  once  contained  the 
remains  of  the  royal  builder  of  the  north-west  palace  Did  the  Assyrians, 
like  the  fire-worshippers  of  Persia,  expose  their  dead  until  nought  remained 
but  the  bleached  bones,  or  did  they  burn  them  and  then  scatter  their  ashes 

to  the  winds  ? Not  a clue  is  given 
to  their  customs  in  this  matter  by 
any  bas-relief  or  monument  hitherto 
discovered.  The  Assyrians  appear 
to  have  avoided  all  allusions  to  their 
dead  and  to  their  funeral  rites ; un- 
like the  Egyptians,  who  portrayed 
the  ceremonies  observed  after  death, 
and  even  the  events  of  a future  state, 
upon  the  walls  of  almost  every  tem- 
ple and  tomb. 

The  only  relics  found  at  Kouyunjik 

which  I can  refer  to  the  Achsemenian 

Persian  period  are  the  remains  of  sev- 
Fragment  of  Dish,  with  Inscriptions  in  Hiero-  . • 

glyphs,  from  Kouyunjik  erai  dishes  and  vases  in  serpentine 

and  marble.  One  fragment  of  this  nature  is  inscribed  with  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphs, characteristic,  according  to  Mr.  Birch,  of  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies.* 

* The  following  are  Mr.  Birch’s  remarks  upon  this  relic  : “A  shallow  dish  of  mot- 
tled black  and  white  serpentine.  On  the  upper  edge  a line  of  hieroglyphs,  part  of  a 
dedication  which  has  been  engraved  round  the  dish,  reading,  ‘ . . neter  mn  Amen 

Hap(j),’  ‘ Hapi,  the  second  priest  of  Ammon,’  probably  the  person  for  whom  it  was 
made.  On  examination  this  does  not  appear  to  be  pure  Egyptian  work.  The  initial 
sign  of  the  word  Hapi,  the  syllable  Hap , is  made  like  the  Egyptian  Sh,  a mode  of  writ- 
ing which  does,  indeed,  occur  on  some  of  the  tablets  of  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies. 
The  usual  square  mat  is  also  written  in  an  unusual  manner,  the  top  being  rounded, 
which  does  not  occur  in  any  Egyptian  inscription,  and  seems  to  show  that  it  was 
imitated  from  the  Egyptians  by  other  artists  than  Egyptians  It  cannot  be  much 
earlier  than  the  time  of  the  Persians,  and  mottled  vases  of  this  style  appear  to  have 
come  into  use  about  the  commencement  of  the  26th  dynasty  (650  b c.),  as  would 
appear  from  that  inscribed  with  the  names  and  titles  of  Amenartas,  the  Ethiopian 
queen  of  the  25th.  See  vase,  British  Museum,  No  4701.”  I may  here  mention  that 
amongst  the  relics  brought  by  me  to  this  country,  and  which  ought  to  have  been 
described  in  a previous  chapter,  is  a scarab  in  agate,  upon  which  is  engraved  & lion 
springing  on  a stag  or  wild  goat,  a well-known  Assyrian  emblem. 


506 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV 


Of  Assyrian  relics  obtained  from  the  ruins,  the  most  interesting  are 

A colossal  beardless  head  in  limestone,  remarkable  for  the  boldness  of  the 
style  It  is,  probably,  part  of  a lion-sphinx .* 

Handles  in  the  form  of  the  heads  of  lions,  and  other  fragments  of  vases 
and  dishes. 

A fragment  of  striped  marble,  carved  with  figures  in  relief,  and  bearing 
an  inscription  with  the  genealogy  and  titles  of  Essarhaddon. 

A gold  ear-ring  adorned  with  pearls,  resembling  those  still  in  common 
use  amongst  Arab  women. 

A rude  circular  vessel  in  limestone,  ornamented  on  the  outside  with  fig- 
ures in  relief  of  the  Assyrian 


Hercules  struggling  with  the 
lion. 

Moulds  for  casting  ear-rings 
and  other  ornaments  in  gold 
and  silver  The  forms  upon 
them  are  all  purely  Assyrian, 
as  the  lion-headed  deity,  the 
cone,  the  bull’s  head,  and  the 
sacred  signs  seen  in  the  Nim- 
roud  sculptures  round  the 
neck  of  the  king.  The  largest 
mould  is  in  limestone,  the  others  in  serpentine.  They  are  precisely  such  as 
are  used  to  this  day  by  Arab  goldsmiths. 

Various  copper  instruments  (one  in  the  shape  of  a sickle),  a key,f  a comb, 
and  other  objects,  such  as  the  heads  of  spears  and  arrows,  in  iron;  glass 
bottles,  pottery,  fragments  of  terracotta,  and  marble  with  inscriptions,  and 
many  other  relics,  all  of  which,  with  those  above  enumerated,  are  now  in 
the  British  Museum. 


Stone  Vessel,  from  Kouyunjik. 


I had  long  been  desirous  of  making  some  experiments  in  the  mound  on 
which  stands  the  so-called  tomb  of  the  prophet  Jonah.  It  forms  part  of  the 
great  group  of  ruins  opposite  Mosul,  and  is,  like  Kouyunjik,  in  the  line  of  the 
inclosure  walls.  Some  have  believed  it  to  represent  the  real  site  of  ancient 
Nineveh,  Kouyunjik  being  the  remains  of  a palace  added  to  the  city  at  a 
later  period.  It  was  important,  therefore,  to  ascertain  the  nature  and  prob- 
able date  of  the  edifice  covered  by  the  mound.  The  sanctity  of  the  place 
prevented  any  attempt  to  excavate  openly,  and  it  was  necessary  to  carry 
on  my  researches  without  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  Mussulman  inhabit- 
ants of  the  neighbourhood. 

A village  has  risen  round  the  mosque  containing  the  tomb.  The  rest  of 
the  mound  is  occupied  by  a burying  ground,  thickly  set  with  Mussulman 
gravestones.  True  believers  from  the  surrounding  country  bring  their  dead 


* See  woodcut  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

t In  the  same  shape  as  the  Egyptian.  (See  Wilkinson’s  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol 
ii.  p.  112.) 


Terracotta  Vessel,  from  Kouyunjik.  Moulds  for  Gold  and  Silver  Ear-rings, 

from  Nimroud. 


Mould®  for  Gold  and  Silver  Ear-rings,  from  Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud. 


508 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 


to  this  sacred  spot,  and  to  disturb  a grave  on  Nebbi  Yunus  would  cause 
a tumult  which  might  lead  to  no  agreeable  results.  The  pretended  tomb 
itself  is  in  a dark  inner  room.  None  but  Mussulmans  should  be  admitted 
within  the  holy  precincts,  but  I have  more  than  once  visited  the  shrine, 
with  the  sanction  of  my  good  friend,  Mullah  Sultan,  a guardian  of  the 
mosque.  A square  plaster  or  wooden  sarcophagus,  entirely  concealed  by  a 
green  cloth  embroidered  with  sentences  from  the  Koran,  stands  in  the  cen- 
tre of  an  apartment  spread  with  a common  European  carpet.  A few  ostrich 
eggs  and  colored  tassels,  such  as  are  seen  in  similar  Mohammedan  build- 
ings, hang  from  the  ceiling.  A small  grated  window  looks  into  the  hall, 
where  the  true  believers  assemble  for  prayer.  A staircase  leads  into  the 
holy  chamber.  It  is  needless  to  repeat  that  the  tradition  which  places  the 
tomb  on  this  spot  is  a mere  fable.* 

The  village  of  Nebbi  Yunus  is  inhabited  by  Turcoman  families.  Some 
of  their  dwellings  occupy  a considerable  space.  Hearing  that  the  owner 
of  one  of  the  largest  wished  to  make  serdaubs,  or  underground  apartments 
for  summer,  I offered,  through  my  agent,  Toma  Shishman,  to  dig  them  foi 
him,  on  condition  that  I should  have  all  the  relics  and  sculptures  discovered 
during  the  excavations.  By  these  means  I was  able  to  examine  a small 
part  of  the  mound. 

After  a few  days’  labor,  the  workmen  came  to  the  walls  of  a chamber. 
They  were  panelled  with  inscribed,  but  unsculptured,  alabaster  slabs.  The 
inscriptions  merely  contained  the  name,  titles,  and  genealogy  of  Essarhad- 
don,  such  as  were  found  on  the  bulls  and  sphinxes  of  the  south-west  pal- 
ace at  Nimroud.  Several  bricks  and  fragments  of  stone  were  also  obtain- 
ed from  the  ruins,  but  they  all  bore  the  same  inscription.  No  remains 
whatever  of  more  ancient  building,  and  no  relics  of  an  earlier  period  were 
discovered  during  my  residence  at  Mosul  in  the  mound  of  the  Prophet  Jonah. 

Since  my  return  to  England  an  inhabitant  of  the  village,  whilst  digging 
the  foundations  of  his  house,  uncovered  a pair  of  colossal  human-headed 
bulls,  and  two  figures  of  the  Assyrian  Hercules  slaying  the  lion,  similar  to 
those  in  the  Louvre.  He  communicated  his  discovery  at  once  to  the  En- 
glish Vice-consul,  who  informed  Mr.  Hodder,  the  artist  sent  out  by  the  Trus- 
tees of  the  British  Museum.  Through  some  neglect  these  interesting  spec- 
imens were  not  visited  and  secured  before  others  became  acquainted  with 
their  existence,  and  endeavored  to  obtain  possession  of  them.  The  Turk- 
ish authorities,  of  course,  settled  the  claims  of  the  rival  antiquaries  by  seiz- 
ing the  sculptures  for  themselves.  On  several  grounds  this  is  much  to  be 
regretted.  These  remains  will,  however,  probably  prove  to  be  of  the  time 
of  Essarhaddon. 

In  the  plain  between  the  tomb  of  Jonah  and  the  mound  of  Kouyunjik. 
one  of  my  overseers  discovered  the  foundations  of  a building  in  solid  brick 
masonry,  and  part  of  a colossal  statue  of  white  marble.  These  remains 

* See  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  Introduction,  p.  xxii.  Benjamin  of  Tudela 
places  the  tomb  of  Nahum  at  Ain  Japhata,  to  the  south  of  Babylon. 


RELICS  FROM  NIMROUD. 


509 


Chap.  XXV.] 

appeared  to  be  of  the  same  period  as  the  other  ruins,  and  probably  belong 
to  a small  temple  or  shrine. 

Three  miles  to  the  north  of  the  inclosure  of  Kouyunjik,  and  on  the  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  is  a village  called  Shereef-Khan.  Near  it  are  several  mounds. 
The  largest,  though  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  great  ruins  of  Assyria,  is 
distinguished,  like  those  of  Nimroud  and  Khorsabad,  by  a conical  heap  at 
one  corner.  Near  it  are  the  remains  of  a canal,  which  once  led  water  from 
the  Tigris  into  a rich  alluvial  plain.  These  embankments  might  be  mis- 
taken for  a wall  or  rampart.  For  some  time  excavations  were  carried  on 
in  this  mound  under  my  superintendence,  and  discoveries  of  interest  were 
made  in  it.  At  a small  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil  are  the  re- 
mains of  a building.  The  walls  of  the  chambers  are  of  sun-dried  bricks, 
but  several  slabs  of  alabaster,  and  painted  and  inscribed  bricks,  were  found 
in  the  ruins.  A broad  flight  of  alabaster  steps  appeared  to  connect  an  up- 
per with  a lower  part  of  the  edifice. 

The  inscriptions  upon  the  bricks  contain  the  names  of  Sargon  and  Sen- 
nacherib. Those  of  the  former  king  read,  “ Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  the 
city  (or  place)  of  the  mound  of  the  fort  of  Sargon  I called  it ; a temple  of 
the  sun  . . . near  it  I built.”  Other  bricks  mention  a temple  dedi- 

cated to  Mars,  or  some  other  Assyrian  deity.*  From  two  inscribed  lime- 
stone slabs,  also  found  in  the  ruins,  we  learn  that  a palace  was  erected  on 
the  spot  by  Essarhaddon  for  his  son — the  king  who  afterwards  warred 
against  Susiana,  and  caused  the  bas-reliefs  celebrating  his  victories  to  be 
carved  on  the  walls  of  a chamber  in  the  palace  of  Sennacherib,  his  grand- 
father, at  Kouyunjik.  The  name  of  the  place  in  the  inscriptions  appears 
to  be  Tarbisi.  There  are  several  smaller  mounds  in  the  neighbourhood, 
which  have  not  been  explored. 

At  Nimroud  the  excavations  had  been  almost  suspended.  A few  Arabs, 
still  working  in  the  centre  of  the  mound,  had  found  the  remains  of  sculp- 
tured walls,  forming  part  of  the  edifice  previously  discovered  there.  The 
lower  half  of  several  colossal  figures,  amongst  them  winged  men  struggling 
with  lions  and  mythic  animals,  had  been  preserved. 

A few  small  objects  of  interest  were  discovered  in  different  parts  of  the 
ruins,  and  some  additional  rooms  were  explored  in  the  north-west  and  south- 
east palaces.  In  none  of  them,  however,  were  there  sculptures,  or  even  in- 
scriptions, except  such  as  were  impressed  on  bricks  ; nor  was  there  any- 
thing new  in  their  construction  to  require  particular  description  or  addition- 
al plans. t The  south-east  edifice  appears  to  have  been  a building  of  con- 
siderable extent.  Several  rooms  were  opened  to  the  north  of  those  previ- 
ously examined.  The  bricks  found  amongst  its  ruins  prove  that  it  was 

* According  to  Col.  Rawlinson  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xx.),  to  Neptune 
or  Noah ! 

t For  plan  of  upper  chambers,  see  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  14.,  and  for 
that  of  the  chambers  excavated  in  the  south-east  palace  during  the  first  expedition, 
see  same  volume,  p.  39. 


510 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 


built  by  the  grandson  of  Essarhaddon,  who  must  consequently  have  been 
one  of  the  last  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  As  the  inscription  is  new  and  of 
considerable  importance,  I add  a transcript  restored  from  a comparison  of 
several  copies. 


1 El  T -4  =1!  - -4  1*  « I « V'  - 
T!  1 I!  « I « ~ 

(fl»-4-  — «I«*  — 0 

=m=  ^ Ei!<  £l  =1(9  rim  (9  "IT 

lsllEl?<-V(9-n<4r:l(9 

i <r-(!)  rm  -=n  m 

i m -ha  <9  i»  w -=i  «< 


It  must  be  observed  that  variants,  or  different  letters  having  the  same  al- 
phabetical value,  are  sometimes  used  in  all  these  names,  and  that  the  name 
of  the  site  of  the  building  is  not  written  as  on  bricks  from  the  centre  palace. 

Several  tombs  containing  vases,  beads,  and  ornaments,  were 
discovered  above  the  centre  palace.  A few  large  earthen  jars 
from  different  parts  of  the  mound,  a number  of  small  cups  of 
peculiar  shape  from  the  ruins  of  the  upper  chambers,  other 
pottery  of  various  kinds,  and  some  rude  figures  in  baked  clay, 
Cnp  from  Upper  were  the  principal  relics  found  during  the  excavations  at 

Chambers,  Nim-  * * ° 

roud  JNimroud. 

In  the  north-west  palace  was  also  discovered  a duck,  with  its  head  turned 
upon  its  back,  in  greenstone,  similar  to  that  in  white  marble  engraved  in 
the  first  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh.*  These  two  objects  are  of 
considerable  interest,  as  we  learn  from  short  inscriptions  upon  them,  deci- 
phered by  Dr.  Hincks,  that  they  are  weights  of  thirty  mana,  or  half  a Bab- 
ylonian talent.  The  inscription  on  the  duck  found  during  the  second  ex- 
cavations at  Nimroud  is  as  follows  : — 


«<  el  -11  -HA  "1 
m gl-  €R  si  -4-  S3 
^ f <^f 

That  on  the  other  has  already  been  published.!  They  have  been  ex- 
amined at  the  mint,  and  are  found  to  weigh  40  lb.  4 oz.  4 dwt.  4 gr.  and 
39  lb.  1 oz.  1 dwt.  6 gr.  The  difference  between  them  is  owing  to  the 
head  of  one  having  been  broken  off.$ 

* Plate  95.  A.  t See  British  Museum  Series,  p.  83.  F. 

t The  actual  weight  of  the  large  ducks  in  the  British  Museum  being  480  oz.  troy, 


3 


INSCRIPTIONS  ON  BRONZE  LION-WEIGHTS  IN  THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM. 


The  figures  in  the  sixth  column  indicate  the  weights  of  the  Ironzes 
after  the  cleaning  process. 


Weight. 


m 


7 no  mark 


14 


15 


llll 


mu 


yfi?c\wa  u ^ 


Handle 


"I'*  4\\  m yijV 


aide  cf  the  Hon 


7-Tv 

\A 


V A L4/Vvvy7\\ 


side  (fthebasL 


Handle 


\ L\  side  effhe  lien 


'ey/- 'd 1 7 v — V\/ 


side  of  die  lose 


I sideeFfhtlim 


side  of  the  last 

{ / *>  / J 7 side  cf  die  Um 


He  ivscrrptiw.. 


JVb  inscription 


ilvy  7 7 

VWf  "n* 


side  cf  the  lose 
side  cf  the  lose 


ityrf  y 


heftem 


Indistinct 


Handle 


JHoTiandle 


Mhandle 


g wmm 


Indistinct 


trm  | a mm 
TT  0 -‘I  «fe 


Tchandle 


Jllvhmdle 


Indistinct 


Handle 

Mhandh 


h/c  handle 


''M  ^ ’bottom  

Xoluoidh 

v y y«<  rgy 

« ^ ► — 

^ H.  ^AT  mmush 

Indistinct  - — 

Handle 

J 1 J \ DOIAaIIIL' — ......... 

w h N w^y 

/ ' * .reds  / * hettem  TLiiacn.  Ufa 

Handle 

do  handle 

ri° 

)C4fJ  v f 

^ -bottom-  Tatff  round- 

huHstinct — — 

-rrn  g.  r >h4 

it  er  *\  m tiw 

£=T-t  E5  TT  fi+TA 
TT  t¥?  BFT 

JVb  inscription — 


’■»  dwts  <p 


HI 


13 


13 


14 


14- 


Chap.  XXV.] 


ASSYRIAN  WEIGHTS 


513 


It  may  be  inferred  that  two  similar  figures  in  baked  clay,  inscribed  with 
Assyrian  numerals,  from  the  same  ruins,  and  others  of  small  size  in  agate, 
onyx,  and  other  hard  materials,  are  likewise  weights,  probably  parts  of  the 
talent  or  of  the  mana.  It  is  also  highly  probable  that  the  curious  series 

of  bronze  lions  discovered  at 
Nimroud  during  my  first  re- 
searches were  used  for  a like 
purpose.  Since  the  coating 
of  green  rust  has  been  re- 
moved from  them,  they  are 
found  in  several  instances  to 
bear  two  short  inscriptions, 
one  in  cuneiform  characters 
with  the  name  of  Sennache- 
rib, the  other  in  Phoenician,  or 
cursive  Semetic  letters,  ac- 
companied by  parallel  lines 
or  notches  cut  in  the  bronze.* 
Dr.  Lepsius  has  recently  pub- 


Egyptian  weighing  Rings  of  Metal,  with  Weights  in  the  form 
of  a seated  Lien. 


the  mana  would  be  equal  to  16  oz.,  with  a small  fraction  over  The  Attic  mana  has 
been  computed  to  be  14  oz.,  with  a small  fraction  over  It  would  consequently  be  to 
the  Babylonian  talent  as  7 to  8.  According  to  Herodotus  (lib.  in.  c.  89.)  the  Eubcean 
talent  was  to  the  Babylonian  as  6 to  7,  If  this  statement  be  correct,  the  Eubcean 
would  be  to  the  Attic  as  48  to  49.  (Dr  Hincks  ) The  authorities  on  the  subject  of 
the  Babylonian  talent,  &c.  are  collected  in  Boeckh’s  Hebraisches,  Phoenicisches,  und 
Synsches  Gewicht  und  Geld;  and  see  Art.  “ Pondera'’  in  Smith’s  Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. 

* It  must  be  remembered  that  the  dirt  upon  them  and  the  decomposition  they  have 
undergone,  make  some  difference  in  their  weight  I add  a table  of  the  weights  of 
fifteen,  and  the  numbers  of  lines  or  marks  upon  such  as  have  had  the  rust  removed 
A certain  relative  proportion  appears  to  exist  between  them.  In  a parallel  column, 
for  the  sake  of  comparison,  I have  placed  the  weight  of  the  ducks  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. No.  5.  has  been  plugged  with  lead.  Those  marked  with  a cross  have  the 
rings  remaining. 


i 

Weight  of  Lions. 

Number  of 
Marks  on  Lions. 

Weight  of  Ducks. 

lb 

07,. 

dwt. 

gr. 

lb. 

07.. 

dwt. 

gr- 

| 1. 

X 38 

11 

6 

16 

15 

40 

4 

4 

4 

2. 

X 13 

4 

12 

22 

5 

39 

1 

1 

6 

3. 

7 

11 

12 

12 

3 

6 

2 

3 

4. 

X 5 

6 

8 

8 

2 

5. 

id. 

2 

5 

14 

13 

6. 

2 

9 

4 

4 

2 

4 

2 

3 

7. 

2 

6 

9 

4 

1 

13 

17.36 

8. 

1 

9 

12 

2 

1 

4 

23.36 

9. 

X 1 

5 

17 

2 

X 

4 

19.65 

10. 

1 

4 

2 

2 

1 

3 

15.65 

i 11. 

id. 

1 

! 12. 

X 

7 

15 

0 

5 

3 

8.65 

j 13. 

X 

7 

13 

8 

4 

1 

15.625 

14. 

6 

8 

10 

0 

1 

9.85 

! 15. 

1 

15 

0 

3 

1 

6.75 

Kk 


514 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV 


Cylinders  in  green  Jasper 


lished  a bas-relief  from  an  Egyptian  tomb,  representing  a man  weighing 
rings  of  gold  or  silver,  with  weights  in  the  form  of  a bull’s  head,  and  of  a 
seated  lion  with  a ring  on  its  back,  precisely  similar  to  those  from  Nineveh 
now  in  the  British  Museum.* 

The  engraved  cylinders  or  gems,  of  which  ? large  collection  was  brought 
by  me  to  England,  form  an  important  as  well  as  an  interesting  class  of 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian  antiq- 
I uities.  They  vary  in  size,  from 
about  two  inches  to  a quarter 
of  an  inch,  and  are  either  quite 
circular,  or  barrel- shaped,  or 
slightly  curved  inwards  like  that 
represented  in  the  accompany- 
ing woodcut.  They  are  usually 
of  lapislazuli,  rock-crystal,  cornelian,  amethyst,  chalcedony,  agate,  onyx, 
jasper,  quartz,  serpentine,  sienite,  oriental  alabaster,  green  felspar,  and  hae- 
matite. The  workmanship  varies  in  different  specimens,  that  of  some  be- 
ing of  considerable  sharpness  and  delicacy,  and  that  of  others  so  coarse  as 
scarcely  to  enable  us  to  recognize  the  objects  engraved  upon  them.  The 
subjects  are  generally  either  religious  or  historical,  usually  the  former,  and 
on  many  are  short  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  character.  These  cylin- 
ders belong  to  several  distinct  periods.!  The  most  ancient  with  which  1 
am  acquainted  are  those  of  the  time  of  the  kings  who  built  the  oldest  edi- 
fices hitherto  discovered  at  Nineveh.  Col.  Rawlinson  states,  that  on  one 
recently  found  in  the  ruins  of  Shereef-Khan  are  the  names  of  two  of  the 
predecessors  of  the  early  Nimroud  king.  If  such  be  the  case,  which  I am 
rather  inclined  to  doubt,  we  have  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  this  specimen 
From  the  similarity  of  the  subjects,  and  of  the  style  of  art  between  them 
and  the  sculptures  in  the  north-west  palace  at  Nimroud,  I have  ventured 
to  assign  others  collected  by  me  to  the  same  period.  Nearly  all  the  cylin- 
ders of  this  class  are  cut  in  serpentine,  and  the  designs  upon  them  are  gen 
erally  rude  and  coarsely  engraved.  The  subjects  are  usually  the  king  in 
his  chariot  discharging  his  arrows  against  a lion  or  wild  bull,  warriors  in 
battle,  the  monarch  or  priests  in  adoration  before  the  emblem  of  the  deity, 
the  eagle-headed  god,  winged  bulls  and  lions,  and  other  mythic  animals 
accompanied  by  the  common  Assyrian  symbols,  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  sev- 


* Lepsius’  Denkmaler,  Abtheilung  1I1.B  39.  No.  3 See  also  Wilkinson’s  Ancient 
Egyptians  (vol.  ii.  p.  10.)  for  weights  in  the  form  of  a crouching  antelope.  Mr.  Stuart 
Poole  suggests  that  the  use  of  the  bull’s  head  as  a weight  explains  the  well-known 
Greek  proverb,  )8ot/s  iwl  yXwaaij  (/Eschyl.  Agam.  36.,  &c,),  applied  to  a person  who 
had  taken  a bribe  The  commentators  state  that  the  bull  was  a talent,  but  go  no 
further.  For  engravings  of  the  bronze  lions  in  the  British  Museum,  see  1st  series 
of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  96. 

t For  engravings  of  cylinders  obtained  dming  the  excavations,  see  the  2nd  series 
of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  69.  Mr.  Cullimore  has  published  a number  of 
similar  gems  from  various  collections. 


Chap.  XXV  ] 


ASSYRIAN  CYLINDERS 


515 


en  stars,  the  winged  globe,  the  sacred  tree,  and  the  wedge  or  cuneatic  ele- 
ment. An  unique  specimen,  apparently  of  this  period,  represents  a man 
armed  with  a spear,  standing  in  the  midst  of  thirty-two  human  heads,  prob- 
ably the  seal  of  a successful  warrior.  Upon  another  is  a turtle  and  a bird 
before  a human  figure. 


The  next  in  order  of  date  are  those  of  the  time  of  Sargon  and  his  suc- 
cessors. To  this  period  belong  the  cylinder  with  the  fish-god,  and  that 
which  I believe  to  be  the  signet  of  Sennacherib  himself,  described  in  a pre- 
vious part  of  this  work.*  A very  fine  specimen,  cut  in  agate,  represents 
an  Assyrian  goddess,  perhaps  Astarte,  or  the  Moon,  surrounded  by  ten  stars, 
with  a dog  seated  before  her.  In  front  of  her  is  the  moon’s  crescent,  and 
a priest  in  an  attitude  of  adoration.  A tree  and  a rampant  goat,  both  com- 
mon Assyrian  symbols,  complete  the  group.  On  others  of  the  same  age  we 
find  the  gods  represented  under  various  forms,  the  king  and  priests  wor- 
shipping before  them,  altars  and  various  signs  peculiar  to  the  period,  and 
the  usual  mythic  emblems.  On  a small  cylinder  in  white  porcelain  or 
quartz  is  engraved  a cow  of  the  Indian  breed  suckling  a calf,  an  Assyrian 
emblem,  which  occurs  amongst  the  ivory  carvings  discovered  at  Nimroud.f 

* Ante,  p.  135.  One  cylinder  bears  his  name, 
f A similar  group  is  seen  in  a bas-relief  at  Khorsabad.  Botta,  pi.  141. 


516 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 


Assyrian  Cylinder,  in  Agate.  Assyrian  Cylinder,  in  Porcelain  or  Quartz 


The  pure  Babylonian  cylinders  are  more  commonly  found  in  European 
collections  than  the  Assyrian.  They  are  usually  engraved  with  sacred  fig- 
ures, accompanied  by  a short  inscription  in  the  Babylonian  cuneiform  char- 
acter, containing  the- names  of  the  owner  of  the  seal  and  of  the  divinity, 
under  whose  particular  protection  he  had  probably  placed  himself.  They 
are  usually  cut  in  a red  iron  ore  or  haematite,  which  appears  to  have  been 


Babylonian  Cylinders 

a favorite  material  for  such  objects  Many  specimens,  however,  are  in 
agate,  jasper,  and  other  hard  substances.  Amongst  the  most  interesting 
cylinders  of  this  kind  obtained  by  me  is  that  in  spotted  sienite  described 
in  a previous  chapter,*  and  one  in  green  jasper,  remarkable  for  the  depth 


of  the  intaglio  and  spirit  of  the  design,  representing  the  Assyrian  Hercules 
contending  with  a buffalo,  and  a homed  human  figure,  with  the  extremities 

* See  p.  458. 


Babylonian  Cylinder,  in  green  Jasper. 


ENGRAVED  CYLINDERS. 


517 


Chap.  XXV.] 


of  a bull,  fighting  with  a lion.  Between  the  two  groups  is  an  antelope 
with  long  spiral  horns,  an  animal  not  found  at  this  day  in  Mesopotamia.* 

A class  of  cylinders  of  very  rude  workmanship, 
and  usually  in  haematite,  are  probably  of  the  lat- 
est Babylonian  period.  Upon  them  are  usually 
found  the  figures  of  various  deities,  and  especially 
of  Venus,  sometimes  represented  with  the  waters 
of  life  flowing  from  her  breasts.  Amongst  the 

. - most  curious  is  one  in  jasper,  engraved  with  a 

Babylonian  Cylinder,  m jasper.  man  seated  in  a car  of  peculiar  construction  drawn 

by  four  horses : in  front  of  him  are  seven  human  heads  and  two  birds. 

A few  cylinders  and  gems,  Assyrian  in  character,  are  inscribed  with  Se- 
metic  letters,  resembling  the  Phoenician  and  cursive  Babylonian.  They 
are  rare,  and  have  chiefly  been  found,  I believe,  in  ruins  on  the  banks  of 
the  Euphrates,  to  the  north  of  Babylon,  near  Hit  and  Ana.  I would  at- 
tribute them,  therefore,  to  the  Semetic  population  which  inhabited  the  dis- 
tricts on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Syrian  desert.  They  appear  to  belong 
to  various  periods,  from  the  time  of  the  lower  Assyrian  dynasty  (of  which 
three  fine  specimens  are  in  the  possession  of  Captain  Jones  of  Baghdad)  to 
that  of  the  Persian  occupation  of  Babylonia.  To  the  first  period  I assign 
a cylinder  in  the  British  Museum,  representing  two  figures,  half  man  half 
bull,  raising  the  winged  emblem  of  the  deity  over  the  sacred  tree.  On  one 
side  of  them  is  a priest  carrying  a goat,  such  as  is  seen  in  the  Khorsabad 


Cylinders,  with  Semetic  Characters. 


sculptures,  and  on  the  other  a man  in  the  act  of  worship.  Of  the  Persian 
epoch  an  interesting  example  exists  in  the  same  collection.  On  it  is  en- 
graved the  king  contending  with  a winged  human-headed  bull  and  a griffin 
beneath  the  image  of  the  god  Ormuzd.  The  first  word  of  the  inscription 
is  pure  Hebrew,  onn,  Katham,  “ the  seal,”  and  then  follow  the  names  of 
a man  and  of  his  father,  which  I am  not  able  to  decipher  satisfactorily. 

Persian  cylinders  frequently  bear  an  inscription  in  the  cuneiform  charac- 
ter peculiar  to  the  monuments  of  the  Achsemenian  dynasty.  The  most  in- 
teresting specimen  of  this  class  is  the  well-known  gem  of  green  chalcedony 

* Could  this  animal  represent  the  Wothaiyah,  described  to  me  by  the  Arabs  of  Ge- 
bel  Shammar  as  existing  at  Nedjd ! See  page  461. 


518 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 


in  the  British  Museum,  on  which  is  engraved  king  Darius  in  his  chariot, 
with  his  name  and  that  of  his  father.  This  was  probably  a royal  signet. 
Another,  in  the  same  collection,  bears  the  name  of  one  Arsaces,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a chamberlain,  or  to  have  held  some  other  office  in  the 
Persian  court.*  The  device  represents  the  god  Typhon  (?)f  full-faced, 
holding  a lotus  flower  in  each  hand  beneath  the  symbol  of  the  supreme 
Deity  supported  by  two  priests.  A very  fine  cylinder  in  rock  crystal, 
brought  by  me  to  this  country,  and  now  also  in  the  British  Museum,  has 
the  god  Ormuzd  represented  as  at  Persepolis,  raised  by  two  winged  hulls 
with  human  heads,  above  an  oval,  containing  the  image  of  a king.  The 
engraving  on  this  gem  is  remarkable  for  its  delicacy  and  minuteness. 


In  red  Cornelian. 


In  Onyx. 


Persian  Cylinders. 


Persian  cylinders  are  recognised  at  once  by  the  draperies  of  the  figures, 
gathered  up  into  folds,  as  in  the  sculptures  of  the  Achsemenian  dynasty,  a 
peculiarity  never  found  on  pure  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  monuments ; by 
the  crown  of  the  king  ; by  the  form  of  the  supreme  deity,  or  Ormuzd  ; and 
by  the  monstrous  animals,  resembling  the  sculptures  on  the  walls  of  Persep- 
olis. Although  gems  and  precious  stones  of  the  Arsacian  and  Sassanian 
dynasties  of  Persia,  engraved  with  subjects  and  mythical  figures  precisely 
similar  to  those  on  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  relics,  are  by  no  means  un- 
common ; yet  no  cylinders,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  have  hitherto  been  found 
of  those  periods.  Seals  in  this  form  do  not  appear  to  have  been  used  after 
the  fall  of  the  Achsemenian  power. 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  these  cylinders  were  amulets,  engraved 

* The  inscription  reads,  “ Arshaka  nama  Athiyabushana “ Arsaces  by  name,  the 
chamberlain”  (!).  t Represented  on  Egyptian  monuments. 


ENGRAVED  CYLINDERS. 


519 


Chap.  XXV.] 

with  a kind  of  horoscope  of  the  owner,  or  with  the  figures  of  the  deities 
who  were  supposed  to  preside  over  his  nativity  and  fortunes.  But  it  is  ev- 
ident from  the  specimens  above  described,  that  they  were  seals  or  signets 
to  he  impressed  on  clay  and  other  materials  on  which  public  and  private 
documents  were  written.*  Herodotus  states  that  the  Babylonians  were 
accustomed  to  have  their  signets  constantly  with  them,  as  a modern  East- 
ern always  carries  his  seal.f  The  manner  in  which  they  were  used  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  engraving  of  an  inscribed  terracotta  tablet 
from  Kouyunjik. 


Clay  Tablet  with  Cylinder,  impressed,  from  Kouyunjik. 


* Mr.  Landseer  (Sabaean  Researches,  p.  3.)  has  conjectured  that  they  were  “ used 
as  signets,  impressed  for  the  purposes  of  ratifying  such  social  and  religious  transac- 
tions as  called  for  a sacred  pledge.” 

t Lib.  i.  c 195.  As  a written  signature  is  of  no  value,  except  in  particular  cases, 
in  the  East,  and  as  all  documents  to  be  valid  must  be  sealed  with  seals  bearing  the 
names  of  the  parties  to  them,  the  engraved  signet  is  of  great  importance,  and  the 
trade  of  an  engraver  one  of  considerable  responsibility.  The  punishment  for  forging 
seals  is  very  severe,  and  there  are  many  regulations  enforced  for  securing  their  au- 
thenticity. 


520 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV. 

The  seal  was  evidently  rolled  on  the  moist  clay,  at  the  same  time  as  the 
letters  were  impressed.*  The  tablet  was  then  placed  in  the  furnace  and 
baked.  All  these  cylinders  have  been  pierced,  and  one  specimen,  found  by 
my  workmen  in  a mound  in  the  desert  near  the  Sinjar,  still  retained  its 
copper  setting.  They  revolved  upon  a metal  axis,  as  Mr.  Landseer  conjec- 
tured, f like  a garden  rolling-stone 

Such  then  were  the  objects  of  sculpture  and  the  smaller  relics  found  at 
Nimroud  and  Kouyunjik.  I will  now  endeavour  to  convey  to  the  reader, 
in  conclusion,  a general  idea  of  the  results  of  the  excavations,  as  far  as  they 
may  tend  to  increase  our  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  Assyria,  and  to 
illustrate  the  religion,  the  arts,  and  the  manners  of  her  inhabitants. 

* Compare  Job,  xxxviii  14  “ It  is  turned  as  clay  to  the  seal  ** 

t Sabsean  Researches,  p.  7 , a work  which,  with  much  useless  speculation,  contains 
many  ingenious  conjectures. 


Part  of  Colossal  Head,  from  Kouyunjik. 


Vi 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  DISCOVERIES  TO  CHRONOLOGY  AND  HISTORY. NAMES  OF  ASSYRIAN 

KINGS  IN  THE  INSCRIPTIONS. A DATE  FIXED. THE  NAME  OF  JEHU. THE  OBELISK 

KING. THE  EARLIER  KINGS. SARDAN APALUS. HIS  SUCCESSORS. PUL,  OR  TIGLATH 

PILESER. SARGON. SENNACHERIB. — ESSARHADDON. THE  LAST  ASSYRIAN  KINGS. 

TABLES  OF  PROPER  NAMES  IN  THE  CUNEIFORM  CHARACTER. — ANTIQUITY  OF  NINEVEH. 

OF  THE  NAME  OF  ASSYRIA. ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  SCRIPTURE. STATE  OF  JUDyEA  AND 

ASSYRIA  COMPARED. POLITICAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  EMPIRE. ASSYRIAN  COLONIES. 

PROSPERITY  OF  THE  COUNTRY RELIGION  EXTENT  OF  NINEVEH. ASSYRIAN  ARCHI- 
TECTURE  COMPARED  WITH  JEWISH.  — PALACE  OF  KOUYUNJIK  RESTORED. PLATFORM 

AT  NIMROUD  RESTORED. THE  ASSYRIAN  FORTIFIED  INCLOSURES. DESCRIPTION  OK 

KOUYUNJIK. CONCLUSION. 

Although  ten  years  have  barely  elapsed  since  the  first  discovery  of  ru- 
ins on  the  site  of  the  great  city  of  Nineveh,  a mass  of  information,  scarce- 
ly to  be  overrated  for  its  importance  and  interest,  has  already  been  added 
to  our  previous  knowledge  of  the  early  history  and  comparative  geography 
of  the  East.  When  in  1849  I published  the  narrative  of  my  first  research- 
es in  Assyria,  the  numerous  inscriptions  recovered  from  the  remains  of  the 
buried  palaces  were  still  almost  a sealed  book  ; for  although  an  interpreta- 
tion of  some  had  been  hazarded,  it  was  rather  upon  mere  conjecture  than 
upon  any  well-established  philological  basis.  1 then,  however,  expressed 
my  belief,  that  ere  long  their  contents  would  be  known  with  almost  cer- 
tainty, and  that  they  would  be  found  to  furnish  a history,  previously  almost 
unknown,  of  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  powerful  empires  of  the  ancient 


522 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


world.  Since  that  time  the  labors  of  English  scholars,  and  especially  of 
Col.  Rawlinson  and  Dr.  Hincks,  and  of  M.  de  Saulcy,  and  other  eminent 
investigators  on  the  Continent,  have  nearly  led  to  the  fulfilment  of  those 
anticipations  ; and  my  present  work  would  he  incomplete  were  I not  to  give 
a general  sketch  of  the  results  of  their  investigations,  as  well  as  of  my  own 
researches. 

I will  not  detain  the  reader  by  any  account  of  the  various  processes 
adopted  in  deciphering,  and  of  the  steps  gradually  made  in  the  investiga- 
tion ; nor  will  I recapitulate  the  curious  corroborative  evidence  which  has 
led  in  many  instances  to  the  verification  of  the  interpretations.  Such  de 
tails,  philologically  of  the  highest  interest,  and  very  creditable  to  the  sa 
gacity  and  learning  of  those  pursuing  this  difficult  inquiry,  will  be  found  in 
the  several  treatises  published  by  the  investigators  themselves.*  The  re- 
sults, however,  are  still  very  incomplete.  It  is,  indeed,  a matter  of  aston- 
ishment that,  considering  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  discover}' 
of  the  monuments,  so  much  progress  has  been  already  made.  But  there 
is  every  prospect  of  our  being  able,  ere  long,  to  ascertain  the  general  con- 
tents of  almost  every  Assyrian  record.  The  Babylonian  column  of  the 
Bisutun  inscription,  that  invaluable  key  to  the  various  branches  of  cunei- 
form writing,  has  at  length  been  published  by  Col.  Rawlinson,  and  will  en- 
able others  to  carry  on  the  investigation  upon  sure  grounds. 

I will  proceed,  therefore,  to  give  a slight  sketch  of  the  contents  of  the 
inscriptions  as  far  as  they  have  been  examined.  The  earliest  king  of 
whose  reign  we  have  any  detailed  account  was  the  builder  of  the  north- 
west palace  at  Nimroud,  the  most  ancient  edifice  hitherto  discovered  in  As- 
syria. His  records,  however,  with  other  inscriptions,  furnish  the  names  of 
five,  if  not  seven,  of  his  predecessors,  some  of  whom,  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve, erected  palaces  at  Nineveh,  and  originally  founded  those  which  were 
only  rebuilt  by  subsequent  monarchs.t  It  is  consequently  important  to 
ascertain  the  period  of  the  accession  of  this  early  Assyrian  king,  and  we 
apparently  have  the  means  of  fixing  it  with  sufficient  accuracy.  His  son, 
we  know,  built  the  centre  palace  at  Nimroud,  and  raised  the  obelisk,  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  inscribing  upon  it  the  principal  events  of  his  reign. 
He  was  a great  conqueror,  and  subdued  many  distant  nations.  The  names 
of  the  subject  kings  who  paid  him  tribute  are  duly  recorded  on  the  obelisk, 

* I refer,  of  course,  more  particularly  to  the  several  papers  by  Col.  Rawlinson  and 
Dr.  Hincks  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and  by  the  latter  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  especially  in  the  twenty-second  volume,  recent- 
ly published,  and  entitled,  “ On  the  Assyrio-Babylonian  Phonetic  characters.”  I take 
this  opportunity  of  mentioning,  with  the  praise  it  most  fully  deserves,  the  very  inter- 
esting summary  of  the  discoveries  at  Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Persepolis,  published  by 
my  friend  Mr.  Vaux  of  the  British  Museum.  (Nineveh  and  Persepolis.  London, 
1851.) 

t The  north-west  palace  at  Nimroud,  for  instance,  appears  to  have  been  founded 
by  an  earlier  king  than  the  one  whose  name  is  in  the  standard  inscription.  So  also 
Kouyunjik. 


ASSYRIAN  HISTORY 


523 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

in  some  instances  with  sculptured  representations  of  the  various  objects 
sent.  Amongst  those  kings  was  one  whose  name  reads  “Jehu,  the  son  of 
Khumri  (Omri),”  and  who  has  been  identified  by  Dr.  Hincks  and  Col.  Raw- 
linson  with  Jehu,  king  of  Israel.  This  monarch  was  certainly  not  the  son, 
although  one  of  the  successors  of  Omri,  but  the  term  “ son  of”  appears  to 
have  been  used  throughout  the  East  in  those  days,  as  it  still  is,  to  denote 
connection  generally,  either  by  descent  or  by  succession.  Thus  we  find  in 
Scripture  the  same  person  called  “ the  son  of  Nimshi,”  and  “ the  son  of 
Jehosaphat,  the  son  of  Nimshi.”*  An  identification  connected  with  this 
word  Khumri  or  Omri  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  instances  of  corrobora- 
tive evidence  that  can  be  adduced  of  the  accuracy  of  the  interpretations  of 
the  cuneiform  character.  It  was  observed  that  the  name  of  a city  resem- 
bling Samaria  was  connected,  and  that  in  inscriptions  containing  very  dif- 
ferent texts,  with  one  reading  Beth  Khumri  or  Omri.f  This  fact  was  un- 
explained until  Col.  Rawlinson  perceived  that  the  names  were,  in  fact,  ap- 
plied to  the  same  place,  or  one  to  the  district,  and  the  other  to  the  town. 
Samaria  having  been  built  by  Omri,  nothing  is  more  probable  than  that — 
in  accordance  with  a common  Eastern  custom — it  should  have  been  called, 
after  its  founder,  Beth  Khumri,  or  the  house  of  Omri.$  As  a further  proof 
of  the  identity  of  the  Jehu  mentioned  on  the  obelisk  with  the  king  of  Israel, 
Dr.  Hincks,  to  whom  we  owe  this  important  discovery, $ has  found  on  the 
same  monument  the  name  of  Hazael,  whom  Elijah  was  ordered  by  the  Al- 
mighty to  anoint  king  of  Syria. || 

Supposing,  therefore,  these  names  to  be  correctly  identified, — and  our  As- 
syrian chronology  for  this  period  rests  as  yet,  it  must  be  admitted,  almost 
entirely  upon  this  supposition, — we  can  fix  an  approximate  date  for  the 
reign  of  the  obelisk  king.  Jehu  ascended  the  throne  about  885  b.  c.  ; the 
accession  of  the  Assyrian  monarch  must,  consequently,  be  placed  somewhere 
between  that  time  and  the  commencement  of  the  ninth  century  b.  c.,  and 
that  of  his  father  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth. IT 

In  his  records  the  builder  of  the  north-west  palace  mentions,  amongst  his 

* Compare  1 Kings,  xx.  16.  and  2 Kings,  ix.  2. 

t Sargon  is  called  on  the  monuments  of  Khorsabad,  “ the  conqueror  of  Samaria  and 
of  the  circuit  of  Beth  Khumri.”  (Dr.  Hincks,  Trans,  of  the  R.  Irish  Acad.  vol.  xxii.) 

t Omri,  “ bought  the  hill  Samaria  of  Shamar  for  two  talents  of  silver,  and  built  on 
the  hill,  and  called  the  name  of  the  city  which  he  built  after  the  name  of  Shamar, 
owner  of  the  hill,  Samaria.”  (1  Kings,  xvi.  24.) 

$ It  must  be  observed  that  Col.  Rawlinson  detected  these  names  about  the  same 
time  at  Baghdad.  In  consequence  of  the  distance  from  England,  the  priority  of  pub- 
lication fell  to  Dr.  Hincks. 

||  1 Kings,  xix.  15. 

IT  Colonel  Rawlinson  suggests  about  930  b c.  It  is,  I am  convinced,  impossible  to 
fix  to  a year  any  event  happening  at  such  remote  periods,  and  I confess  that  it  ap- 
pears to  me  a waste  of  time  and  learning  to  engage  in  lengthened  discussions,  chiefly 
founded  upon  premises  of  doubtful  worth,  on  such  minute  questions  of  chronology, 
which,  even  if  determined  to  our  satisfaction,  would  after  all  be  of  little  or  no  im- 
portance. 


024 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


predecessors,  a king  whose  name  is  identical  with  the  one  from  whom,  ac- 
cording to  the  inscriptions  at  Bavian,  were  taken  certain  idols  of  Assyria 
418  years  before  the  first  or  second  year  of  the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Hincks,  Sennacherib  ascended  the  throne  in  703  b.  c.*  We 
have,  therefore,  1121  b.  c.  for  the  date  of  the  reign  of  this  early  king.f 

There  are  still  two  kings  mentioned  by  name  in  the  inscriptions  from  the 
north-west  palace  at  Nimroud,  as  ancestors  of  its  builder,  who  have  not  yet 
been  satisfactorily  placed.  It  is  probable  that  the  earliest  reigned  some- 
where about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  b.  c.  Colonel  Rawlinson 
calls  him  the  founder  of  Nineveh  hut  there  is  no  proof  whatever,  as  far 
as  I am  aware,  in  support  of  this  conjecture.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
he  may  have  been  the  first  of  a dynasty  which  extended  the  hounds  of  the 
Assyrian  empire,  and  was  founded,  according  to  Herodotus,  about  five  cen- 
turies before  the  Median  invasion,  or  in  the  twelfth  century  b.  c.  ; hut  there 
appears  to  be  evidence  to  show  that  a city  bearing  the  name  of  Nineveh 
stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  long  before  that  period. § 

The  second  king,  whose  name  is  unplaced,  appears  to  be  mentioned  in 
the  inscriptions  as  the  original  founder  of  the  north-west  palace  at  Nim- 
roud. According  to  the  views  just  expressed,  he  must  have  reigned  about 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  b.  c.  Colonel  Rawlinson  states  that  on  a 
cylinder  discovered  in  a mound  near  Kouyunjik  he  believes  he  has  found 
the  names  of  his  two  immediate  successors.il  But  this  may  be  doubted  un- 
til we  have  further  proof. 

The  father  and  grandfather  of  the  builder  of  the  north-west  palace  are 
mentioned  in  nearly  every  inscription  from  that  edifice.  Their  names,  ac- 
cording to  Colonel  Rawlinson,  are  Adrammelech  and  Anaku-Merodach. 
They  must  have  reigned  in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  b.  c.  We  have 
no  records  of  either  of  them. 

The  first  king  of  whom  we  have  any  connected  historical  chronicle  was 
the  builder  of  the  well-known  edifice  at  Nimroud,  from  which  were  ob- 
tained the  most  perfect  and  interesting  bas-reliefs  brought  to  this  country 
In  my  former  work  I stated  that  Colonel  Rawlinson  believed  his  name  to 
be  Ninus,  and  had  identified  him  with  that  ancient  king,  according  to  Greek 
history,  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  empire. IF  He  has  since  given  up  this 
reading,  and  has  suggested  that  of  Assardanbal,  agreeing  with  the  historic 

* Col.  Rawlinson  says  716.  (Outlines,  p.  xxix.) 

t Another  king  of  the  same  name  reigned  long  after  the  builder  of  the  nortn-west 
palace.  t Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xxii. 

§ Especially  if,  as  Egyptian  scholars  still  maintain,  the  name  is  found  on  Egyptian 
monuments  of  the  18th  dynasty.  Herodotus  assigns  505  years  to  the  dynasty  of  the 
Heraclidae  from  Ninus  to  Candaules,  king  of  Sardis  (1.  i.  c.  7.)  Query  whether  this 
led  to  his  also  assigning  500  to  be  the  duration  of  the  Assyrian  empire  founded  by 
Ninus. 

II  Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xxii.  Dr.  Hincks  believes  this  king  to  have 
been  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the  builder  of  the  north-west  palace. 

IT  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  228. 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


ASSYRIAN  HISTORY. 


525 


Sardanapalus.  Dr.  Hincks,  however,  assigning  a different  value  to  the 
middle  character  (the  name  being  usually  written  with  three),  reads  Ash- 
urakhbal.  It  is  certain  that  the  first  monogram  stands  both  for  the  name 
of  the  country  of  Assyria  and  for  that  of  its  protecting  deity.  We  might 
consequently  assume,  even  were  other  proof  wanting,  that  it  should  be  read 
Assur  or  Ashur. 

I have  elsewhere*  given  a description  of  the  various  great  monumental 
records  of  this  king,  with  extracts  from  their  contents.  He  appears  to  have 
carried  his  arms  to  the  west  of  Nineveh  across  Syria  to  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  to  the  south  into  Chaldsea,  probably  beyond  Babylon  (the  name  of  this 
city  does  not,  however,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  occur  in  the  inscriptions),  and 
to  the  north  into  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia. 

Of  his  son,  whose  name  Colonel  Rawlinson  reads  Temenbar  and  Divan- 
ubara,  and  Dr.  Hincks  Divanubar,  we  have  full  and  important  historical 
annals,  including  the  principal  events  of  thirty-one  years  of  his  reign.  They 
are  engraved  upon  the  black  obelisk,  and  upon  the  backs  of  the  bulls  in 
the  centre  of  the  mound  of  Nimroud.  Colonel  Hawlinson  was  the  first  to 
give  a connected  translation  of  them.f  This  king,  like  his  father,  was  a 
great  conqueror.  He  waged  war,  either  in  person  or  by  his  generals,  in 
Syria,  Armenia,  Babylonia,  Chaldsea,  Media,  and  Persia.  He  received  trib- 
ute, as  it  has  been  seen,  from  Jehu,  king  of  Israel,  and,  according  to  Colonel 
Rawlinson,  from  the  kings  of  Egypt,  who  were  dependent  upon  him.f 

The  two  royal  names  next  in  order  occur  on  the  pavement  slabs  of  the 
upper  chambers,  on  the  west  face  of  the  mound  of  Nimroud.§  They  may 
belong  to  the  son  and  grandson,  and  immediate  successors,  of  the  obelisk 
king.  Such  is  Colonel  Rawlinson’s  view.  Dr.  Hincks,  however,  has  sug- 
gested another  reading  of  these  inscriptions.  He  believes  that  Ashurakh- 
bal  had  a brother  of  the  same  name  as  his  son,  the  obelisk  king  ; that  this 
brother  reigned  over  Mesopotamia,  but  not  over  Assyria,  the  empire  being 
at  that  time  divided  ; that  his  son  succeeded  to  the  obelisk  king  (his  cous- 
in), uniting  the  two  kingdoms,  and  leaving  them  to  his  immediate  de- 
scendant, the  second  king  on  the  pavement  slabs.  The  two  names  have 
not  been  satisfactorily  deciphered.  Colonel  Hawlinson  reads  them  Shamas- 
Adar  and  Adrammelech  II. ; Dr.  Hincks  only  ventures  to  suggest  Sham- 
siyav  for  the  first. 

On  the  Assyrian  tablet,  from  the  tunnel  of  Negoub,||  are  apparently  two 

* See  chap.  16. 

t In  his  interesting  and  valuable  paper  read,  in  1850,  before  the  Royal  Asiatic  So- 
ciety (published  in  part  2.  of  vol.  xii.  of  their  Journal). 

t This,  however,  appears  very  doubtful. 

§ See  my  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  196.,  where  this  genealogy  was  first 
pointed  out. 

II  Discovered  during  the  first  expedition.  (Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  i.  p.  81.) 
This  tablet  was  unfortunately  broken  and  carried  away  before  I could  verify  my  copy 
of  the  inscription,  published  in  the  British  Museum  Series,  p.  35.  During  my  second 
residence  in  Mosul  I was. able  to  examine  the  fragments  which  are  now  in  the  con- 


526 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXYI. 


loyal  names,  which  may  be  placed  next  in  order.  They  are  merely  men- 
tioned as  those  of  ancestors  or  predecessors  of  the  king  who  caused  the  rec- 
ord to  he  engraved.  Dr.  Hincks  reads  them  Baldasi  and  Ashurkish.  As 
the  inscription  is  much  mutilated,  some  doubt  may  exist  as  to  the  correct- 
ness of  its  interpretation. 

The  next  king  of  whom  we  have  any  actual  records  appears  to  have  re- 
built or  added  to  the  palace  in  the  centre  of  the  mound  of  Nimroud.  The 
edifice  was  destroyed  by  a subsequent  monarch,  who  carried  away  its  sculp- 
tures to  decorate  a palace  of  his  own.  All  the  remains  found  amongst  its 
ruins,  with  the  exception  of  the  great  bulls  and  the  obelisk,  belong  to  a 
king  whose  name  occurs  on  a pavement-slab  discovered  in  the  south-west 
palace.*  The  walls  and  chambers  of  this  building  were,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, decorated  with  bas-reliefs  brought  from  elsewhere.  By  comparing 
the  inscriptions  upon  them,  and  upon  a pavement  slab  of  the  same  period, 
with  the  sculptures  in  the  ruins  of  the  centre  palace,  we  find  that  they  all 
belong  to  the  same  king,f  and  we  are  able  to  identify  him  through  a most 
important  discovery,  for  which  we  are  also  indebted  to  Dr.  Hincks.  In  an 
inscription  on  a bas-relief  representing  part  of  a line  of  war  chariots,  he  has 
detected  the  name  of  Menahem,  the  king  of  Israel,  amongst  those  of  other 
monarchs  paying  tribute  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  in  the  eighth  year  of  his 
reign. $ This  Assyrian  king  must,  consequently,  have  been  either  the  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  Pul,  Pul  himself,  or  Tiglath  Pileser,  the  name  on  the 
pavement-slab  not  having  yet  been  deciphered. § 

The  bas-reliefs  adorning  his  palace,  like  those  at  Khorsabad,  appear  to 
have  been  accompanied  by  a complete  series  of  his  annals.  Unfortunately 
only  fragments  of  them  remain.  With  the  exception  of  the  general  record 
on  the  pavement-slab,  no  perfect  inscription  has  hitherto,  as  far  as  I am 
aware,  been  found. II  His  first  campaign  seems  to  have  been  in  Chaldaea. 
and  during  his  reign  he  carried  his  arms  into  the  remotest  parts  of  Armenia, 

vent  of  the  Catholic  missionary  monks,  and  to  restore  the  greater  part  of  it.  It  ap- 
pears to  contain  an  account  of  the  cutting  of  the  remarkable  tunnel  through  the  rock 
in  which  the  tablet  was  found,  and  of  the  canal  leading  frdin  it.  These  great  works 
were  undertaken  to  convey  the  waters  of  the  river  Zab  either  to  Nimroud  or  to  the 
surrounding  plain  for  irrigation. 

* British  Museum  Series,  p.  17. 

t Compare  British  Museum  Series,  p.  17.  1.  7.  with  p.  52. 1.  3.,  and  p.  17. 1.  17  and 
18.  with  p.  51.  1.  6.  second  column ; and  also  an  unpublished  inscription  from  the 
south-west  palace  in  the  British  Museum. 

t British  Museum  Series,  p.  50.  1.  10.  This  interesting  discovery  was  first  an- 
nounced in  the  Athenaeum  of  Jan.  3.  1852. 

$ These  three  kings  came  against  Israel  (2  Kings,  xv.  19.  and  29.,  and  1 Chron 
v.  26.) ; but  Pul  is  particularly  mentioned  as. receiving  tribute  from  Menahem,  and 
Tiglath  Pileser,  as  carrying  away  Israelites  into  captivity  in  the  time  of  Pekah,  be- 
tween whose  reign  and  that  of  Menahem  only  two  years  elapsed.  (2  Kings,  xv.  23.) 

II  Colonel  Rawlinson,  in  a letter  recently  published  in  the  Athenaeum,  states  that 
he  has  discovered  the  complete  annals  of  Tiglath  Pileser,  but  I am  not  aware  whethei 
it  is  to  this  king  that  he  alludes. 


ASSYRIAN  HISTORY. 


527 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


and  across  the  Euphrates  into  Syria  as  far  as  Tyre  and  Sidon.  There  is  a 
passage  in  one  of  his  inscriptions  still  unpublished,  which  reads,  “ as  far 

as  the  river  Oukarish”  T ) that  might 

lead  us  to  believe  that  his  conquests  were  even  extended  to  the  central  prov- 
inces of  Asia  and  to  the  Oxus.  His  annals  contain  very  ample  lists  of  con- 
quered towns  and  tribes.  Amongst  the  former  are  Harran  and  Ur.  He  re- 
built many  cities,  and  placed  his  subjects  to  dwell  in  them. 

Colonel  Rawlinson  conjectures  that  the  first  Assyrian  dynasty  ended  with 


528 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


this  king,*  hut  of  this  we  have  as  yet  no  proof.  The  next  monarch,  whose 
name  is  found  on  Assyrian  monuments,  was  the  builder  of  the  palace  of  Khor- 
sabad,  now  so  well  known  from  M.  Botta’s  excavations  and  the  engravings 
of  its  sculptures  published  by  the  French  government.  His  name,  though 
read  with  slight  variations  by  different  interpreters,  is  admitted  by  all  to  be 
that  of  Sargon,  the  Assyrian  king  mentioned  by  Isaiah.  The  names  of  his 
father  and  grandfather  are  said  to  have  been  found  on  a clay  tablet  dis- 
covered at  Kouyunjik,  but  they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  monarchs  of 
Assyria.!  The  ruins  of  Khorsabad  furnish  us  with  the  most  detailed  and 
ample  annals  of  his  reign.  Unfortunately  an  inscription,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  a campaign  against  Samaria  in  his  first  or  second  year,  has  been 
almost  entirely  destroyed.  But,  in  one  still  preserved,  27,280  Israelites 
are  described  as  having  been  carried  into  captivity  by  him  from  Samaria 
and  the  several  districts  or  provincial  towns  dependent  upon  that  city.! 
Sargon,  like  his  predecessors,  wat  a great  warrior.  He  even  extended  his 
conquests  beyond  Syria  to  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  a tab- 
let set  up  by  him  has  been  found  in  Cyprus. § He  warred  also  in  Baby- 
lonia, Susiana,  Armenia,  and  Media,  and  apparently  received  tribute  from 
the  kings  of  Egypt. 

Colonel  Rawlinson  believed  that  the  names  “ Tiglath  Pileser”  and  “ Shal- 
maneser” were  found  on  the  monuments  of  Khorsabad  as  epithets  of  Sar- 
gon, and  that  they  were  applied  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  same  king. 
He  has  now  changed  his  opinion  with  regard  to  the  first,  and  Dr.  Hincks 
contends  that  the  second  is  not  a name  of  this  king,  but  of  his  predecessor, 
— of  whom,  however,  it  must  be  observed,  we  have  hitherto  been  unable  to 
trace  any  mention  on  the  monuments,  unless,  as  that  scholar  suggests,  he 
is  alluded  to  in  an  inscription  of  Sargon  from  Khorsabad. || 

From  the  reign  of  Sargon  we  have  a complete  list  of  kings  to  the  fall  of 
the  empire,  or  to  a period  not  far  distant  from  that  event.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Sennacherib,  whose  annals  have  been  given  in  a former  part  of 
this  volume.  His  name  was  identified,  as  I have  before  stated,  by  Dr. 
Hincks,  and  this  great  discovery  furnished  the  first  satisfactory  starting- 
point,  from  which  the  various  events  recorded  in  the  inscriptions  have  been 
linked  with  Scripture  history.  Colonel  Rawlinson  places  the  accession  of 
Sennacherib  to  the  throne  in  716,  Dr.  Hincks  in  703, IT  which  appears  to  be 
more  in  accordance  with  the  canon  of  Ptolemy.  The  events  of  his  reign, 
as  recorded  in  the  inscriptions  on  the  walls  of  his  palace,  are  mostly  related 

* Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xxvi. 

t Rawlinson.  Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xxix. 

t The  inscription  is  given  in  the  145th  plate  of  Botta’s  great  work  (see  line  12.). 
I understand  that  the  French  consul  at  Mosul  has  recently  discovered  two  entire  his- 
torical cylinders  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad ; they  may  furnish  us  with  some  of  the  de- 
tails wanting  on  the  monuments.  § Now  in  the  Royal  Museum  of  Berlin. 

II  Mem.  Trans,  of  Irish  Acad.  vol.  xxii. 

If  See  Appendix  to  his  Memoir  in  the  twenty-second  vol.  of  Trans,  of  the  Irish 
Academy. 


ASSYRIAN  HISTORY. 


529 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

or  alluded  to  in  sacred  and  profane  history.  I have  already  described  his 
wars  in  Judaea,  and  have  compared  his  own  account  with  that  contained 
in  Holy  Writ.  His  second  campaign  in  Babylonia  is  mentioned  in  a frag- 
ment of  Polyhistor,  preserved  by  Eusebius,*  in  which  the  name  given  to 
Sennacherib’s  son,  and  the  general  history  of  the  war  appear  to  be  nearly 
the  same  as  those  on  the  monuments.  The  fragment  is  highly  interesting 
as  corroborating  the  accuracy  of  the  interpretation  of  the  inscriptions.  I 
was  not  aware  of  its  existence  when  the  translation  given  in  the  sixth  chap- 
ter of  this  volume  was  printed.  “After  the  reign  of  the  brother  of  Senna- 
cherib, Acises  reigned  over  the  Babylonians,  and  when  he  had  governed  for 
the  space  of  thirty  days  he  was  slain  by  Marodach  Baladan,  who  held  the 
empire  by  force  during  six  months ; and  he  was  slain  and  succeeded  by  a 
person  named  Elibus  (Belib.)  But  in  the  third  year  of  his  (Elibus)  reign, 
Sennacherib,  king  of  the  Assyrians,  levied  an  army  against  the  Babylonians ; 
and  in  a battle,  in  which  they  were  engaged,  routed  and  took  him  prisoner 
with  his  adherents,  and  commanded  them  to  be  carried  into  the  land  of  the 
Assyrians.  Having  taken  upon  himself  the  government  of  the  Babylonians, 
he  appointed  his  son,  Asordanius,  their  king,  and  he  himself  retired  again 
into  Assyria.”  This  son,  however,  was  not  Essarhaddon,  his  successor  on 
the  throne  of  Assyria.  The  two  names  are  distinguished  by  a distinct  or- 
thography in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Sennacherib  raised  monuments 
and  caused  tablets  recording  his  victories  to  be  carved  in  many  countries 
which  he  visited  and  subdued.  His  image  and  inscriptions  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Nahr-el-Kelb  in  Syria  are  well  known.  During  my  journey  to  Eu- 
rope I found  one  of  his  tablets  near  the  village  of  Hasana  (or  Hasan  Agha), 
chiefly  remarkable  from  being  at  the  foot  of  Gebel  Judi,  the  mountain  upon 
which,  according  to  a wide-spread  Eastern  tradition,  the  ark  of  Noah  rested 
after  the  deluge. f 

Essarhaddon,  his  son,  was  his  successor,  as  we  know  from  the  Bible.  He 
built  the  south-west  palace  at  Nimroud,  and  an  edifice  whose  ruins  are 
now  covered  by  the  mound  of  the  tomb  of  Jonah,  opposite  Mosul.  His  an- 
nals are  inscribed  on  the  cylinder  presented  by  me  to  the  British  Museum. $ 
Like  his  father  he  was  a great  warrior,  and  he  styles  himself  in  his  inscrip- 
tions “ King  of  Egypt,  conqueror  of  JEthiopia.”§  It  was  probably  this  king 
who  carried  Manasseh,  king  of  Jerusalem,  captive  to  Babylon.  || 

The  name  of  the  son  and  successor  of  Essarhaddon  was  the  same  as  that 
of  the  builder  of  the  north-west  palace  of  Nimroud.  His  father,  as  we  have 
seen, IT  had  erected  a dwelling  for  him  in  the  suburbs  or  on  the  outskirts  of 
Nineveh.  His  principal  campaign  appears  to  have  been  in  Susiana  or  Elam, 

* Cory’s  Fragments. 

t See  an  interesting  note  on  this  subject  in  Rich’s  Narrative,  vol.  ii.  p.  123. 

t British  Museum  Series,  p.  20-29.,  and  also  on  a fragment  of  a similar  cylinder, 
p.  54-58. 

§ This  title  was  first  read  and  pointed  out  to  me  by  Dr.  Hincks.  Col.  Rawlinson 
has,  I believe,  since  found  fuller  mention  of  the  Egyptian  campaign  of  this  king. 

II  2 Chron.  xxxiii.  IT  P.  508. 

L L 


530 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXYI. 

and  some  of  the  beautiful  and  elaborate  bas-reliefs  which  he  caused  to  be 
carved  on  the  walls  of  the  palace  of  Sennacherib  atKouyunjik  have  already 
been  described.*  As  the  greater  number  of  the  inscribed  tablets  found  in 
the  ruins  of  that  edifice  are  of  his  time,  many  of  them  bearing  his  name, 
we  may  hope  to  obtain  some  record  of  the  principal  events  of  his  reign. 

His  son  built  the  south-east  palace  on  the  mound  of  Nimroud,  probably 
over  the  remains  of  an  earlier  edifice.  Bricks  from  its  ruins  give  his 
name,  which  has  not  yet  been  deciphered,  and  those  of  his  father  and  grand- 
father. We  know  nothing  of  his  history  from  cotemporaneous  records. 
He  was  one  of  the  last,  if  not  the  last,  king  of  the  second  dynasty ; and  may, 
indeed,  as  I have  already  suggested,  have  been  that  monarch,  Sardanapa- 
lus,  or  Saracus,  who  was  conquered  by  the  combined  armies  of  the  Medes 
and  Babylonians  under  Cyaxares  in  b.  c.  606.,  and  who  made  of  his  palace, 
his  wealth,  and  his  wives  one  great  funeral  pile.f 

There  are  apparently  two  royal  names  still  unplaced ; that  on  the  bulls 
at  Arban,$  which  may  not  be  the  name  of  a king  of  Nineveh,  and  that  on 
the  black  stone  in  the  possession  of  Lord  Aberdeen,  which  appears  to  be- 
long to  an  Assyrian  king  of  the  second  dynasty.  Unless  the  latter  be  a va- 
riant, or  different  reading  of  one  of  those  already  mentioned,  it  may  be  the 
name  of  a successor  of  the  builder  of  the  south-east  palace. 

For  convenience  of  reference  I give  a table  of  the  royal  names  hitherto 
discovered,  with  their  English  versions  according  to  Dr.  Hincks  and  Col. 
Bawlinson,  the  principal  monuments  on  which  they  are  found,  and  the  ap- 
proximate date  of  the  reigns  of  the  several  kings.  In  a second  table  will  be 
found  the  most  important  proper  and  geographical  names  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  which  have  been  identified  with  those  in  the  Bible.  To  make 
this  list  more  useful  to  the  biblical  student,  I have  added  their  forms  in  He- 
brew, as  well  as  in  cuneiform  letters.  A third  table  contains  the  names 
of  the  thirteen  great  gods  of  Assyria,  with  their  reading  according  to  Dr. 
Hincks. 

* Chap.  20. 

We  have  a curious  illustration  of  the  magnificent  suicide  of  Sardanapalus  in  the 
history  of  Zimri,  king  of  Israel.  “ And  it  came  to  pass,  when  Zimri  saw  that  the  city 
was  taken,  that  he  went  into  the  palace  of  the  king’s  house,  and  burnt  the  king’s 
house  over  him  with  fire,  and  died.” — 1 Kings,  xvii.  18.  There  is  nothing,  therefore, 
improbable  in  the  romantic  history  of  the  Assyrian  king.  $ P.  235. 


TABLE  I. — Names  of  Assyrian  Kings  in  the  Inscriptions  from  Nineveh. 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


TABLE  OF  ROYAL  NAMES. 


531 


o 

O 

O 

O 

O' 

pq 

pq 

pq 

pq 

pq 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

IO 

o 

CQ 

o 

o 

OJ 

(M 

r— 1 

■o 

03 

1— t 

H 

** 

t— 1 

•S  a £ 

.£  03 

Ml  i-£ 

ft  ^ 

^ O ^ 

2^  PS 

^ o > 


o 

0 
1— i 

d 

2 

pq 

03 

no 

£ £ 

ft 

no 

-8 

o o 

r£ 

rt 

no 

no  . 

"r£  £ 

o 

»■£ 

£ 

03  O 

£ o 

£ 

ri 

4-» 

go 

o 

j-i 

53 

2°8 

< 

£ ^ 

.2 

o £ 
.&£  2 
o r 2 

IO 

l-H  °<2  ^ 

I 

CC  O 

P2  *G 

§Bh 

-ft> 

GQ 


ft 


ft  2 

T| 

& 

o • 

& 

g 1 

ft 

.£  r£ 
,£  .-£ 

<N* 

Ml 

£ 

ft 

N 

ft^K, 

JP? 

h3 

cj 

O 

ci 

ft 

03  o 

no  03 

6 

03 

C3 

£ 

03 

c3 

r£  .JO 
J-H 

£ £ 
£ £ 
c$  <rf 
> > 

12 
M L 

'S  § 

a ft 

Ph 

2 

03 

O 

1 

no 

?h 

o 

a 

' Ml 
Ml 
03 
m 
03 

03 

ft 

2 

2 

d 

f-4 

no 

2 d fh 

ft  pq  ^ 

53  ft  £ 

£ ft  ^ 

ft 

ftift 

<!m 

a 

a 

<1 

* 

o 

3 



£ *& 
1 s 

M 

14* 

m 

•2  'g 
£ 2 
S &D 

5T 

ft  ^ 
£ 

di  £ 

C £ 

+ 
X , 

H 

f 


Xi 


I 

4 


St 

# 

* 


k 


n 

!'r 

T 

5u 

1 Ai 


,—H  O 
O “ 

O .M 
o 

hD  ° 

.2  S 

O 

£ r£ 

o 

0 • • 

^ £p 

W . S 

1 w 
§ .2 
PS  ,£ 

o 

£ 

H 


f 


if* 

a 

% 


4.4 

* " f 

t i-  It 

1 

■u  ^ 

Tt 


* The  reading  according  to  Col.  Rawlinson  is  marked  R — that  according  to  Dr.  Hincks,  H. 
1 1 am  not  in  possession  of  the  transcripts  of  these  names. 


532 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXV 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


TABLE  OF  ROYAL  NAMES. 


533 


534 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXYI. 


TABLE  II. — Names  of  Kings,  Countries,  Cities,  &c.,  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  which  occur  in  the  Assyrian  Inscriptions. 


Name. 

Cuneiform. 

Hebrew. 

Jehu 

-eii  if 

8TP 

Omri 

-n  ttfi-r  -m 

*i*ray 

• : t 

Menahem 

T~  5P  A T— 

trap 

B<  ff  III  If  I?  srn= 

wprn 

Hazael 

ff<  If  4-4  -4 

Merodach  Baladan  . . 

-4-  2T 

( or  in  monograms  ► >JL  JJ  ^ > j 

Tja£a 

Pharaoh 

Sw  4*4  £ff[- 

STPpS 

S argon 

« *=r 

fi5talO 

Sennacherib 

-4-  «<  A H ^TT 

srnnsp 

Essarhaddon 

A >- 

pniTnpK 

Dagon 

?E[[  fctr 

ins 

Nebo 

-4-  -If 

Judaea 

^rf  *ttt=  ^rr  if 

rnnrn 

Jerusalem 

E=r  >w  4-n-  et 

Db»TV' 

• - r ; 

Samaria 

% 

^ 1-  -TRT 

(or  Af  £2!Sf  *E  »~q) 

‘pna© 

Ashdod 

EiT  <14 

Lachish 

-si  <a  eh 

Damascus 

<14  4-  U 

Chap.  XXVt] 


TABLE  OF  ROYAL  NAMES,  COUNTRIES,  ETC. 


535 


Name. 


Cuneiform. 


Hebrew. 


Hamath 

Hittites  (the) 

Tyre 

Sidon 

Gaza 

Ekron 

Askelon 

Arvad  

Gubal  (the  people  of) 

Lebanon 

Egypt 

Euphrates 

Carchemish 

Hebar  or  Chebar  ) 
(river)  ) 

Harran  

Ur 

Gozan  (the  people  of) 


Tf  U HM 

fr<  Vr 

«=*  HRI 

=£TT  KT  *TTT  m 

TKHfT* 

6=4  £4  $L  -if 
U M £T  Tf 
<HTI  £3f<T 

U-f  — Tf  Tf  ^Tf 
«=TTT  -7 

TMfe  MTI  for^ 

Tf  HU  l-fr-  4f  *TJ 
V -TTTf  fcJD? 

?T< 

Tf  ^TT  ^T 
-TTT-  &TT  0*lfcl 
0 ff  -7  Tf  Tf  © 


mian 

n*r\n 

nis 

•jit's 

sro 

T - 

T*W 

■jibjjos 

Tins 
» ; - 

‘■’bnan 

pnb 

trnstt 

ms 

T ; 

OTpsns 
nns  or  ninn 

T77 


Mesopotamia 


Children  of  Eden 


Tigris 


4<S 

Uer^T  4HF*  *£  HT<T) 
*£  Tf  <T£  SFffl 
(or  Hh  >^<<4 


yjpaa 

b£7n 


Nineveh 


<HT  (°r  Tf1  4-  T?) 


nr/j 


536 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


Name. 

Cuneiform. 

Hebrew. 

Babylon 

Hf-  &V  <B 

(or  iq  <vf(  <&*) 

bna 

v r 

Elam 

-H  -et  f- 

Shushan 

Media 

£T  ®T  If  If 

■ntt 

Persia 

ci  n 

Yavan 

rtVl  *E|  <1  -*| 

(M?  Aft  -if  If  ID 

r 

Ararat 

Eti  i»m 

r t 

Hagarenes 

f?<  mt  .^it  v- 

■nan 

Nabathaeans 

►*i  -i  m 

nras 

T * 

Aramaeans 

YYY 

_Y1^ 

T — 

Chaldaeans 

D'nte 

Meshek 

^ s^i  <a 

Tubal 

sail  ^i<i@ 

bnm 

Assyria 

(or_) 

Assyrians 

g=  jr  w if  if 

, 

Pethor 

f|-  ^111 

' nins 

Telassar 

SK  £1  MW 

-itoabn 

* The  names  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh  are  found  in  various  other  forms. 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


TABLE  OP  GODS 


537 


TABLE  III. — Names  of  the  Thirteen  Great  Gods  of  Assyria,  as  they 
occur  on  the  upright  tablet  of  the  King,  discovered  at  Nimroud 


L 

^4 

( or  ►— ) tor 

2. 

If  4 

3. 

^TTTT  11 

4. 

«< 

( or  >- 

4 -11  ^TT> 

5. 

-4 

« t! 

(or  >■' 

4 I> 

(or  >• 

4 tm 

‘6. 

-4 

44 

(°r  < ) 

7. 

-4 

4 

8. 

-4 

4 

9. 

-4 

Tt-Et  -HI 

10. 

-4 

til 

11. 

-4 

- 

12. 

-4 

V 4 

13. 

-4 

< 

(or~4  < VI) 


Asshur,  the  King  of  the  Circle  of 
the  Great  Gods. 

Anu,  the  Lord  of  the  Mountains,  or 
of  Foreign  Countries. 

(?) 

San. 

Merodach  (?  Mars) 


Yav  (?  Jupiter), 

Bar. 

Nebo  (?  Mercury). 

(?)  Mylit  (or  Gula),  called  the  Con- 
sort of  Bel  and  the  Mother 
of  the  Great  Gods  (?  Ve- 
nus). 

(?)  Dagon. 

Bel  (?  Saturn)  Father  of  the  Gods 

Shamash  (the  Sun). 

Ishtar  (the  Moon). 


538 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


[Chap  XXVI 


Although  no  mention  appears  to  be  made  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  of 
kings  who  reigned  before  the  twelfth  century  b c , this  is  by  no  means  a 
proof  that  the  empire,  and  its  capital  Nineveh,  did  not  exist  long  before 
that  time  I cannot  agree  with  those  who  would  limit  the  foundation  of 
both  to  that  period.  The  supposition  seems  to  me  quite  at  variance  with 
the  testimony  of  sacred  and  profane  history  The  existence  of  the  name 
of  Nineveh  on  monuments  of  the  eighteenth  Egyptian  dynasty  is  still  con- 
sidered almost  certain  by  Egyptian  scholars.  I have  in  my  former  work 
quoted  an  instance  of  it  on  a tablet  of  the  time  of  Thothmes  III , or  of  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  e.  c.*  Mr.  Birch  has  since  pointed  out 


Captives  from  Padan  Aram,  Assyria,  and  Carchemish,  of  the  Time  of  Amenophis  III 

to  me  three  interesting  cartouches  copied  by  Dr  Lepsius  in  Egypt,  and 
published  in  his  great  work,f  which  completely  remove  any  doubt  as  to  the 
name  of  Assyria  having  been  also  known  as  early  as  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 
They  occur  at  the  foot  of  one  of  the  columns  of  Soleb,  and  are  of  the  age 
of  Amenophis  III , or  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  before 
Christ  The  three  figures,  with  their  arms  bound  behind,  represent  Asiatic 
captives,  as  is  proved  by  their  peculiar  features  and  headdress,  a knotted 
fillet  round  the  temples,  corresponding  with  that  seen  in  the  Nineveh  sculp- 
tures. Each  cartouche  contains  the  name  of  the  country  from  which  the 
prisoner  was  brought.  The  first  is  Patana,  or  Padan-Aram  ; the  second  is 
written  A-su-ru,  or  Assyria ; and  the  third,  Ka-ru-ka-mishi,  Carchemish, 
On  another  column  are  Saenkar(?  Shinar  or  Sinjar)  ; Naharaina,  or  Meso- 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii  p 224.  A second  mention  of  Nineveh  has  been 
recently  found  by  Mr.  Birch  on  a monument  of  Thothmes  III.,  engraved  in  Lepsius’ 
Auswahl.  Taf  xii.  1.  21  Unfortunately  the  line  before  the  name  is  wanting,  and 
the  event  connected  with  the  mention  of  Nineveh  cannot  be  determined.  Following 
it,  however,  is  a sentence  stating  that  Thothmes  “ erected  his  tablet  in  Naharaina 
(Mesopotamia),  for  the  extension  of  the  frontiers  of  Kami  (Egypt),”  showing  that  the 
campaign  described  was  actually  carried  on  near  the  borders  of  the  Tigris. 

t Denkmaler,  Abth.  III.  B1  88 


THE  ASSYRIAN  RECORDS. 


539 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

potamia  ; and  the  Khita,  or  Hittites  * The  mention  in  succession  of  these 
Asiatic  nations,  contiguous  one  to  the  other,  proves  the  correctness  of  the 
reading  of  the  word  Assyria,  which  might  have  been  doubted  had  the  name 
of  that  country  stood  alone. 

Mr.  Birch  has  detected  a still  earlier  notice  of  Assyria  in  the  statistical 
tablet  of  Karnak.  The  king  of  that  country  is  there  stated  to  have  sent  to 
Thothmes  III.,  in  his  fortieth  year,  a tribute  of  fifty  pounds  nine  ounces  of 
some  article  called  chesbit,  supposed  to  be  a stone  for  coloring  blue.  It 
would  appear,  therefore,  that  in  the  fifteenth  century  a kingdom,  known  by 
the  name  of  Assyria,  with  Nineveh  for  its  capital,  had  been  established  on 
the  borders  of  the  Tigris.  Supposing  the  date  now  assigned  by  Col.  Raw- 
linson  to  the  monuments  of  Nineveh  to  be  correct,  no  sculptures  or  relics 
have  yet  been  found  which  we  can  safely  attribute  to  that  period  ; future 
researches  and  a more  complete  examination  of  the  ancient  sites  may,  how- 
ever, hereafter  lead  to  the  discovery  of  earlier  remains. 

As  I have  thus  given  a general  sketch  of  the  contents  of  the  inscriptions, 
it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  make  a few  observations  upon  the  nature  of 
the  Assyrian  records,  and  their  importance  to  the  study  of  Scripture  and  pro- 
fane history.  In  the  first  place,  the  care  with  which  the  events  of  each 
king’s  reign  were  chronicled  is  worthy  of  remark.  They  were  usually  writ- 
ten in  the  form  of  regular  annals,  and  in  some  cases,  as  on  the  great  mon- 
oliths at  Nimroud,  the  royal  progress  during  a campaign  appears  to  have 
been  described  almost  day  by  day.  We  are  thus  furnished  with  an  inter- 
esting illustration  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Jews.  There  is,  however, 
this  marked  difference  between  them,  that  whilst  the  Assyrian  records  are 
nothing  but  a dry  narrative,  or  rather  register,  of  military  campaigns,  spoli- 
ations, and  cruelties,  events  of  little  importance  but  to  those  immediately 
concerned  in  them,  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  apart  from 
the  deeds  of  war  and  blood  which  they  chronicle,  contain  the  most  inter- 
esting of  private  episodes,  and  the  most  sublime  of  moral  lessons.  It  need 
scarcely  be  added,  that  this  distinction  is  precisely  what  we  might  have  ex- 
pected to  find  between  them,  and  that  the  Christian  will  not  fail  to  give 
to  it  a due  weight.  It  may,  however,  be  objected  that  these  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions, being  merely  records  of  national  events,  such  as  at  this  day  might 
be  placed  upon  public  monuments,  did  not  admit  of  any  irrelevant  reflec- 
tions or  details  of  private  life  and  incident ; but  that  the  Hebrew  books, 
being  more  strictly  a connected  and  written  history,  the  author  could  draw 
his  own  inferences,  and  point  out  to  his  readers  the  moral  of  his  story.  The 
Assyrians,  it  may  be  added,  might  have  had  similar  volumes,  which  have 
long  since  perished.  This,  indeed,  may  have  been  the  case,  but  the  nature 
of  more  private  documents,  such  as  those  on  the  clay  cylinders  and  tablets 
described  in  the  foregoing  pages,  leads,  as  far  as  they  have  been  hitherto 
deciphered,  to  an  opposite  conclusion. 

* Probably  the  Hittites  dwelling  in  northern  Syria,  near  the  Euphrates,  mentioned 
in  the  campaigns  of  the  Nimroud  king.  See  p.  305. 


540 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


The  monuments  of  Nineveh,  as  well  as  the  testimony  of  history,  tend  to 
prove  that  the  Assyrian  monarch  was  a thorough  Eastern  despot,  unchecked 
by  popular  opinion,  and  having  complete  power  over  the  lives  and  property 
of  his  subjects — rather  adored  as  a god  than  feared  as  a man,  and  yet  him- 
self claiming  that  authority  and  general  obedience  in  virtue  of  his  rever- 
ence for  the  national  deities  and  the  national  religion.  It  was  only  when 
the  gods  themselves  seemed  to  interpose  that  any  check  was  placed  upon 
the  royal  pride  and  lust ; and  it  is  probable  that  when  Jonah  entered  Nin- 
eveh crying  to  the  people  to  repent,  the  king,  believing  him  to  be  a special 
minister  from  the  supreme  deity  of  the  nation,  “ arose  from  his  throne,  and 
laid  his  robe  from  him,  and  covered  him  with  sackcloth,  and  sat  in  ashes.”* 
The  Hebrew  state,  on  the  contrary,  was,  to  a certain  extent,  a limited  mon- 
archy. The  Jewish  kings  were  amenable  to,  and  even  guided  by,  the  opin- 
ion of  their  subjects.  The  prophets  boldly  upbraided  and  threatened  them ; 
their  warnings  and  menaces  were  usually  received  with  respect  and  fear. 
“ Good  is  the  word  of  the  Lord  which  thou  hast  spoken,”  exclaimed  Heze- 
kiah  to  Isaiah,  when  the  prophet  reproved  him  for  his  pride,  and  foretold 
the  captivity  of  his  sons  and  the  destruction  of  his  kingdom  ;f  a prophecy 
which  none  would  have  dared  utter  in  the  presence  of  the  Assyrian  king, 
except,  as  it  would  appear  by  the  story  of  Jonah,  he  were  a stranger.  It 
can  scarcely,  therefore,  be  expected  that  any  history  other  than  bare  chron- 
icles of  the  victories  and  triumphs  of  the  kings,  omitting  all  allusion  to 
their  reverses  and  defeats,  could  be  found  in  Assyria,  even  were  portable 
rolls  or  books  still  to  exist,  as  in  Egypt,  beneath  the  ruins. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Assyrian  records  should,  on  the  whole,  be  so  free 
from  the  exaggerated  forms  of  expression,  and  the  magniloquent  royal  titles, 
which  are  found  in  Egyptian  documents  of  the  same  nature,  and  even  in 
those  of  modern  Eastern  sovereigns.  I have  already  pointed  out  the  in- 
ternal evidence  of  their  truthfulness  so  far  as  they  go.  We  are  further  led 
to  place  confidence  in  the  statements  contained  in  the  inscriptions  by  the 
very  minuteness  with  which  they  even  give  the  amount  of  the  spoil ; the 
two  registrars,  “ the  scribes  of  the  host,”  as  they  are  called  in  the  Bible, $ 
being  seen  in  almost  every  bas-relief,  writing  down  the  various  objects 
brought  to  them  by  the  victorious  warriors, — the  heads  of  the  slain,  the 
prisoners,  the  cattle,  the  sheep, § the  furniture,  and  the  vessels  of  metal. 

The  next  reflection  arising  from  an  examination  of  the  Assyrian  records 

* It  was  not  necessary  to  the  effect  of  his  preaching  that  Jonah  should  be  of  the 
religion  of  the  people  of  Nineveh.  I have  known  a Christian  priest  frighten  a whole 
Mussulman  town  to  tents  and  repentance  by  publicly  proclaiming  that  he  had  re- 
ceived a divine  mission  to  announce  a coming  earthquake  or  plague. 

t 2 Kings,  xx.  19.  t 2 Kings,  xxv.  19. 

§ Driving  away  the  cattle  and  sheep  of  a conquered  people,  and  accounting  them 
amongst  the  principal  spoil,  has  ever  been  the  custom  of  Eastern  nations  who  have 
not  altogether  renounced  a nomadic  life,  and  whose  chief  wealth  consequently  con- 
sisted in  these  animals.  When  Asa  defeated  the  Ethiopians,  “ he  carried  away  sheep 
and  cam  ?]s  in  abundance,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.”  (2  Chron.  xiv.  15.) 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  ASSYRIA. 


541 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

relates  to  the  political  condition  and  constitution  of  the  empire,  which  ap- 
pear to  have  been  of  a very  peculiar  nature.  The  king,  we  may  infer,  ex- 
ercised hut  little  direct  authority  beyond  the  immediate  districts  around 
Nineveh.  The  Assyrian  dominions,  as  far  as  we  can  yet  learn  from  the 
inscriptions,  did  not  extend  much  further  than  the  central  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Armenia  to  the  north,  not  reaching  to  the  Black  Sea,  though 
probably  to  the  Caspian.  To  the  east  they  included  the  western  provinces 
of  Persia ; to  the  south,  Susiana,  Babylonia,  and  the  northern  part  of  Ara- 
bia. To  the  west  the  Assyrians  may  have  penetrated  into  Lycia,  and  per- 
haps Lydia ; and  Syria  was  considered  within  the  territories  of  the  great 
king ; Egypt  and  Meroe  (^Ethiopia)  were  the  farthest  limits  reached  by 
the  Assyrian  armies.  According  to  Greek  history,  however,  a much  greater 
extent  must  be  assigned  to  Assyrian  influence,  if  not  to  the  actual  Assyrian 
empire,  and  we  may  hereafter  find  that  such  was  in  fact  the  case.  I am 
here  merely  referring  to  the  evidence  afforded  by  actual  records  as  far  as 
they  have  been  deciphered. 

The  empire  appears  to  have  been  at  all  times  a kind  of  confederation 
formed  by  many  tributary  states,  whose  kings  were  so  far  independent,  that 
they  were  only  bound  to  furnish  troops  to  the  supreme  lord  in  time  of  war, 
and  to  pay  him  yearly  a certain  tribute.  Hence  we  find  successive  Assyr- 
ian kings  fighting  with  exactly  the  same  nations  and  tribes,  some  of  which 
were  scarcely  more  than  four  or  five  days’  march  from  the  gates  of  Nine- 
veh. On  the  occasion  of  every  change  at  the  capital,  these  tributary  states 
seem  to  have  striven  to  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  and  to  have  begun  by 
refusing  to  pay  their  customary  tribute.  A new  campaign  was  consequent- 
ly necessary  to  bring  them  to  obedience.  We  learn  from  the  inscriptions, 
that  when  a city  or  kingdom  was  thus  subdued,  however  near  it  might 
have  been  to  Nineveh,  when  not  actually  forming  a part  of  the  imperial 
district,  a new  ruler  was  appointed  to  it  with  the  title  of  “King,”  written 
in  the  same  cuneiform  characters  on  the  monuments  as  when  applied  to 
the  head  of  the  empire.*  Hence,  too,  the  Assyrian  armies,  as  the  army  of 
Xerxes  described  by  Herodotus,!  were  made  up  of  many  various  nations, 
retaining  their  own  costumes,  arms,  and  modes  of  warfare. 

The  Jewish  tribes,  as  it  had  long  been  suspected  by  biblical  scholars, 
can  now  be  proved  to  have  held  their  dependent  position  upon  the  Assyr- 
ian king  from  a very  early  period,  indeed  long  before  the  time  inferred  by 
any  passage  in  Scripture.  Whenever  an  expedition  against  the  kings  of 
Judah  or  Israel  is  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  records,  it  is  stated  to  have 
been  undertaken  on  the  ground  that  they  had  not  paid  their  customary 

tribute.! 

* This  fact  illustrates  the  passage  in  Isaiah  (x.  8,  9.),  “ For  he  saith,  Are  not  my 
princes  altogether  kings  ? Is  not  Calno  as  Carchemish  1 Is  not  Hamath  as  Arpad  1 
Is  not  Samaria  as  Damascus'!”  t Lib.  vii. 

t The  same  thing  may,  indeed,  be  inferred  from  several  passages  in  Chronicles  and 
Kings.  See  particularly  2 Kings,  xvi.  7.,  xvii.  4. 


542 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON 


Chap.  XXVI. 


The  political  state  of  the  Jewish  kingdom  under  Solomon  appears  to  have 
been  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  The  inscrip- 
tions in  this  instance  again  furnish  us  with  an  interesting  illustration  of  the 
Bible.  The  scriptural  account  of  the  power  of  the  Hebrew  king  resembles, 
almost  word  for  word,  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  the  great  inscriptions  at 
Nimroud.  “ Solomon  reigned  over  the  kingdoms  from  the  river  unto  the 
land  of  the  Philistines,  and  unto  the  border  of  Egypt : they  brought  pres- 
ents, and  served  Solomon  all  the  days  of  his  life He  had  do- 

minion over  all  the  region  on  this  side  the  river,  from  Tipsah  even  unto  the 
Azzah,  over  all  the  kings  on  this  side  the  river.”* 

The  political  condition  of  Assyria  can  only  be  compared  in  modern  times 
with  that  of  India,  when  the  peninsula  was  divided  into  numerous  distinct 
sovereignties  under  a nominal  dependence  to  the  emperor  of  Delhi  as  the 
head  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  ; or  to  that  of  Turkey  in  the  last  century,  when 
the  empire  was  made  up  of  a number  of  semi-independent  pashalics,  gov- 
erned by  hereditary  rulers,  from  whom  the  Sultan  demanded  little  more 
than  yearly  tribute,  and  a contribution  of  troops  in  war,  though  invested 
with  an  absolute  power  over  them  of  life  and  death,  arising  from  his  mixed 
political  and  religious  character,  sometimes  exercised  and  submitted  to  in 
a manner  inexplicable  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  Eastern  character. 

In  the  custom,  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  inscriptions,  of  removing  the 
inhabitants  of  conquered  cities  and  districts  to  distant  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  of  replacing  them  by  colonists  from  Nineveh  or  from  other  subdued 
countries,  we  have  another  interesting  illustration  of  Scripture  history.  It 
has  been  generally  inferred  that  there  was  but  one  carrying  away,  or  at 
the  most  two,  of  the  people  of  Samaria,  although  three,  at  least,  appear  to 
be  distinctly  alluded  to  in  the  Bible  ; the  first,  by  Pul  ;f  the  second,  by  Tig- 
lath  Pileser  ;$  the  third,  by  Shalmaneser.  § It  was  not  until  the  time  of  the 
last  king  that  Samaria  was  destroyed  as  an  independent  kingdom.  On 
former  occasions  only  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages 
seem  to  have  been  taken  as  captives.  Such  we  find  to  have  been  the  case 
with  many  other  nations  who  were  subdued  or  punished  for  rebellion  by 
the  Assyrians.  The  conquerors,  too,  as  we  also  learn  from  the  inscriptions, 
established  the  worship  of  their  own  gods  in  the  conquered  cities,  raising 
altars  and  temples,  and  appointing  priests  for  their  service.  So  after  the 
fall  of  Samaria,  the  strangers  who  were  placed  in  its  cities,  “ made  gods  of 
their  own  and  put  them  in  the  houses  of  the  high  places  which  the  Samar- 
itans had  made. ”|| 

* 1 Kings,  iv.  21.  and  24.  “He  reigned  over  all  the  kings  from  the  river  even  unto 
the  land  of  the  Philistines  and  to  the  border  of  Egypt and  the  kings  “brought  him 
every  man  his  present,  vessels  of  silver,  and  vessels  of  gold,  and  raiment,  harness, 
and  spices,  horses  and  mules,  a rate  year  by  year.”  (2  Chron.  ix.  24. 26.)  Such  were 
probably  the  very  articles  brought  yearly  to  the  Assyrian  king,  and  enumerated  in  his 
records. 

t 1 Chron.  v.  26. 

$ 2 Kings,  xvii.  6.  xviii.  11. 


t 1 Chron.  v.  6.  and  26 
II  2 Kings,  xvii.  29. 


THE  ASSYRIAN  GODS. 


543 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

The  vast  number  of  families  thus  sent  to  dwell  in  distant  countries,  must 
have  wrought  great  changes  in  the  physical  condition,  language,  and  relig- 
ion of  the  people  with  which  they  were  intermixed.  When  the  Assyrian 
records  are  with  more  certainty  interpreted,  we  may,  perhaps,  he  able  to 
explain  many  of  the  anomalies  of  ancient  Eastern  philology  and  compara- 
tive geography. 

We  further  gather  from  the  records  of  the  campaigns  of  the  Assyrian 
kings,  that  the  country,  both  in  Mesopotamia  and  to  the  west  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, now  included  in  the  general  term  of  “ the  Desert,”  was  at  that  re- 
mote period  teeming  with  a dense  population,  both  sedentary  and  nomade ; 
that  cities,  towns,  and  villages  arose  on  all  sides  ; and  that,  consequently, 
the  soil  brought  forth  produce  for  the  support  of  this  great  congregation  of 
human  beings.  It  will  have  been  seen  from  many  parts  of  the  foregoing 
narrative,  that  there  are  still  traces  in  those  now  desolate  regions  of  their 
ancient  wealth  and  prosperity.  Mounds  of  earth,  covering  the  ruins  of 
buildings,  or  the  sites  of  fenced  stations  and  forts,  are  scattered  far  and 
wide  over  the  plains.  When  the  winter  rains  furrow  the  face  of  the  land, 
inscribed  stones,  graven  pottery,  and  masses  of  brick  work,  the  certain  signs 
of  former  habitations,  are  everywhere  found  by  the  wandering  Arab.  All 
those  settlements  depended  almost  exclusively  upon  artificial  irrigation. 
Hence  the  dry  beds  of  enormous  canals  and  countless  watercourses,  which 
are  spread  like  a network  over  the  face  of  the  country.  Even  the  travel- 
ler, accustomed  to  the  triumphs  of  modern  science  and  civilisation,  gazes 
with  wonder  and  awe  upon  these  gigantic  works,  and  reflects  with  admi- 
ration upon  the  industry,  the  skill,  and  the  power  of  those  who  made  them. 
And  may  not  the  waters  be  again  turned  into  the  empty  channels,  and  may 
not  life  be  again  spread  over  those  parched  and  arid  wastes  ? Upon  them 
no  other  curse  has  alighted  than  that  of  a false  religion  and  a listless  race. 

Of  the  information  as  to  the  religious  system  of  the  Assyrians  which  may 
be  derived  from  the  inscriptions,  I am  still  unwilling  to  treat  in  the  pres- 
ent state  of  our  knowledge  of  their  contents.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
the  large  collection  of  clay  tablets  now  in  the  British  Museum  may  here- 
after furnish  us  with  important  matter  connected  with  the  subject ; but  a 
far  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  character  than  we  yet  possess  is 
required  before  the  translation  of  such  documents  can  be  fully  relied  on. 
All  we  can  now  venture  to  infer  is,  that  the  Assyrians  worshipped  one  su- 
preme God,  as  the  great  national  deity  under  whose  immediate  and  special 
protection  they  lived,  and  their  empire  existed.*  The  name  of  this  god 
appears  to  have  been  Asshur,f  as  nearly  as  can  be  determined,  at  present, 

* Different  nations  appear  to  have  had  different  names  for  their  supreme  deity ; 
thus  the  Babylonians  called  him  Nebo. 

t It  would  appear  that  Col.  Rawlinson  has  given  up  the  translation  of  this  name, 
Assarac,  upon  which  he  first  insisted.  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  p.  xviii.)  Hence 
one  of  his  arguments  against  its  identification  with  the  biblical  Nisroch  no  longer  ex- 
ists. I may  here  observe  that  I am  still  inclined  to  believe  that  the  name  was  applied 
to  the  eagle-headed  figure  of  the  sculptures.  It  is  possible  that  Sennacherib  may  have 


544 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 

from  the  inscriptions.  It  was  identified  with  that  of  the  empire  itself,  al- 
ways called  “ the  country  of  Asshur  it  entered  into  those  of  both  kings  and 

p.’vate  persons,  and  was  also  applied  to  particular  cities.  With  Asshur, 
but  apparently  far  inferior  to  him  in  the  celestial  hierarchy,  although  called 
the  great  gods,  were  associated  twelve  other  deities,  whose  names  I have 
given  in  table  No.  3.  Some  of  them  may  possibly  be  identified  with  the 
divinities  of  the  Greek  Pantheon,  although  it  is  scarcely  wise  to  hazard  con- 
jectures which  must  ere  long  be  again  abandoned.  These  twelve  gods 
may  also  have  presided  over  the  twelve  months  of  the  year,  and  the  vast 
number  of  still  inferior  gods,  in  one  inscription,  I believe,  stated  to  be  no 
less  than  4000,  over  the  days  of  the  year,  various  phenomena  and  produc- 
tions of  nature,  and  the  celestial  bodies.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  such 
a system  of  polytheism,  unless  we  suppose  that  whilst  there  was  but  one 
supreme  god,  represented  sometimes  under  a triune  form,  all  the  so-called 
inferior  gods  were  originally  mere  names  for  events  and  outward  things,  or 
symbols  and  myths.  Although  at  one  time  generally  accepted  as  such  even 
by  the  common  people,  their  true  meaning  was  only  known  in  a corrupted 
age  to  the  priests,  by  whom  they  were  turned  into  a mystery  and  a trade. 
It  may,  indeed,  be  inferred  from  many  passages  in  the  Scriptures,  that  a 
system  of  theology  not  far  differing  from  the  Assyrian  prevailed  at  times 
amongst  the  Jews  themselves.  Asshur  is  generally,  if  not  always,  typified 
by  the  winged  figure  in  the  circle.*  Although  the  kings  of  the  later  dy- 
nasty are  sometimes  represented  worshipping  the  minor  deities,  I know  of 
no  monument  on  which  the  earlier  monarchs  are  seen  adoring  any  other 
figure  than  that  of  Asshur. 

The  question  as  to  the  space  occupied  by  the  city  of  Nineveh  at  the  time 
of  its  greatest  prosperity  is  still  far  from  being  set  at  rest.  Col.  Rawlinson, 
founding  his  opinion  upon  the  names  on  bricks  from  the  several  sites,  be- 
lieves the  inclosures  of  Nimroud,  Kouyunjik,  and  Khorsabad,  and  the  small 
mounds  of  Shereef-Khan,  scarcely  three  miles  from  Kouyunjik,  as  well  as 
others  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  to  be  the  remains  of  distinct  cities. 
He  would  even  separate  the  mound  of  Nebbi  Yunus  from  Kouyunjik,  identi- 
fying the  former  with  Nineveh,  and  making  the  latter  a mere  suburb.  A 
glance  at  the  plan  of  the  ruins  will  show  this  conjecture  to  be  quite  unten- 

been  slain  in  the  temple  of  Asshur,  and  that  the  Hebrews,  seeing  everywhere  the 
commonest  of  the  Assyrian  mythic  figures,  may  have  believed  it  to  be  the  peculiar 
god  of  the  Assyrians,  to  which  they  consequently  gave  a name  denoting  an  eagle. 
The  fact  of  its  occurring  on  the  door-posts  with  Dagon  and  other  undoubted  repre- 
sentations of  deities,  proves  that  it  must  be  ranked  amongst  them,  whilst  they  may 
all  originally  have  been,  as  I have  pointed  out  in  the  text,  mere  myths  or  symbols. 

* See  woodcuts,  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  448.  There  is  some  doubt 
whether  the  figure  standing  on  an  animal,  frequently  represented  on  Assyrian  mon- 
uments as  worshipped  by  the  king,  as  at  Bavian  for  instance  (2d  series  of  the  Monu- 
ments of  Nineveh,  Plate  51.),  be  Asshur,  or  one  of  the  twelve  gods.  I am  inclined 
to  the  latter  opinion ; as  on  cylinders  the  figures  of  the  deities  standing  on  animals 
are  frequently  seen  in  act  of  adoration  before  the  supreme  god  in  the  circle. 


EXTENT  OF  NINEVEH. 


545 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

able.  Discoveries  in  both  mounds  prove  that  they  belong  to  nearly  the 
same  period,  and  that  Nebbi  Yunus  is  the  more  recent  of  the  two.* * * §  The 
supposition  that  any  of  these  groups  of  mounds  represent  alone  the  city  of 
Nineveh  can  in  no  way  be  reconciled  with  the  accounts  in  Scripture  and 
in  the  Greek  authors,  which  so  remarkably  coincide  as  to  its  extent ; a dif- 
ficulty which  leads  Col.  Rawlinson  to  say,  that  all  these  ruins  “ formed  one 
of  that  group  of  cities  which,  in  the  time  of  the  prophet  Jonah,  were  known 
by  the  common  name  of  Nineveh. ”f  It  is  indeed  true,  that,  on  bricks 
from  different  mounds,  distinct  names  appear  to  be  given  to  each  locality, 
and  that  those  from  Kouyunjik  are  inscribed  with  the  name  of  Nineveh, 
whilst  those  from  Nimroud  and  Khorsabad  bear  others  which  have  not  yet 
been  satisfactory  deciphered.!  These  names  are  preceded  by  a determin- 
ative monogram  0H=T  or  ) assumed  to  signify  a city,  but  which 

undoubtedly  also  applies  to  a fort  or  fortified  palace. § Nahum  describes 
Nineveh  as  a city  of  many  strongholds  and  gates,  ||  and  such  I believe  it  to 
have  been,  each  fort  or  stronghold  having  a different  name.  The  most  im- 
portant, as  it  was  the  best  defended,  may  at  one  time  have  been  the  palace 
at  Kouyunjik,  which  being  especially  called  Nineveh,  gave  its  name  to  the 
whole  city.  By  no  other  supposition  can  we  reconcile  the  united  testimony 
of  ancient  writers  as  to  the  great  size  of  Nineveh  with  the  present  remains. 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  these  fortified  inclosures  contained  many 
buildings  besides  the  royal  palaces,  and  such  temples  and  public  edifices  as 
were  attached  to  them.  At  Nimroud,  excavations  were  made  in  various 
parts  of  the  inclosed  space,  and  it  was  carefully  examined  with  a view  to 
ascertain  whether  any  foundations  or  remains  of  houses  still  existed.  None 
were  discovered  except  at  the  south-eastern  corner,  where,  as  already  de- 
scribed, Y the  height  of  the  earth  above  the  usual  level  at  once  shewed  the 
existence  of  ruins.  In  most  parts  of  the  inclosure,  the  natural  soil  seems 
never  to  have  been  disturbed,  and  in  some  places  the  conglomerate  rock  is 
almost  denuded  of  earth. 

* On  the  inscriptions  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Soci- 
ety, vol.  xii.  p.  418.  The  expression  used  by  Col.  Rawlinson  with  regard  to  the  mound 
of  Nebbi  Yunus,  “the  huge  mound  opposite  Mosul,”  rather  tends  to  mislead ; it  is,  in 
fact,  much  inferior  in  size  to  Kouyunjik,  and  other  great  ruins  in  Assyria. 

t On  the  Inscriptions  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  417. 

t Col.  Rawlinson  reads  the  name  of  Levkeh  or  Calah  on  the  bricks  from  Nimroud, 
and  consequently  identifies  the  ruins  with  the  Calah  of  Genesis,  one  of  the  primitive 
cities  of  Assyria,  but  I cannot  believe  that  the  four  cities  mentioned  in  the  Bible  could 
have  stood  within  so  short  a distance  of  each  other,  particularly  as  we  are  told  that 
Resen,  “a  great  city,  was  between  Nineveh  and  Calah.”  (Genesis,  x.  12.) 

§ In  like  manner  the  common  determinative  sign  signifies  a country,  a hill,  and 
a mine.  (Dr.  Hincks’  Mem.  on  the  Assyro-Babylonian  Phonetic  Characters,  note  p. 
301.  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  vol.  xxii.)  It  appears  to  be  also  used 
on  some  bricks  in  the  same  way  as  the  determinative  described  in  the  text. 

II  Ch.  iii.  12—14.  H P.  140. 


546 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


|CHAP.  XXVI 


Such  is  also  the  case  opposite  Mosul.  The  remains  of  one  or  two  build- 
ings appear  to  exist  within  the  inclosure  ; but  in  the  greater  part  there  are 
no  indications  whatever  of  ancient  edifices,  and  the  conglomerate  rock  is. 
as  at  Nimroud,  on  a level  with  the  surrounding  soil. 

At  Khorsabad,  the  greater  part  of  the  inclosed  space  is  so  much  beloic 
the  surrounding  country,  that  it  is  covered  with  a marsh  formed  by  the 
small  river  Khauser,  which  flows  near  the  ruins.  Within  the  -walls,  -which 
are  scarcely  more  than  a mile  square,  can  only  be  traced  the  remains  of  one 
or  two  buildings,  and  of  a propylseum,  standing  below  the  platform,  and 
above  two  hundred  yards  from  the  ascent  to  the  palace,*  but  they  are  at 
once  perceived  by  well-defined  inequalities  in  the  soil. 

If  the  walls  forming  the  inclosures  of  Khorsabad  and  other  Assyrian 
ruins  -were  the  outer  defences  of  a city,  abruptly  facing  the  open  country, 
it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  fact  of  the  palace  having  been  built  in  the 
same  line,  and  actually  forming  part  of  them.  All  access  to  it  must  have 
been  strongly  fortified,  and  even  the  view  over  the  surrounding  country,  the 
chief  object  of  such  a position,  must  have  been  shut  out. 

After  several  careful  excavations  of  the  ruins  and  of  the  spaces  inclosed 
by  the  ramparts  of  earth,  I am  still  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  they  were 
royal  dwellings  with  their  dependent  buildings,  and  parks  or  paradises, 
fortified  like  the  palace-temples  of  Egypt,  capable  of  standing  a prolonged 
siege,  and  a place  of  refuge  for  the  inhabitants  in  case  of  invasion.  They 
may  have  been  called  by  different  names,  but  they  were  all  included  with- 
in the  area  of  that  great  city  known  to  the  Jew's  and  to  the  Greeks  as 
Nineveh.  I will  not  pretend  to  say  that  the  whole  of  this  vast  space  was 
thickly  inhabited  or  built  upon.  As  I have  elsewhere  observed,  we  must 
not  judge  of  Eastern  cities  by  those  of  Europe. t In  Asia,  gardens  and 

* From  this  propylaeum  came  the  two  colossal  bulls  in  the  British  Museum ; it 
was  part  of  the  royal  palace. 

t Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  chap.  2.  A recent  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey of  the  country  by  Captain  Jones  proves,  I am  informed,  that  the  great  ruins  of 
Kouyunjik,  Nimroud,  Karamless,  and  Khorsabad,  form  very  nearly  a perfect  parallel- 
ogram, corresponding  with  the  conjecture  I ventured  to  make  in  my  former  work.  A 
recent  writer  (Bonomi,  Nineveh  and  its  Palaces,  p.  94.),  adopting  the  theory  of  the 
greater  extent  of  Nineveh,  has  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  Gebel  Makloub  is  the  re- 
mains of  its  Eastern  walls,  stating  that  he  “ has  the  testimony  of  a recent  observant 
traveller,  Mr.  Barker,  who  has  no  doubt  that  the  so-called  ‘ mountain’  is  entirely  the 
work  of  man.”  Unfortunately  it  happens  that  the  Gebel  Makloub  is  somewhat  high- 
er, and  far  more  precipitous  and  rocky  than  the  Malvern  hills.  It  would,  indeed,  have 
required  Titans  to  raise  such  a heaven-reaching  wall ! Scarcely  less  extravagant  are 
the  conjectures  that  the  mound  is  called  Kouyumjik,  not  Kouyunjik,  because  silver 
ornaments  may  have  been  found  there,  and  that  Yaroumjeh,  a mere  Turkish  name 
meaning  “the  half-way  village,”  is  “ roum,”  “ signifying  the  territory  and  inhabitants 
of  the  Roman  empire,”  and,  consequently,  a part  of  Nineveh,  “ Roman  and  ancient 
being  synonymous  terms  !”  The  line,  too,  indicated  in  Mr.  Bonomi’s  diagram  for  the 
former  bed  of  the  Tigris,  in  order  to  complete  the  parallelogram,  would  take  the  riv 
er  over  a range  of  steep  limestone  hills.  I may  here  observe  that  the  name  of  “ Nini- 
ouah”  is  not  known  in  the  country  as  applied  either  to  the  mound  of  Nebbi  Yunus, 


ASSYRIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


547 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

orchards,  containing  suburbs  and  even  distinct  villages,  collected  round  a 
walled  city  are  all  included  by  the  natives  under  one  general  name.  Such 
is  the  case  with  Isfahan  and  Damascus,  and  such  I believe  it  to  have  been 
with  ancient  Nineveh.  It  appears  to  me  quite  inconsistent  with  Eastern 
customs,  as  well  as  with  historic  testimony,  to  place  within  so  short  a dis- 
tance of  each  other  several  great  and  distinct  cities.  Recent  researches 
have  in  no  way  shaken  the  opinion  that  I ventured  to  express  in  my  for- 
mer work,  partly  founded  upon  arguments  derived  from  the  fact  of  each  of 
these  separate  fortified  palaces  having  been  built  by  different  kings.* 

A few  remarks  are  necessary  on  the  additional  information  afforded  by 
recent  discoveries  as  to  the  architecture  and  architectural  decorations,  ex- 
ternal and  internal,  of  the  Assyrian  palaces.  The  inscriptions  on  their 
walls,  especially  on  those  of  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsabad,  appear  to  contain 
important  and  even  minute  details,  not  only  as  to  their  general  plan  and 
mode  of  construction,  but  even  as  to  the  materials  employed  for  their  dif- 
ferent parts,  and  for  the  objects  of  sculpture  and  ornaments  placed  in  them. 
This  fact  furnishes  another  remarkable  analogy  between  the  records  of  the 
Jewish  and  the  Assyrian  kings.  To  the  history  of  their  monarchs  and  of 
their  nation,  the  Hebrew  chroniclers  have  added  a full  account  of  the  build- 
ing and  adornment  of  the  temple  and  palaces  of  Solomon.  In  both  cases, 
from  the  use  of  technical  words,  we  can  scarcely  hope  to  understand,  with 
any  degree  of  certainty,  all  the  details.  It  is  impossible  to  comprehend,  by 
the  help  of  the  descriptions  alone,  the  plan  or  appearance  of  the  temple  of 
Solomon.  This  arises  not  only  from  our  being  unacquainted  with  the  ex- 
act meaning  of  various  Hebrew  architectural  terms,  but  also  from  the  dif- 
ficulty experienced,  even  in  ordinary  cases,  of  restoring  from  mere  descrip- 
tion an  edifice  of  any  kind.  In  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  we  labor,  of  course, 
under  still  greater  disadvantages.  The  language  in  which  they  are  writ- 
ten is  as  yet  but  very  imperfectly  known,  and  although  we  may  be  able  to 
explain  with  some  confidence  the  general  meaning  of  the  historical  para- 
graphs, yet  when  we  come  to  technical  words  relating  to  architecture, 
even  with  a very  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Assyrian  tongue,  we  could 
scarcely  hope  to  ascertain  their  precise  signification.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  materials,  and  the  general  plan  of  the  Assyrian  palaces  are  still  pre- 
served, whilst  of  the  great  edifices  of  the  Jews,  not  a fragment  of  masonry, 
nor  the  smallest  remains  are  left  to  guide  us.  As  Mr.  Fergussonf  has 
shown,  the  architecture  of  the  one  people  may  be  illustrated  by  that  of  the 
other.  With  the  help  of  the  sacred  books,  and  of  the  ruins  of  the  palaces 

or  any  other  min  in  the  country.  Before  founding  theories  upon  such  grounds,  it 
would  be  as  well  to  have  some  little  acquaintance  with  the  localities  and  with  the 
languages  spoken  by  the  people  of  the  country. 

* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  c.  2. 

t See  his  highly  interesting  work,  entitled  “ The  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persep- 
olis  restored,”  to  which  I shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  refer  in  the  remarks  in  the 
text,  and  to  which  I take  this  opportunity  of  acknowledging  my  obligations. 


548 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


Chap.  XXVI. 


of  Nineveh,  together  with  that  of  cotemporary  and  later  remains,  as  well 
as  from  customs  still  existing  in  the  East,  we  may,  to  a certain  extent,  re- 
store the  principal  buildings  of  both  nations. 

Before  suggesting  a general  restoration  of  the  royal  edifices  of  Nineveh, 
I shall  endeavor  to  point  out  the  analogies  which  appear  to  exist  between 
their  actual  remains  and  what  is  recorded  of  the  temple  and  palaces  of 
Solomon.  In  the  first  place,  as  Sennacherib  in  his  inscriptions  declares 
himself  to  have  done,  the  Jewish  king  sent  the  bearer  of  burdens  and  the 
hewers  into  the  mountains  to  bring  great  stones,  costly  stones,  and  hewed 
stones,^  to  lay  the  foundations,  which  were  probably  artificial  platforms, 
resembling  the  Assyrian  mounds,  though  constructed  of  more  solid  materi- 
als. We  have  the  remains  of  such  a terrace  or  stage  of  stone  masonry, 
perhaps  built  by  king  Solomon  himself,  at  Baalbec.  The  enormous  size  of 
some  of  the  hewn  stones  existing  in  that  structure,  and  of  those  still  seen  in 
the  quarries,  some  being  more  than  sixty  feet  long,  has  excited  the  wonder 
of  modern  travellers.  The  dimensions  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  three- 
score cubits  long,f  twenty  broad,  and  thirty  high,  were  much  smaller  than 
those  of  the  great  edifices  explored  in  Assyria.  Solomon’s  own  palace, 
however,  appears  to  have  been  considerably  larger,  and  to  have  more  near- 
ly approached  in  its  proportions  those  of  the  kings  of  Nineveh,  for  it  was 
one  hundred  cubits  long,  fifty  broad,  and  thirty  high.  f‘  The  porch  before 
the  temple,”  twenty  cubits  by  ten,$  may  have  been  a propylaeun,  such  as 
was  discovered  at  Khorsabad  in  front  of  the  palace.  The  chambers,  with 
the  exception  of  the  oracle,  were  exceedingly  small,  the  largest  being  only 
seven  cubits  broad,  “ for  without,  in  the  wall  of  the  house,  he  made  numer- 
ous rests  round  about,  that  the  beams  should  not  be  fastened  in  the  walls 
of  the  house.”  The  words  in  italics  are  inserted  in  our  version  to  make 
good  the  sense,  and  may  consequently  not  convey  the  exact  meaning,  which 
may  be,  that  these  chambers  were  thus  narrow  that  the  beams  might  be 
supported  without  the  use  of  pillars,  a reason  already  suggested  for  the  nar- 
rowness of  the  greater  number  of  chambers  in  the  Assyrian  palaces.  These 
smaller  rooms  appear  to  have  been  built  round  a large  central  chamber, 
called  the  oracle,  the  whole  arrangement  thus  corresponding  with  the  halls 
and  surrounding  rooms  at  Nimroud,  Khorsabad,  and  Kouyunjik.  The  ora- 
cle itself  was  twenty  cubits  square,  smaller  far  in  dimensions  than  the 
Nineveh  halls ; but  it  was  twenty  cubits  high — an  important  fact,  illus- 
trative of  Assyrian  architecture,  for  as  the  building  was  thirty  cubits  in 
height,  the  oracle  must  not  only  have  been  much  loftier  than  the  adjoining 
chambers,  but  must  have  had  an  upper  structure  of  ten  cubits.  § Within  it 

* 1 Kings,  v.  15.  f The  Jewish  cubit  appears  to  have  been  about  18  inches. 

% The  height,  according  to  2 Chron.  iii.  4.,  was  120  cubits,  which  would  appear  to 
be  an  error  slipt  into  the  text,  although  Josephus  gives  the  same  dimensions,  adding 
an  upper  story  or  structure. 

$ Mr.  Fergusson  has  pointed  out,  from  the  account  of  Josephus,  the  probability  of 
the  temple  having  had  two  stories.  (The  Palaces  of  Nineveh  restored,  p.  222.) 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  SOLOMON. 


549 


Chap.  XXVL] 

were  the  two  cherubim  of  olive  wood  ten  cubits  high,  with  wings  each  five 
cubits  long,  “ and  he  carved  all  the  house  around  with  carved  figures  of 
cherubim  and  palm  trees,  and  open  flowers,  within  and  without.”  The 
cherubim  have  been  described  by  Biblical  commentators  as  mythic  figures, 
uniting  the  human  head  with  the  body  of  a lion,  or  an  ox,  and  the  wings 
of  an  eagle. * If  for  the  palm  trees  we  substitute  the  sacred  tree  of  the 
Nineveh  sculptures,  and  for  the  open  flowers  the  Assyrian  tulip-shaped  or- 
nament-objects most  probably  very  nearly  resembling  each  other — we  find 
that  the  oracle  of  the  temple  was  almost  identical,  in  general  form  and  in 
its  ornaments,  with  some  of  the  chambers  of  Nimroud  and  Khorsabad.  In 
the  Assyrian  halls,  too,  the  winged  human-headed  bulls  were  on  the  side 
of  the  wall,  and  their  wings,  like  those  of  the  cherubim,  “ touched  one  an- 
other in  the  midst  of  the  house.”!  The  dimensions  of  these  figures  were 
in  some  cases  nearly  the  same,  namely,  fifteen  feet  square.  The  doors 
were  also  carved  with  cherubim  and  palm  trees,  and  open  flowers,  and 
thus,  with  the  other  parts  of  the  building,  corresponded  with  those  of  the 
Assyrian  palaces.  On  the  walls  at  Nineveh  the  only  addition  appears  to 
have  been  the  introduction  of  the  human  form  and  the  image  of  the  king, 
which  were  an  abomination  to  the  Jews.  The  pomegranates  and  lilies 
of  Solomon’s  temple  must  have  been  nearly  identical  with  the  usual  Assyr- 
ian ornament,  in  which,  and  particularly  at  Khorsabad,  the  pomegranate 
frequently  takes  the  place  of  the  tulip  and  the  cone. 

But  the  description  given  by  Josephus  of  the  interior  of  one  of  Solomon’s 
houses,  already  quoted  by  Mr.  Fergusson  in  support  of  his  ingenious  argu- 
ments, even  more  completely  corresponds  with,  and  illustrates  the  chambers 
in  the  palaces  of  Nineveh.  “ Solomon  built  some  of  these  (houses)  with 
stones  of  ten  cubits,  and  wainscoted  the  walls  with  other  stones  that  were 
sawed , and  were  of  great  value,  such  as  were  dug  out  of  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  for  ornaments  of  temples,  &c.  The  arrangement  of  the  curious  work- 
manship of  these  stones  was  in  three  rows  ; but  the  fourth  was  pre-eminent 
for  the  beauty  of  its  sculpture,  for  on  it  were  represented  trees,  and  all  sorts 
of  plants,  with  the  shadows  caused  by  their  branches  and  the  leaves  that 
hung  down  from  them.  These  trees  and  plants  covered  the  stone  that  was 
beneath  them,  and  their  leaves  were  wrought  so  wonderfully  thin  and  sub- 
tile, that  they  appeared  almost  in  motion  ; but  the  rest  of  the  wall,  up  to 
the  roof,  was  plastered  over,  and,  as  it  were,  wrought  over  with  various 
colors  and  pictures.”! 

To  complete  the  analogy  between  the  two  edifices,  it  would  appear  that 
Solomon  was  seven  years  building  the  temple,  and  Sennacherib  about  the 
same  time  building  his  great  palace  at  Kouyunjik.$ 

* See  Calmet’s  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

t See  frontispiece  to  Fergusson’s  Palaces  of  Nineveh  restored. 

t Josephus,  b.  viii.  c.  2.  Fergusson’s  Palaces  of  Nineveh,  p.  229. 

4 It  will  be  remembered  that  the  annals  on  the  bulls  of  Kouyunjik  include  six  years 
of  his  reign,  and  must  consequently  have  been  inscribed  on  them  in  the  seventh  year. 


550 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


The  ceiling,  roof,  and  beams  of  the  temple  were  of  cedar  wood.  The 
discoveries  in  the  ruins  at  Nimroud  show  that  the  same  precious  wood  was 
used  in  the  Assyrian  edifices ; and  the  king  of  Nineveh,  as  we  learn  from 
the  inscriptions,  employed  men,  precisely  as  Solomon  had  done,  to  cut  it  in 
Mount  Lebanon.  Fir  was  also  employed  in  the  Jewish  buildings,  and  prob- 
ably in  those  of  Assyria.* 

In  order  to  understand  the  proposed  restoration  of  the  palace  at  Kou- 
yunjik  from  the  existing  remains,  the  reader  must  refer  to  the  plan  of  the 
excavated  ruins. f It  will  be  perceived  that  the  building  does  not  face  the 
cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  I will,  however,  assume,  for  convenience 
sake,  that  it  stands  due  north  and  south.  To  the  west,  therefore,  it  imme- 
diately overlooked  the  Tigris ; and  on  that  side  was  one  of  its  principal  fa- 
cades. The  edifice  must  have  risen  on  the  very  edge  of  the  platform,  the 
foot  of  which  was  at  that  time  washed  by  the  river.  If,  therefore,  there 
were  any  access  to  the  palace  on  the  river  front,  it  must  necessarily  have 
been  by  a flight  of  steps,  or  an  inclined  way  leading  down  to  the  water’s 
edge,  and  there  might  have  been  great  stairs  parallel  to  the  basement  wall 
as  at  Persepolis.  Although  from  the  fact  of  there  having  been  a grand 
entrance  to  the  palace  on  this  side,  it  is  highly  probable  that  some  such 
approach  once  existed,  no  remains  whatever  of  it  have  been  discovered. 
The  western  facade,  like  the  eastern,  was  formed  by  five  pairs  of  human- 
headed bulls,  and  numerous  colossal  figures, J forming  three  distinct  gate- 
ways. 

The  principal  approach  to  the  palace  appears,  however,  to  have  been  on 
the  eastern  side,  where  the  great  bulls  bearing  the  annals  of  Sennacherib 
still  stand.  In  the  frontispiece  I have  been  able,  by  the  assistance  of  Mr. 
Fergusson,  to  give  a restoration  of  this  magnificent  facade  and  entrance. 
Inclined  ways,  or  broad  flight  of  steps,  appear  to  have  led  up  to  it  from  the 
foot  of  the  platform,  and  the  remains  of  them,  consisting  of  huge  squared 
stones,  are  still  seen  in  the  ravines,  which  are  but  the  ancient  ascents, 
deepened  by  the  winter  rains  of  centuries.  From  this  grand  entrance  di- 
rect access  could  be  had  to  all  the  principal  halls  and  chambers  in  the  pal- 
ace ; that  on  the  western  face,  as  appears  from  the  ruins,  only  opened  into 
a set  of  eight  rooms. 

The  chambers  hitherto  explored  appear  to  have  been  grouped  round  three 
great  halls  marked  Nos.  VI.,  XIX.,  and  LXIV.  on  the  Plan.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  palace  extended  considerably  to  the  north- 
east of  the  grand  entrance,  and  that  there  may  have  been  another  hall, 
and  similar  dependent  chambers  in  that  part  of  the  edifice.  To  the  east 
of  hall  LXIV.  and  to  the  north  of  No.  VI.  there  were  also  remains  of  build- 
ings. Only  a part  of  the  palace  has  been  hitherto  excavated,  and  we  are 
not  in  possession  of  a perfect  ground  plan  of  it. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  chambers  at  Kouyunjik  is  similar  to  that 
of  Khorsabad,  though  the  extent  of  the  building  is  very  much  greater,  it 
* 1 Kings,  v.  8.  t See  Plan  I.  t See  Frontispiece  to  this  volume. 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


MODE  OF  LIGHTING. 


551 


is  also  to  be  remarked  that  the  Khorsabad  mound  falls  gradually  to  the 
level  of  the  plain,  apparently  showing  the  remains  of  a succession  of  broad 
terraces,  and  that  parts  of  the  palace,  such  as  the  propylaea,  were  actually 
beneath  the  platform,  and  removed  some  distance  from  it  in  the  midst  of 
the  walled  inclosure.  At  Kouyunjik,  however,  the  whole  of  the  royal  edi 
fi.ce,  with  its  dependent  buildings,  appears  to  have  stood  on  the  summit  of 
the  artificial  basement,*  whose  lofty  perpendicular  sides  could  only  have 
been  accessible  by  steps,  or  inclined  ways.  No  propylsea,  or  other  edifices 
connected  with  the  palace,  have  as  yet  been  discovered  below  the  platform. 

The  inscriptions  appear  to  refer  to  four  distinct  parts  of  the  palace,  three 
of  which,  inhabited  by  the  women,  seem  subsequently  to  have  been  reduced 
to  one.  It  is  not  clear  whether  they  were  all  on  the  ground  floor,  or  whether 
they  formed  different  stories.  Mr.  Fergusson,  in  his  ingenious  work  on  the 
restoration  of  the  palaces  of  Nineveh,  in  which  he  has,  with  great  learning 
and  research,  fully  examined  the  subject  of  the  architecture  of  the  Assyrians 
and  ancient  Persians,  availing  himself  of  the  facts  then  furnished  by  the 
discoveries,  endeavors  to  divide  the  Khorsabad  palace,  after  the  manner  of 
modern  Mussulman  houses,  into  the  Salamlik  or  apartments  of  the  men, 
and  the  Harem  or  those  of  the  women.  The  division  he  suggests,  must,  of 
course,  depend  upon  conjecture  ; but  it  may,  I think,  be  considered  as  highly 
probable,  until  fuller  and  more  accurate  translations  of  the  inscriptions  than 
can  yet  be  made  may  furnish  us  with  some  positive  data  on  the  subject.  In 
the  ruins  of  Kouyunjik  there  is  nothing,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  to  mark  the 
distinction  between  the  male  and  female  apartments.  Supposing  Mr.  Fer- 
gusson’s  theory  to  be  correct,  and  following  the  analogy  between  the  two 
buildings,  the  hall  marked  XIX.  on  the  Plan  would  best  correspond  with 
the  harem  court  of  Khorsabad.  Of  a temple  no  remains  have  as  yet  been 
found  at  Kouyunjik,!  nor  is  there  any  high  conical  mound  as  at  Nimroud 
and  Khorsabad. 

In  all  the  Assyrian  edifices  hitherto  explored  we  have  the  same  general 
interior  plan.  On  the  four  sides  of  the  great  halls  are  two  or  three  narrow 
parallel  chambers  opening  one  into  the  other.  Most  of  them  have  doorways 
at  each  end  leading  into  smaller  rooms,  which  have  no  other  outlet.  It 
seems  highly  probable  that  this  uniform  plan  was  adopted  with  reference 
to  the  peculiar  architectural  arrangements  required  by  the  building,  and  I 
agree  with  Mr.  Fergusson  in  attributing  it  to  the  mode  resorted  to  for  light- 
ing the  apartments. 

In  my  former  work  I expressed  a belief  that  the  chambers  received  light 
through  an  opening  in  the  roof.  Although  this  may  have  been  the  case  in 
some  instances,  yet  recent  discoveries  now  prove  that  the  Assyrian  palaces 
had  more  than  one  story.  Such  being  the  fact,  it  is  evident  that  other 
means  must  have  been  adopted  to  admit  daylight  to  the  inner  rooms  on  the 

* Such  also  appears  to  have  been  the  case  at  Nimroud. 

t Col.  Rawlinson  recently  mentions  a temple  at  Kouyunjik  (Outlines  of  Assyrian 
History,  p,  23.),  but  I question  whether  it  be  not  simply  a part  of  the  palace 


552 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI 


ground  floor.  Mr.  Fergusson’s  suggestion,  that  the  upper  part  of  the  halls 
and  principal  chambers  was  formed  by  a row  of  pillars  supporting  the  ceil- 
ing and  admitting  a free  circulation  of  light  and  air,  appears  to  me  to 
meet,  to  a certain  extent,  the  difficulty.  It  has,  moreover,  been  borne  out 
by  subsequent  discoveries,  and  by  the  representation  of  a large  building,  ap- 
parently a palace,  on  one  of  the  bas-reliefs  discovered  at  Kouyunjik.*  In 
the  accompanying  woodcut  an  edifice  is  seen  with  openings  at  equal  dis- 


tances immediately  beneath  the  roof,  each  opening  being  formed  by  two 
pillars  with  capitals  resembling  the  Ionic.  In  the  restoration  of  the  ex- 
terior of  the  Kouyunjik  palace  forming  the  frontispiece  to  this  volume,  a 
somewhat  similar  capital  has  been  adopted  in  preference  to  that  taken  by 
Mr.  Fergusson  from  Persepolis,  which,  although  undoubtedly,  like  the  other 
architectural  details  of  those  celebrated  ruins,  Assyrian  in  character,  are 
not  authorised  by  any  known  Assyrian  remains.! 

A row  of  pillars,  or  of  alternate  pillars  and  masonry,  would  answer  the 
purpose  intended,  if  they  opened  into  a well-lighted  hall.  Yet  inner  cham- 

* See  also  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh.  Plate  40 

t See  frontispiece  to  Mr.  Fergusson's  Palaces  of  Nineveh  restored  The  pure  Ionic 
volute  occurs  amongst  the  bronze  ornaments  from  the  throne  in  the  British  Museum. 
I have  lately,  however,  found,  amongst  the  small  objects  brought  by  me  to  this  coun- 
try, what  appears  to  be  part  of  a double  bull  precisely  similar  to  the  capitals  of  Per- 
sepolis. Between  the  figures  is  a gioove  for  the  beam.  It  may  have  belonged  to 
some  model  of  a building  or  of  a column. 


Chap  XXVI.] 


SOLOMON’S  TEMPLE 


553 


bers,  such  as  are  found  in  the  ruins  of  Kouyunjik,  must  have  remained  in 
almost  entire  darkness.  And  it  is  not  improbable  that  such  was  the  case, 
to  judge  from  modern  Eastern  houses,  in  which  the  absence  of  light  is  con- 
sidered essential  to  secure  a cool  temperature.  The  sculptures  and  deco- 
rations in  them  could  then  only  be  seen  by  torchlight.  The  great  halls 
were  probably  in  some  cases  entirely  open  to  the  air,  like  the  court-yards 
of  the  modern  houses  of  Mosul,  whose  walls  are  still  adorned  with  sculp- 
tured alabaster.  When  they  were  covered  in  the  roof  was  borne  by  enor- 
mous pillars  of  wood  or  brickwork,  and  rose  so  far  above  the  surrounding 
part  of  the  building,  that  light  was  admitted  by  columns  and  buttresses  im- 
mediately beneath  the  ceiling.  It  is  most  probable  that  there  were  two 
or  three  stories  of  chambers  opening  into  them,  either  by  columns  or  by  win- 
dows. Such  appears  to  have  been  the  case  in  Solomon’s  temple ; for  Jo- 
sephus tells  us  that  the  great  inner  sanctuary  was  surrounded  by  small 
rooms,  “ over  these  rooms  were  other  rooms,  and  others  aJiove  them,  equal 
both  in  their  measure  and  numbers,  and  that  these  reached  to  a height 
equal  to  the  lower  part  of  the  house,  for  the  upper  had  no  buildings  about 
it.”  We  have  also  an  illustration  of  this  arrangement  of  chambers  in  the 
modern  houses  of  some  parts  of  Persia, ^ in  which  a great  central  hall,  called 
an  Iwan,  rises  to  the  top  of  the  building,  and  has  small  rooms  in  two  or 
three  separate  stories,  opening  by  windows  into  it,  whilst  the  inner  cham- 


Throne-roorn,  Teheran. 

bers,  having  no  windows  at  all,  have  no  more  light  than  that  which  reaches 
them  through  the  door.  Sometimes  these  side  chambers  open  into  a cen- 
tre court,  as  1 have  suggested  may  have  been  the  case  in  the  Nineveh  pal- 
* Especially  of  Isfahan,  Hamadan,  and  Kermanshah. 


554 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


aces,  then  a projecting  roof  of  woodwork  protects  the  carved  and  painted 
walls  from  injury  by  the  weather.  Curtains  and  awnings  were  also  sus- 
pended above  the  windows  and  entrances,  to  ward  off  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
The  accompanying  woodcut  of  the  great  Iwan  or  throne-room  of  a royal 
palace  at  Teheran,  taken  from  Mr.  Fergusson’s  work,  will  show  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  central  halls  and  courts. 

Although  no  remains  or  even  traces  of  pillars  have  hitherto  been  discov 
ered  in  the  Assyrian  ruins,  I now  think  it  highly  probable,  as  suggested  by 
Mr.  Fergusson,  that  they  were  used  to  support  the  roof.  The  sketch  of  a 
modern  Yezidi  house  in  the  Sinjar,  given  in  a previous  part  of  this  volume,* 
is  a good  illustration  not  only  of  this  mode  of  supporting  the  ceiling,  but  of 
the  manner  in  which  light  may  have  been  admitted  into  the  side  chambers. 
It  is  curious,  however,  that  no  stone  pedestals,  upon  which  wooden  columns 
may  have  rested,  have  been  found  in  the  ruins,  nor  are  there  marks  of  them 
on  the  pavement.  I .can  scarcely  account  for  the  entire  absence  of  all  such 
traces.  However,  unless  some  support  of  this  kind  were  resorted  to,  it  is 
impossible  that  even  the  large  chambers  at  Kouyunjik,  without  including 
the  central  halls,  could  have  been  covered  in.  The  great  hall,  or  house  as 
it  is  rendered  in  the  Bible,!  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  was  thirty  cubits  high, 
upon  four  rows  of  cedar  pillars,  with  cedar  beams  upon  the  pillars.  The 
Assyrian  kings,  we  have  seen,  cut  wood  in  the  same  forests  as  King  Solo- 
mon ; and  probably  used  it  for  the  same  purposes,  namely,  for  pillars,  beams, 
and  ceiling.  The  dimensions  of  this  hall,  100  cubits  (about  150  feet)  by 
50  cubits  (75  feet),  very  much  resemble  those  of  the  centre  halls  of  the  pal- 
aces of  Nineveh.  “ The  porch  of  pillars”  was  fifty  cubits  in  length  ; equal, 
therefore,  to  the  breadth  of  the  hall,  of  which  I presume  it  to  have  been  an 
inclosed  space  at  the  upper  end,  whilst  “ the  porch  for  the  throne  where  he 
might  judge,  even  the  porch  of  judgment  ....  covered  with  cedar  wood 
from  one  side  of  the  floor  to  the  other,”  was  probably  a raised  place  beneath 
it,  corresponding  with  a similar  platform  where  the  host  and  guests  of  hon- 
or are  seated  in  a modern  Eastern  house.  Supposing  the  three  parts  of  the 
building  to  have  been  arranged  as  I have  suggested,  we  should  have  an  ex- 
act counterpart  of  them  in  the  hall  of  audience  of  the  Persian  palaces. 
The  upper  part  of  the  room,  in  which  I have  frequently  seen  the  governor 
of  Isfahan,  was  divided  from  the  rest  of  a magnificent  hall  by  columns, 
and  his  throne  was  a raised  place  of  carved  woodwork  adorned  with  rich 
stuffs,  ivory,  and  other  precious  materials.  Suppliants  and  attendants 
stood  outside  the  line  of  pillars,  and  the  officers  of  the  court  within.  Such 
also  may  have  been  the  interior  arrangement  of  the  great  halls  in  the  As- 
syrian edifices. 

* P.  213. 

f-  1 Kings,  vii.  2.  It  is  only  by  supposing  it  to  have  been  one  great  hall  that  we 
can  at  all  understand  the  proportions  and  form  of  the  building  as  subsequently  given. 
The  Hebrew  word,  as  its  Arabic  equivalent  still  does,  will  bear  both  meanings.  Pha- 
raoh’s daughter’s  house,  which  was  “ like  unto  the  porch,"  was  probably  the  harem  or 
private  apartment. 


ASSYRIAN  PALACE  RESTORED. 


555 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

That  the  Ninevite  palaces  had  more  than  one  story,  at  least  in  some 
parts  if  not  in  all,  can  now  no  longer  be  doubted.  The  inscriptions  appear 
to  describe  distinctly  the  upper  rooms,  and  at  Kouyunjik,  as  it  has  been 
seen,  an  inclined  way  was  discovered  leading  to  them.*  Without  there 
had  been  an  upper  structure,  it  would  be  impossible  to  account  for  the 
enormous  accumulation  of  rubbish,  consisting  chiefly  of  remains  of  build- 
ings, over  the  ruins  of  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsabad.  These  upper  rooms 
were  probably  built  of  sun-dried  bricks  and  wood,  but  principally  of  the 
latter  material,  and  may  have  been  connected  with  the  lower  by  winding 
staircases,  as  in  the  temple  of  Solomon,  as  well  as  by  inclined  ways.  The 
roofs  were  flat,  as  those  of  all  Eastern  houses  are  to  this  day  ; and,  as  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  Fergusson,f  they  may  have  been  crowned  by  a wooden  talar 
or  platform,  and  altars  upon  which  sacrifices  were  offered, — “ The  houses 
upon  whose  roofs  they  have  burned  incense  unto  all  the  host  of  heaven,  and 
have  poured  out  drink  offerings  to  other  gods.”$ 

I have  already  described  the  internal  decorations  of  the  Assyrian  pal- 
aces,§ and  have  little  more  to  add  upon  the  subject.  The  walls  of  Kou- 
yunjik were  more  elaborately  decorated  than  those  of  Nimroud  and  Khor- 
sabad. Almost  every  chamber  explored,  and  they  amount  to  above  sev- 
enty, was  panelled  with  alabaster  slabs  carved  with  numerous  figures  and 
with  the  minutest  details.  Each  room  appears  to  have  been  dedicated  to 
some  particular  event,  and  in  each,  apparently,  was  the  image  of  the  king 
himself.  In  fact,  the  walls  recorded  in  sculpture  what  the  inscriptions  did 
in  writing, — the  whole  history  of  Sennacherib’s  reign,  his  great  deeds  in 
peace  as  well  as  in  war.  It  will  be  remarked  that  whilst  in  other  Assyrian 
edifices  the  king  is  frequently  represented  taking  an  active  part  in  war,  slay- 
ing his  enemies,  and  fighting  beneath  a besieged  city,  he  is  never  represent- 
ed at  Kouyunjik  otherwise  than  in  an  attitude  of  triumph,  in  his  chariot 
or  on  his  throne,  receiving  the  captives  and  the  spoil.  Nor  is  he  ever  seen 
torturing  his  prisoners,  or  putting  them  to  death  with  his  own  hand. 

There  were  chambers,  however,  in  the  palace  of  Sennacherib,  as  well  as 
in  those  of  Nimroud  and  Khorsabad,  whose  walls  were  simply  coated  with 
plaster,  like  the  walls  of  Belshazzar’s  palace  at  Babylon. ||  They  may  have 
been  richly  ornamented  in  color  with  figures  of  men  and  animals,  as  well  as 
with  elegant  designs  ; or  they  may  have  been  panelled  with  cedar  wain- 
scoting, as  the  chambers  in  the  temples  and  palaces  of  Solomon,  and  in 
the  great  edifices  of  Babylon.  Gilding,  too,  appears  to  have  been  extens- 
ively used  in  decoration,  and  some  of  the  great  sphinxes  may  have  been 
overlaid  with  gold,  like  the  cherubim  in  Solomon’s  temple. IT 

* No.  LXI.  Plan  I.  See  page  394. 

t Palaces  of  Nineveh  restored,  p.  181.  That  the  Assyrians  were,  however,  ac- 
quainted with  slanting  roofs  may  be  inferred  from  a bas-relief  discovered  at  Khorsa 
bad.  (Botta,  Plate  141.)  t Jerem.  xix.  13. 

$ Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  ch.  2.  II  Daniel,  v.  5. 

IF  1 Kings,  vi.  28.  I cannot,  however,  but  express  my  conviction  that  much  of  the 


556 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


At  Kouyunjik,  the  pavement  slabs  were  not  inscribed  as  at  Nimroud ; 
but  those  between  the  winged  bulls  at  some  of  the  entrances,  were  carved 
with  an  elaborate  and  very  elegant  pattern.*  The  doors  were  probably 
of  wood,  gilt  and  adorned  with  precious  materials,  like  the  gates  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  they  appear  to  have  turned  in  stone  sockets,  for 
amongst  the  ruins  were  found  many  black  stones  hollowed  in  the  centre, 
and  hearing  an  inscription  in  these  words : “ Sennacherib,  the  great  king, 
king  of  Assyria,  brought  this  stone  from  the  distant  mountains,  and  used  it 
for  the  sockets  of  the  pillars  of  the  doors  of  his  palace.” 

To  ward  off  the  glare  of  an  Eastern  sun  hangings  or  curtains  of  gay 
colors  and  of  rich  materials  were  probably  suspended  to  the  pillars  support- 
ing the  ceding,  or  to  wooden  poles  raised  for  the  purpose,  as  in  the  palaces 
of  Babylon  and  Shushan.  Such  hangings,  as  we  have  seen,  appear  to  he 
described  in  the  tablets  of  King  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  frontispiece  to  this 
volume  will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  how  they  were  used.  This 
engraving  from  a beautiful  water-color  drawing,  made  by  Mr.  Baynes  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Fergusson,  represents  the  Eastern  fapade 
and  the  great  entrance  to  the  palace  of  Sennacherib,  as  they  are  supposed 
originally  to  have  been.  The  lower  part  of  the  building  actually  exists, 
and  is  drawn  to  scale  ; the  upper  part  of  course  is  mainly  founded  upon 
conjecture ; hut  the  preceding  remarks  may  show  that  we  are  not  alto 
gether  without  materials  to  authorise  some  such  restoration.  The  edifice 
represented  in  the  bas-relief  discovered  at  Kouyunjik  has  furnished  some  of 
the  architectural  details,  the  battlemented  finish  to  the  walls  is  still  seen 
at  Kouyunjik  and  Nimroud,  and  the  various  decorations  introduced  in  oth- 
er places  are  all  taken  from  Assyrian  monuments.  The  two  poles  with 
streamers  in  the  foreground,  are  from  a bas-relief  at  Khorsabad.  The 
sculptures  at  the  sides  of  the  steps  are  those  from  the  descending  passage 
at  Kouyunjik.  The  stone  facing  of  the  platform  is  that  of  the  basement 
of  the  tower  at  Nimroud.  The  lions,  Assyrian  in  character,  are  placed  on 
the  steps  conjecturally,  and  the  steps  themselves  are  restored.  The  de- 
sign upon  the  pavement  is  found  on  slabs  at  the  entrances  at  Kouyunjik. 

The  excavations  carried  on  at  Nimroud  during  the  last  expedition  have 
enabled  me  to  restore,  to  a certain  extent,  the  several  buildings  on  the  plat- 
form, and  to  obtain  some  idea  of  their  original  appearance.  I have  en- 
deavoured, with  the  able  assistance  of  Mr.  Fergusson,  to  convey  in  a col- 
ored frontispiece  to  the  Second  Series  of  my  larger  work  on  the  Monuments 
of  Nineveh,  the  general  effect  of  these  magnificent  edifices  when  they  still 
rose  on  their  massy  basement,  and  were  reflected  in  the  broad  stream  of 
the  Tigris.  I must  refer  the  reader  who  desires  to  follow  me  in  the  fol- 
lowing description  to  the  accompanying  general  plan  of  the  platform  and 
palaces  at  Nimroud. f 

metal  called  gold  both  in  the  sacred  writings  and  in  the  profane  authors  of  antiquity, 
was  really  copper,  alloyed  with  other  metals,  the  aurichalcum,  or  orichalcum  of  the 
Greeks,  such  as  was  used  in  the  bowls  and  plates  discovered  at  Nimroud.  s 
* 2d  series  of  the  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  56.  t Plan  III. 


The  PU, in.  tmmik  t >ie  Plac'd 


PALACES  AT  NIMROUD. 


557 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

On  the  artificial  platform,  built  of  regular  layers  of  sun-dried  bricks  in 
some  parts,  and  entirely  of  rubbish  in  others,  but  cased  on  all  sides  with 
solid  stone  masonry,  stood  at  one  time  at  least  nine  distinct  buildings.  Be- 
tween each  was  a terrace,  paved  with  stone,  or  with  large  kiln-burnt  bricks, 
from  one  and  a half  to  two  feet  square.  At  the  north-western  corner  rose 
the  great  tower,  the  tomb  of  the  founder  of  the  principal  palace.  I have 
described  its  basement,  encased  with  massive  masonry  of  stone,  relieved  by 
recesses  and  other  architectural  ornaments.  The  upper  part,  built  of  brick, 
was  most  probably  painted,  like  the  palaces  of  Babylon,  with  figures  and 
mythic  emblems.  Its  summit,  I conjecture,  to  have  consisted  of  several 
receding  gradines  like  the  top  of  the  black  obelisk,  and  I have  ventured  to 
crown  it  with  an  altar  on  which  may  have  burnt  the  eternal  fire.  Ad 
joining  this  tower  were,  as  we  have  seen,  two  small  temples,  dedicated  to 
Assyrian  gods.  One  actually  abutted  on  it,  although  there  was  no  com- 
munication. whatever,  as  far  as  I could  discover,  between  the  interior  of 
the  two  buildings  ; the  other  was  about  100  feet  to  the  east.  They  were 
both  adorned  with  sculptures,  and  had  evidently  been  more  than  one  story 
high,  and  their  beams  and  ceilings  were  of  cedar  wood.  They  contained 
statues  of  the  gods,  and  the  fullest  records  of  the  reign  of  the  king  their 
founder,  engraved  on  immense  monoliths.  Between  them  was  a way  up 
to  the  platform  from  the  north. 

Between  the  small  temples  and  the  north-west  palace  were  two  great 
flights  of  steps,  or  inclined  ways,  leading  up  from  the  margin  of  the  river. 
Their  sites  are  still  marked  by  deep  ravines.  They  opened  upon  a broad 
paved  terrace.  The  north-west  palace  having  been  so  fully  described  in 
my  former  work,  I need  only  add  that  I have  now  been  able  to  ascertain 
the  position  of  its  principal  fapade  and  entrance.  It  was  to  the  north, 
facing  the  tower,  and  nearly  resembled  the  grand  approaches  to  Kouyunjik 
and  Khorsahad.  The  two  gateways  formed  by  the  sphinxes  with  the  hu- 
man form  to  the  waist,*  appear  to  have  flanked  a grand  centre  portal  to 
which  they  were  united  on  both  sides,  as  in  Sennacherib’s  palace,  by  colos- 
sal figures  of  human-headed  hulls  and  lions  and  winged  priests.  The  re- 
mains of  no  other  great  entrance  to  the  palace  have  yet  been  discovered, 
but  I have  little  doubt  from  several  indications  in  the  ruins,  that  there  was 
a similar  facade  on  the  river  side,  and  that  a terrace,  ascended  by  broad 
flights  of  steps,  overlooked  the  Tigris. f 

To  the  south  of  the  north-west  palace  was  a third  ascent  to  the  summit 
of  the  platform,  also  marked  by  a ravine  in  the  side  of  the  mound.  Be- 
yond it  were  the  upper  chambers,  built  by  the  fourth  king  in  succession 
from  Sardanapalus,  probably  over  the  remains  of  an  earlier  edifice.  Ex 
cavations  made  in  different  parts  of  the  small  mound  covering  their  ruins, 
show  that  they  consisted  of  three  distinct  groups,  built  round  a solid  cen- 

* See  woodcut  at  head  of  Chapter  XVI. 

1 1 understand  that  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam  has  lately  discovered  the  remains  of 
some  very  fine  bas-reliefs  near  this  edge  of  the  mound. 


558 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI 


tral  mass  of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  great  accumulation  of  earth  above 
them  proves  that  this  building  must  have  had  more  than  one  story. 

The  upper  chambers  were  separated  from  the  palace  of  Essarhaddon, 
the  most  southern  on  this  side  of  the  platform,  by  a fourth  grand  approach^ 
to  the  terraces.  Remains  of  great  blocks  of  stone,  of  winged  bulls,  and  of 
colossal  figures  in  yellow  limestone,  were  found  in  the  ravine. 

Essarhaddon’s  palace  was  raised  some  feet  above  the  north-west  and  cen 
tre  edifices.  It  has  been  so  entirely  destroyed  by  fire,  and  by  the  removal 
of  the  slabs  from  its  walls,  that  a complete  ground-plan  of  it  cannot  be  re- 
stored. In  the  arrangement  of  its  chambers,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge 
from  the  ruins,  it  differed  from  other  Assyrian  buildings  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  The  hall,  above  220  feet  long,  and  100  broad.  Opening  at  the 
northern  end  by  a gateway  of  winged  bulls  on  a terrace,  which  overlooked 
the  grand  approach  and  the  principal  palaces,  and  at  the  opposite  end  hav- 
ing a triple  portal  guarded  by  three  pairs  of  colossal  sphinxes,  which  com- 
manded the  open  country  and  the  Tigris  winding  through  the  plain,  must 
have  been  a truly  magnificent  feature  in  this  palace.  It  occupied  the  cor- 
ner of  the  platform,  and  an  approach  of  which  considerable  remains  still 
exist  led  up  from  the  plain  to  its  southern  face.  Around  the  grand  hall 
appear  to  have  been  built  a number  of  small  chambers  ; and  this  Assyrian 
building  probably  answers  in  its  general  plan,  more  than  any  other  yet  dis- 
covered, to  the  descriptions  in  the  Bible  of  the  palace  of  Solomon,  especial- 
ly if  we  assume  that  the  ante-chamber,  divided  into  two  parts,  corresponds 
with  the  portico  of  the  Jewish  structures. 

The  palace  of  Essarhaddon  was  considerably  below  the  level  of  that  of 
his  grandson,  and  was  separated  from  it  by  what  appears,  from  a very  deep 
and  wide  ravine,  to  have  been  the  principal  approach  to  the  platform.  The 
south-east  edifice  was  very  inferior,  both  in  the  size  of  its  apartments  and 
in  the  materials  employed  in  its  construction,  to  the  other  royal  buildings. 
It  was  probably  built  when  the  empire  was  fast  falling  to  decay,  and,  as 
is  usual  in  such  cases,  the  arts  seem  to  have  declined  with  the  power  of 
the  people.  In  the  palace  there  was  no  great  hall,  nor  even  any  sculp- 
tured slabs.  It  consisted  of  a number  of  rooms  of  small  proportions,  pan- 
elled by  common  limestone  slabs,  roughly  hewn,  and  not  much  above  three 
feet  and  a half  high.*  The  upper  part  of  the  walls  was  simply  plastered. 
I have  not  been  able  to  find  any  grand  entrance,  fapade,  or  exterior  archi- 
tecture, and  recent  excavations  have  only  led  to  the  discovery  of  a few  new 
chambers  containing  no  objects  of  interest.  There  are  traces  of  an  earlier 
building  beneath  it.  The  terraces  to  the  west,  overlooking  the  approach 
from  the  plain,  were  floored  with  thick  lime-plaster  or  cement,  which  still 
remains. 

Returning  northwards,  we  come  to  the  only  traces  of  an  approach  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  platform,  and  consequently  from  the  interior  of  the  wall- 
ed inclosure.  It  is  remarkable  that  there  should  have  been  but  one  on  this 
* Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii.  p.  38. 


PALACES  AT  NIMROUD. 


559 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

face  ; and  it  is  even  more  curious,  that  the  only  sides  to  the  mound  on 
which  there  are  any  remains  of  walls  or  fortifications,  are  the  eastern  and 
northern,  where  the  royal  residences  would  have  overlooked  the  city,  sup- 
posing it  to  have  been  contained  within  the  existing  ramparts  of  earth. 
The  edifices  facing  what  would,  in  that  case,  have  been  the  open  country, 
were  left  apparently  defenceless. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  platform  no  actual  ruins  have  been  discovered, 
although  there  are  undoubtedly  traces  of  building  in  several  places,  and  I 
think  it  not  improbable  that  a temple,  or  some  similar  edifice,  stood  there. 

It  only  remains  for  me  to  mention  the  palace  in  the  centre  of  the  plat- 
form, founded  by  the  king  whose  name  is  believed  to  read  Divanubar  or 
Divanubra,  but  rebuilt  almost  entirely  by  Pul  or  Tiglath  Pileser.  Exca- 
vations carried  on  during  the  second  expedition,  brought  to  light  the  walls 
of  a few  additional  chambers  and  numerous  fragments  of  interesting  sculp- 
tures.* But  the  edifice  was  so  utterly  destroyed  by  Essarhaddon,  who  used 
the  materials  in  the  construction  of  his  own  dwelling  place,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  ascertain  its  general  plan,  or  even  the  arrangement  of  any  of  its 
rooms.  The  great  inscribed  bulls  and  the  obelisk,  we  know  to  have  been 
of  the  time  of  the  older  king;  and  the  bas-reliefs  of  battles  and  sieges,  heap- 
ed up  together  as  if  ready  for  removal,  to  have  belonged  to  the  latter. 

Around  this  edifice  was  a pavement  of  large  square  bricks,  extending  on 
one  side  to  the  north-west  palace  and  the  small  temples,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  upper  chambers,  Essarhaddon’s  palace,  and  that  of  his  grandson. 

In  the  ramparts  of  earth,  marking  the  inclosure-wall  of  Nimroud  to  the 
north,  fifty-eight  towers  can  still  be  distinctly  traced.  To  the  east  there 
were  about  fifty,  but  all  traces  of  some  of  them  are  entirely  gone.  To  the 
south  the  wall  has  almost  disappeared,  so  that  it  could  not  have  been  of 
great  size  or  thickness  on  that  side.  The  level  of  the  inclosure  is  here, 
however,  considerably  above  the  plain,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
Tigris  actually  flowed  beneath  part  of  it,  and  that  the  remainder  was  de- 
fended by  a wide  and  deep  ditch,  either  supplied  by  the  small  stream  still 
running  near  the  ruins,  or  by  the  river. 

At  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  inclosure,  as  I have  already  mention- 
ed,! is  a mound  of  considerable  height,  and  the  remains  of  a square  edifice ; 
they  may  have  been  a fort  or  castle.  I searched  in  vain  for  traces  of  gates 
in  the  walls  on  the  northern  side.  A high  double  mound,  which  probably 
marks  the  ruins  of  an  entrance,  was  excavated ; but  no  stone  masonry  or 
sculptured  figures  were  discovered,  as  in  a similar  mound  in  the  inclosure 
of  Kouyunjik.  I conclude,  therefore,  that  the  gateways  of  the  quarter  of 
Nineveh  represented  by  Nimroud  were  not,  like  those  of  the  more  northern 
divisions  of  the  city,  adorned  with  sculptures,  but  were  built  of  the  same 

* Amongst  them  were  winged  figures  struggling  with  mythic  animals,  and  various 
other  groups  such  as  are  seen  on  cylinders  and  on  the  robes  of  the  king  in  the  north- 
west palace.  They  appear  to  have  been  sculptured  in  colossal  proportions  on  the 
walls  of  this  palace.  t See  p.  139. 


XISETEH  AND  BABTLOJf. 


§60 


[Chap.  XXYI. 


■■tenak  a*  the  Trails,  and  were  either  arched  or  square,  being  formed  like 
the  sates  cf  modem  Arab  -cities,  by  ample  beams  of  wood. 

It  is  evident  that  the  iaaclosnre  of  Ximroud  was  regularly  fortified,  and 
defended  by  walls  built  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  an  enemy,  and  sustain- 
ing- a prolonged  siege.  That  of  Khorsabad  was  precisely  similar.  There 
also  the  platform,  on  which  the  great  palace  stood,  formed  part  of  the  walls 

a fact  for  which  I can  scarcely  offer  any  satisfactory  explanation.  It 

would  seem  more  consistent  with  security  that  the  dwelling  of  the  king, 
the  temples  of  the  gods,  and  the  edifices  containing  the  archives  and  treas- 
ures of  the  kingdom,  should  have  been  in  the  centre  of  the  fortifications, 
equally  protected  on  all  sides.  The  palaces  of  Ximroud  and  Xouyunjik, 
built  on  a platform,  washed  hy  a deep  and  broad  river,  were,  to  a certain 
extent,  guarded  from  the  approach  of  an  enemy.  But  at  Khorsabad  such 
was  not  the  case.  The  royal  residence  overlooked  the  plain  country,  and 
was  accessible  from  it,  unless  the  summit  of  the  platform  were  strongly 
fortified  on  the  western  ride,  of  which  there  is  no  trace. 

Of  the  fortified  in  closures  still  existing,  that  surrounding  Kouyunjik  is 
the  most  remarkable,  and  was  best  calculated  to  withstand  the  attack  of 
a powerful  and  numerous  army.  I give  a plan  of  the  ruins  from  Mr.  Rich’s 
survev.  which  will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  the  following  description* 

Its  form,  it  will  be  perceived,  was  irregular.  The  ride  facing  the  river, 
-TvpMlTttr  the  mounds  of  Kouvunjik  and  Xebbi  Yunus  (a),  and  the  northern 
; :r  north- western)  (5),  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  in  nearly  a 
straight  hme.t  From  the  eastern  comer  of  the  northern  face,  the  inner 
wall  (e)  forms  1 he  segment  of  a circle  towards  the  southern  end  of  the  west- 
ern, the  two  being  -only  673  yards  apart  at  their  extremities  (d)%  On  the 
four  rides  are  the  remains  of  towers  and  curtains,  and  the  walls  appear  to 
have  consisted  of  a basement  of  stone  and  an  upper  structure  of  sun-dried 
bricks.  The  top  of  the  stone  masonry  was  ornamented  with  gradines,  as 
at  XiTmrrvnd  » There  were  probably  numerous  gateways,  and  their  sites 

* IRriftri  estimates  the  entire  length  of  the  inelosure  at  about  tour  miles,  and  its 
sreai.es:  breadth  at  nearly  two.  This  appears  to  me  rather  above  the  aetnal  extent 
of  the  mins.  Jr  must  also  be  remembered  that  they  narrow  off  from  the  northern 
.giclp  ft©  a few  hundred  yards  at  the  southern  Captain  Jones  has  recently  made  a 
verr  eareful  trgonometiieal  surrey  of  the  mins,  but  Ins  plans  have  not  yet,  I believe, 
reached  this  country.  Xumerous  occupations  during  my  residence  in  Assyria  pre- 
vented me  from  completing  a similar  work,  which  I the  less  regretted  as  it  was  to  be 
done  bv  -one  so  frmch  more  competent.  I have  not  hitherto  had  time  to  lay  down  my 
surrey  -of  Xmaroud.  The  general  plan  of  the  mound  in  my  first  work  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a mere  rough  sketch. 

f Rate  7©.  an  the  2nd  senes  of  the  Monuments  of  Xineveh  will  convey  an  idea  of 
the  nature  -of  the  earthen  ramparts  forming  the  inclosnre  round  Kouyunjik.  The  up 
per  lithograph  represents  the  northern  line  of  walL 

jf  Machs  Xarratave,  vdL  m.  p.  ©0. 

§ See  p.  1©5.  Several  blocks  of  limestone  cut  into  this  form,  and  evidently  fallen 
from  the  top®  of  the  walls,  are  scattered  about  the  mins.  It  is  possible  that  the  up- 
per structure  of  sun-dried  batiks  may  have  been  similarly  ornamented. 


Chap.  XXVI.] 


DEFENCES  OF  KOUYUNJIK. 


561 


are  still  shown  by  mounds  exceeding  those  around  in  height  and  size  ; but 
the  only  two  w’hich  have  hitherto  been  explored  are  in  the  northern  and 
eastern  walls,  and  have  been  described  in  a previous  chapter.* 

The  western  %vall  {a)  was  washed  by  the  river,  and  needed  no  other  de- 
fence.t A deep  ditch,  of  wdiich  traces  still  exist,  appears  to  have  been  dug 
beneath  the  northern  (5).  That  to  the  south  (d)  wTas  also  protected  by  a 
dyke  and  the  Tigris.  The  side  most  accessible  to  an  enemy  wras  that  to 
the  east  (c),  and  it  was  accordingly  fortified  with  extraordinary  care  and 
strength.  The  small  river  Khauser  flows  nearly  in  a direct  line  from  the 
hills  to  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  inclosure,  makes  a sweep  to  the 
south  (at  e)  before  reaching  it,  and  after  running  for  some  distance  beneath 
a perpendicular  bank  formed  by  conglomerate  hills  (g)  parallel  to  the  walls, 
but  about  three  quarters  of  a mile  from  them,  again  turns  to  the  westward 
(at  f),  and  enters  the  inclosure  almost  in  the  centre.  It  then  traverses  this 
quarter  of  the  city,  winds  round  the  base  of  Kouyunjik,  and  falls  into  the 
Tigris.  Nearly  one  half  of  the  eastern  wTall  wras,  consequently,  provided 
wdth  natural  defences.  The  Khauser  served  as  a ditch ; and  the  conglom- 
erate ridge,  slightly  increased  by  artificial  means,  as  a strong  line  of  forti- 
fication. The  remains  of  one  or  more  ramparts  of  earth  are  still  to  be 
traced  between  the  stream  and  the  inner  wall,  but  they  could  not  have 
* Chap.  5. 

t It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Tigris  has  now  changed  its  course. 

N N 


562 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


been  of  very  considerable  size.  The  north-eastern  extremity  of  these  outer 
defences  appears  to  have  joined  the  ditch  which  was  carried  along  the 
northern  face  of  the  inclosure,  thus  completing  the  fortification  in  this  part. 

Below,  or  to  the  south  of,  the  entry  of  the  Khauser  into  the  inclosure, 
the  inner  wall  was  defended  by  a complete  system  of  outworks.  In  the 
first  place  a deep  ditch,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide,  was  cut  im- 
mediately beneath  it,  and  was  divided  for  half  its  length  into  two  separate 
parts,  between  which  was  a rampart.  A parallel  wall  ( h ) was  then  car- 
ried from  the  banks  of  the  Khauser  to  the  dyke  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
inclosure.  A second  ditch,  about  one  hundred  and  eight  feet  wide,  and  of 
considerable  depth,  probably  supplied  by  the  Khauser,  extended  from  the 
point  at  which  that  stream  turns  to  the  westward,  as  far  as  the  southern 
line  of  defences.  A third  wall  (i),  the  remains  of  which  are  above  one 
hundred  feet  high  on  the  inner  face,  abutted  to  the  north  on  the  ridge  of 
conglomerate  hills  ( g ),  and  completed  the  outer  defences.  A few  mounds 
rising  in  the  level  country  beyond,  the  principal  of  which,  near  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  lines,  is  called  Tel-ez-zembil  (the  Mound  of  the  Bask- 
et), appear  to  have  been  fortified  outposts  ; probably  detached  towers,  such 
as  are  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Kouyunjik.* 

An  enemy  coming  from  the  east,  the  side  on  which  the  inclosure  was 
most  open  to  attack,  had  consequently  first  to  force  a stupendous  wall 
strengthened  by  detached  forts.  Two  deep  ditches  and  two  more  walls, 
the  inner  being  scarcely  inferior  in  size  to  the  outer,  had  then  to  be  passed 
before  the  city  could  be  taken. f The  remains  still  existing  of  these  forti- 
fications almost  confirm  the  statements  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  that  the  walls 
were  a hundred  feet  high,  and  that  three  chariots  could  drive  upon  them 
abreast ; and  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  in  describing  the  ramparts  form- 
ing the  circuit  round  the  whole  city,  ancient  historians  were  confounding 
them  with  those  which  inclosed  only  a separate  quarter  or  a royal  resi- 
dence, as  they  have  also  done  in  speaking  of  Babylon.  "Whilst  the  inner 
walls  were  constructed  of  stone  and  brick  masonry,  the  outer  appear  to 
have  consisted  of  little  else  than  of  the  earth,  loose  pebbles,  and  rubble 
dug  out  from  the  ditches,  which  were  cut  with  enormous  labor  into  the 
solid  conglomerate  rock.$ 

The  walls  and  ditches  around  Kouyunjik  were  a favorite  ride  during 
my  residence  among  the  ruins.  The  summit  of  the  outer  ramparts  com- 
mands an  extensive  and  beautiful  prospect  over  all  the  great  mounds,  the 
plains  bounded  by  the  several  mountain  ranges  of  Kurdistan,  the  windings 
of  the  river,  and  the  town  of  Mosul.  “ Niniue  (that  which  God  himself 

* See  2nd  series  of  Monuments  of  Nineveh,  Plate  43. 

t According  to  Mr.  Rich,  the  distance  from  the  inside  of  the  inner  wall  to  the  inside 
of  the  outer  was  2007  feet.  Allowing  200  feet  for  the  outer,  the  breadth  of  the  whole 
fortifications  would  be  about  2200  feet,  or  not  far  from  half  a mile. 

t If  the  city,  or  this  part  of  it,  were  ever  taken  by  the  river  having  been  turned 
upon  the  walls,  as  some  ancient  authors  have  declared,  the  breach  must  have  been 
made  at  the  north-western  corner.  There  are  no  traces  of  it. 


Double  Ditch  and  Walls  of  Inclosure  of  Kouyunjik. 


564 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Chap.  XXVI. 


calleth  that  Great  Citie)  hath  not  one  stone  standing,  which  may  giue  mem- 
orie  of  the  being  of  a towne  : one  English  mile  from  it  is  a place  called  Mo- 
sul, a small  thing,  rather  to  he  a witnesse  of  the  other’s  mightenesse,  and 
God’s  iudgement,  than  of  any  fashion  of  magnificence  in  itselfe.”*  Such 
are  the  simple  though  impressive  words  of  an  old  English  traveller,  who 
probably  looked  down  upon  the  site  of  Nineveh  from  the  same  spot  two 
centuries  and  a half  ago. 

Beaten  tracks  from  the  neighbouring  villages  have  for  ages  led,  and  still 
lead,  through  the  ruins.  Along  them  Arabs  and  Kurds  with  their  cam- 
els and  laden  beasts  may  be  seen  slowly  wending  their  way  to  the  town. 
But  the  space  between  the  walls  is  deserted  except  by  the  timid  gazelle 
and  the  jackals  and  hyenas  which  make  their  dens  in  the  holes  and  caves 
in  the  sides  of  the  mounds  and  in  the  rocky  hanks  of  the  ancient  ditches. 

The  spring  called  by  the  Arabs  Damlamajeh,  and  described  by  Mr.  Rich,! 
is  a small  pool  of  cool-  and  refreshing  water  in  a natural  cavern,  the  fore 
part  of  which  is  adorned  with  an  arch,  cornice,  and  stonework,  evidently  of 
Roman  or  Greek  construction.  Upon  the  masonry  are  still  to  be  traced  the 
names  of  Mrs.  Rich,  and  of  the  companions  of  the  distinguished  traveller. 


CONCLUSION. 

The  time  was  drawing  near  for  my  departure.  Once  more  I was  about  to 
leave  the  ruins  amidst  which  I had  spent  so  many  happy  hours,  and  to 
which  I was  hound  by  so  many  pleasant  and  solemn  ties ; and  probably  to 
return  no  more. 

I only  waited  the  arrival  of  Abde,  the  late  Pasha  of  Baghdad,  who  was 
now  on  his  way  to  his  new  government  of  Diarbekir.  He  was  travel- 
ling with  a large  company  of  attendants,  and  without  a strong  escort  it 
was  scarcely  prudent  to  venture  on  a journey.  It  was  doubly  necessary 
for  me  to  have  proper  protection,  as  I took  with  me  the  valuable  collection 
of  bronzes  and  other  small  objects  discovered  in  the  ruins.  I gladly,  there- 
fore, availed  myself  of  this  opportunity  of  joining  so  numerous  and  powerful 
a caravan. 

At  length,  after  the  usual  Eastern  delays,  the  Pasha  arrived  at  Mosul. 
He  remained  encamped  outside  the. town  for  two  or  three  days,  and  during 
that  time  visited  the  excavations,  his  curiosity  having  been  excited  by  the 
description  he  had  received  of  the  wondrous  idols  dug  out  of  the  ruins.  He 
marvelled  at  what  he  saw,  as  a Turk  marvels  at  strange  things  which  he 
can  neither  understand  nor  explain.  It  would  be  in  vain  to  speak  to  him 
of  the  true  objects  of  such  researches,  the  knowledge  they  impart,  the  les- 
sons they  teach,  or  the  thoughts  they  beget. 

* Sir  Anthony  Shirley’s  Travels  in  Persia.  Purchas.  vol.  ii.  p.  1387. 
t Narrative  of  a Residence  in  Kurdistan,  vol.  i.  pp.  40.  51. 


CONCLUSION. 


565 


Chap.  XXVI.] 

In  these  pages  I have  occasionally  indulged  in  reflections  suggested  by 
the  scenes  I have  had  to  describe,  and  have  ventured  to  point  out  the  moral 
of  the  strange  tale  I have  had  to  relate.  I cannot  better  conclude  than  by 
showing  the  spirit  in  which  Eastern  philosophy  and  Mussulman  resignation 
contemplate  the  evidences  of  ancient  greatness  and  civilisation,  suddenly 
rising  up  in  the  midst  of  modern  ignorance  and  decay.  A letter  in  my 
possession  contained  so  true  and  characteristic  a picture  of  the  feelings  that 
such  an  event  excites  in  the  mind  of  a good  Mohammedan,  that  I here  give 
a literal  translation  of  its  contents.  It  was  written  to  a friend  of  mine  by 
a Turkish  Cadi,  in  reply  to  some  inquiries  as  to  the  commerce,  population, 
and  remains  of  antiquity  of  an  ancient  city,  in  which  dwelt  the  head  of  the 
law.  These  are  its  words : — 

“ My  illustrious  Friend,  and  Joy  of  my  Liver  ! 

“ The  thing  you  ask  of  me  is  both  difficult  and  useless.  Although  I have 
passed  all  my  days  in  this  place,  I have  neither  counted  the  houses  nor 
have  I inquired  into  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  ; and  as  to  what  one 
person  loads  on  his  mules  and  the  other  stows  away  in  the  bottom  of  his 
ship,  that  is  no  business  of  mine.  But,  above  all,  as  to  the  previous  his- 
tory of  this  city,  God  only  knows  the  amount  of  dirt  and  confusion  that  the 
infidels  may  have  eaten  before  the  coming  of  the  sword  of  Islam.  It  were 
unprofitable  for  us  to  inquire  into  it. 

“ Oh,  my  soul ! oh,  my  lamb  ! seek  not  after  the  things  which  concern 
thee  not.  Thou  earnest  unto  us,  and  we  welcomed  thee : go  in  peace. 

“ Of  a truth,  thou  hast  spoken  many  words  ; and  there  is  no  harm  done, 
for  the  speaker  is  one  and  the  listener  is  another.  After  the  fashion  of  thy 
people  thou  hast  wandered  from  one  place  to  another  until  thou  art  happy 
and  content  in  none.  We  (praise  be  to  God)  were  born  here,  and  never  de- 
sire to  quit  it.  Is  it  possible  then  that  the  idea  of  a general  intercourse  be- 
tween mankind  should  make  any  impression  on  our  understandings  ? God 
forbid  ! 

“ Listen,  oh  my  son ! There  is  no  wisdom  equal  unto  the  belief  in  God  ! 
He  created  the  world,  and  shall  we  liken  ourselves  unto  him  in  seeking  to 
penetrate  into  the  mysteries  of  his  creation  ? Shall  we  say,  behold  this  star 
spinneth  round  that  star,  and  this  other  star  with  a tail  goeth  and  cometh 
in  so  many  years  ! Let  it  go  ! He  from  whose  hand  it  came  will  guide 
and  direct  it. 

“ But  thou  wilt  say  unto  me,  Stand  aside,  oh  man,  for  I am  more  learned 
than  thou  art,  and  have  seen  more  things.  If  thou  thinkest  that  thou  art 
in  this  respect  better  than  I am,  thou  art  welcome.  I praise  God  that  I 
seek  not  that  which  I require  not.  Thou  art  learned  in  the  things  I care 
not  for;  and  as  foT  that  which  thou  hast  seen,  I defile  it.  Will  much 
knowledge  create  thee  a double  belly,  or  wilt  thou  seek  Paradise  with 
thine  eyes? 

“ Oh,  my  friend  ! If  thou  wilt  be  happy,  say,  There  is  no  God  but  God ! 


566  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON.  [CHAP.  XXVI 

Do  no  evil,  and  thus  wilt  thou  fear  neither  man  nor  death  ; for  surely  thine 
hour  will  come ! 

“ The  meek  in  spirit  (El  Fakir), 

“IMAUM  ALI  ZADE.” 

On  the  28th  of  April  I hid  a last  farewell  to  my  faithful  Arab  friends, 
and  with  a heavy  heart  turned  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  Nineveh. 


Last  View  of  Mosul. 


APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX  I. 


Notes  by  Dr.  Lindley  on  the  Acorns  brought  from  Kurdistan. 


“ In  the  year  1840,  an  account  was  published  in  the  ‘ Botanical  Register,’  of  certain 
oaks  that  had  been  found  in  Kurdistan,  by  Dr.  Edward  Dickson,  while  travelling  with 
James  Brant,  Esq.,  Her  Majesty’s  Consul  at  Erzeroum.  From  the  information  thus 
obtained  it  appeared,  that  out  of  six  or  seven  species  inhabiting  the  country  exam- 
ined by  Mr.  Brant,  three  were  previously  unknown,  and  two  were  of  great  rarity. 
These  were,  Quercus  ngida , of  Willdenow  ; Q.  infectoria,  of  Linnaeus  ; and  Q.  regia, 
Brantii , and  mannifera,  then  described  for  the  first  time.  Q.  regia  was  a tree  with 
the  foliage  of  a Spanish  chestnut.  Q.  Brantii  was  remarkable  for  its  large  leaves, 
which,  when  full  grown,  were  six  inches  long,  including  the  stalk,  and  three  and  a 
half  inches  across  at  the  widest  part ; when  young  they  were  covered  with  thick 
down.  Q.  mannifera , with  much  the  appearance  of  the  Q.  sessiliflora  of  Europe,  had 
larger  and  thinner  leaves  without  the  yellow  footstalks  of  that  species:  it  received 
its  name  from  producing,  in  considerable  quantity,  a sweet  secretion,  comparable  to 
manna,  called  by  the  natives  Ghiok-hel-vahsee,  and  made  by  them  into  round  flat 
cakes. 

“ As  soon  as  the  existence  of  these  oaks  was  ascertained,  a desire  was  felt  to  ob- 
tain them  for  cultivation.  Mr.  Layard,  at  the  request  of  the  Horticultural  Society, 
sent  home,  in  the  autumn  of  1850,  a box  of  acorns  packed  in  paper,  and  still  retain- 
ing vitality  ; and  at  a later  period  a package,  in  which  honey  had  been  employed  as 
a preservative,  but  in  that  instance  the  acorns  were  all  dead  From  the  former  a 
small  number  of  plants  was  raised,  all  perhaps  belonging  to  the  two  species  Q Brantii 
and  infectoria ; and  thus  the  most  important  of  the  Koord  oaks  was  secured  to  this 
country,  while  Q.  infectoria , the  species  that  produces  the  nutgalls  of  commerce,  was 
also  recovered,  no  other  plants  of  it  being  now  known  to  exist  in  a live  state  in  En- 
gland. 


1. 


2. 


568 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Appendix. 


“ The  dried  specimens  sent  to  Europe  by  Mr.  Brant  were  unfortunately  collected 
without  acorns,  so  that  one  of  the  most  important  features  by  which  the  species  of 
oak  are  recognised,  still  remained  unknown.  Among  the  acorns,  however,  transmit- 
ted by  Mr.  Layard,  five  forms  were  distinguished,  of  which  two  have  been  identified. 
No  1.  with  Q.  Brantii,  and  No.  2.  with  Q.  infectona. 

“ There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  two  others,  Nos.  3 and  4.,  may  be  among 


3.  4. 


the  young  plants  that  have  been  raised ; the  former  may  indeed  be  a mere  form  of 


Q Brantii. 

“ But  of  No  5.,  remarkable  for  its  large  hemispherical  cup,  with  hard,  straight. 

woody  scales,  and  short,  broad  acorns,  nothing 
more  is  known.  It  came  in  the  package  plunged 
in  honey,  but  was  dead. 

“Among  the  dried  plants  preserved  by  Mr 
Layard  are  leaves  of  several  species  or  varieties 
of  oak,  to  some  of  which  the  three  last  acorns 
may  possibly  belong  ; but  no  means  exist  of  de- 
termining to  which,  if  to  any.  Fresh  supplies 
of  the  Armenian  acorns  packed  in  dry  clay,  when 
perfectly  ripe , and  dried  specimens  of  the  branch- 
es with  leaves  and  acorns  on  them,  are  there- 
fore much  to  be  desired,  especially  since  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  all  the  species  will  prove 
to  be  hardy  ornamental  trees.” 


APPENDIX  II. 

Yezidi  Music. 

CHAITNT  OF  THE  YEZIDI  PRIESTS. 


„ .tfADAGIa 

■ 1 { 1 \ [-j-j  j-  l-o 

rffl  ft 

HHH-^ 

K - 
— t 

gz*  -e| 

VIBRATO. 

l 

g #- 

NT 

L r 

-o- 

1 

/?s 

# r 

1#  

3= * H 

: t~  3 ■"  : 

Appendix.]  1 vezidi  music.  569 


CON  AMORE. 


570 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Appendix, 


CHAUNT  OF  THE  YEZIDI  PRIESTS. 


ADAGIO  MELANCOLICO 


Appendix.] 


NOTES  ON  ASSYRIAN  METALLURGY. 


571 


SONG 

CELEBRATING  THE  MARTYRDOM  OF  SOME  YEZIDIS  BY  THE  TURKS. 


APPENDIX  III. 

Notes  of  the  Specimens  from  Nineveh , kindly  favored  to  the  Author  by  Dr.  Percy , of  the 

School  of  Mines. 

“ In  the  collection  of  Assyrian  antiquities,  with  which  Mr.  Layard  has  enriched  the 
British  Museum,  are  numerous  illustrations  of  ancient  metallurgy,  consisting  of  ves- 
sels, weapons,  and  miscellaneous  articles,  which  clearly  prove  that  the  Assyrians  of 
old  possessed  considerable  skill  in  the  art  of  working  metals.  Several  of  these  speci- 
mens have  been  examined  in  the  metallurgical  laboratory  of  the  School  of  Mines  at 
the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology ; and  I have  now  pleasure  in  presenting  a summary 
of  the  results  as  far  as  the  investigation  has  proceeded. 

“ 1.  A portion  of  a bronze  bowl , or  dish,  from  Nimroud. — The  surface  generally  had 
a green  coating  of  carbonate  of  copper,  which  was  crystalline  where  it  was  thickest. 
Below  the  thickest  parts  of  this  coating  was  a layer  of  red  or  sub-oxide  of  copper, 
also  more  or  less  distinctly  crystalline.  A portion  of  the  metal  free  from  crust  was 
analysed,  and  found  to  be  composed  of  copper  and  tin  in  the  following  proportions  : 

Composition. 

. 8951 

0 63 


Copper 
Tin  . 


572 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Appendix, 


“ 2.  A bronze  hook  from  the  same  ruins  * — The  external  appearances  were  similar 
to  those  of  No.  1. 

Composition. 

Copper 89-85 

Tin  9-78 


99-63. 

3.  This  was  a very  remarkable  specimen.  It  was  a small  casting,  in  the  shape 
of  the  fore-leg  of  a bull.  It  formed  the  foot  of  a stand,  consisting  of  a ring  of  iron, 
resting  on  three  feet  of  bronze.  It  was  deeply  corroded  in  places,  and  posteriorly 
was  fissured  at  the  upper  part.  A section  was  made,  which  disclosed  a central  piece 
of  iron,  over  which  the  bronze  had  been  cast.  At  the  upper  part,  where  it  had  been 
broken  off,  the  iron  had  rusted,  and  so  produced  the  crack  above  mentioned.  The 
casting  was  sound,  and  the  contact  perfect  between  the  iron  and  surrounding  bronze. 
It  was  evident  on  inspection  that  the  bronze  had  been  cast  round  the  iron,  and  that 
the  iron  had  not  been  let  into  the  bronze  ; and  in  this  opinion  I am  confirmed  by  Mr. 
Robinson  of  Pimlico,  who  has  had  considerable  experience  in  bronze  casting. 

Composition. 

Copper 88-37 

Tin 11-33 

99-70. 

Some  interesting  considerations  are  suggested  by  this  specimen. 

“ The  iron  was  employed  either  to  economise  the  bronze,  for  the  purpose  of  orna- 
ment, or  because  it  was  required  in  the  construction.  If  the  former,  iron  must  have 
been  much  cheaper  than  bronze,  and,  therefore,  probably  more  abundant  than  has  been 
generally  supposed.  No  satisfactory  conclusion  can  be  arrived  at  on  this  point,  from 
the  fact  that  bronze  antiquities  are  much  more  frequently  found  than  those  of  iron ; 
for  the  obvious  reason,  that  bronze  resists,  much  better  than  iron,  destruction  by  ox- 
idation. Although,  I think,  there  are  reasons  for  supposing  that  iron  was  more  ex- 
tensively used  by  the  ancients  than  seems  to  be  generally  admitted ; yet,  in  the  spec- 
imens in  question,  it  appears  to  me  most  probable,  that  the  iron  was  used  because  it 
was  required  in  the  construction.  And  if  this  be  so,  the  Assyrians  teach  a lesson  to 
many  of  our  modem  architects  and  others,  who  certainly  do  not  always  employ  met- 
als in  accordance  with  their  special  properties.  The  instrument  under  consideration,  it 
will  be  borne  in  mind,  was  one  of  the  feet  of  a stand  composed  of  an  iron  ring  rest- 
ing upon  vertical  legs  of  bronze.  A stand  of  this  kind  must  have  been  designed  to 
support  weight,  probably  a large  cauldron  ; and  it  is  plain  that  the  ring  portion  should 
therefore  be  made  of  the  metal  having  the  greatest  tenacity,  and  the  legs  of  metal 
adapted  to  sustain  vertical  or  superincumbent  weight.  Now  this  combination  of  iron 
and  bronze  exactly  fulfils  the  conditions  required.  I do  not  say  that  a ring  of  bronze 
might  not  have  been  made  sufficiently  strong  to  answer  the  purpose  of  the  ring  of 
iron ; but  I do  say  that,  in  that  part  of  the  instrument,  iron  is  more  fitly  employed 
than  bronzy  Moreover,  the  contrast  of  the  two  metals,  iron  and  bronze,  may  alsc 
have  been  regarded  as  ornamental. 

“ 4.  A small  bell , corroded  like  the  preceding. 

Composition. 

Copper 84-79 

Tin 1410 

98-89. 

The  proportion  of  tin  was  probably  increased  is  this  specimen,  with  reference  to  its 


See  woodcut,  ante,  p.  151 


NOTES  ON  ASSYRIAN  METALLURGY. 


573 


Appendix.] 

use  as  a bell ; though  some  of  the  ancient  coins,  rings,  and  other  articles  have  been 
found  to  have  the  same  composition. 

“These  analyses  were  made  by  one  of  the  assistant-chemists,  Mr.  T.  Philipps. 

“ The  first  three  specimens  described  have  the  composition  of  the  bronze,  which 
was  most  extensively  employed  by  the  ancients.  Experience  seems  to  have  amply 
proved  that  this  alloy  is  best  adapted  to  the  various  purposes  for  which  it  was  de- 
signed. It  is  extremely  durable,  although  in  some  of  Mr.  Layard’s  specimens  corro- 
sion has  proceeded  to  such  an  extent,  as  to  have  left  no  trace  of  the  alloy  in  a metal- 
lic state,  both  the  copper  and  tin  having  been  completely  oxidised.  One  such  spec- 
imen consists  of  a white  central  stratum,  composed  chiefly  of  stannic  acid  coated 
with  suboxide  of  copper,  which  in  its  turn  is  coated  with  green  carbonate.  This  al- 
loy is  excellent  for  casting,  and  for  works  of  art,  such  as  statues  and  bas-reliefs,  may 
be  especially  recommended ; works  in  the  production  of  which  no  unwise  consider- 
ations respecting  the  cost  of  the  metal  should  be  allowed.  Moreover,  the  ancients 
have  left  us  abundant  evidence  of  their  great  skill  in  the  working  of  this  alloy.  They 
were  able  to  cast  it  extremely  thin,  which  is  no  small  difficulty ; and  with  great  la- 
bour fashioned  it  into  articles  for  domestic  use,  into  shields  for  war,  and  vessels  for 
the  service  of  their  temples,  which  they  skilfully  elaborated  by  chasing  and  by  curious 
ornamental  tracery.  They  applied  it,  moreover,  in  their  most  sumptuous  decorations, 
as  the  ornaments  obtained  by  Mr.  Layard,  from  the  throne  of  the  Assyrian  monarch, 
will  testify. 

“There  are  numerous  other  objects  in  metal  in  Mr.  Layard’s  collection  at  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  which  are  extremely  interesting  in  respect  to  the  mode  of  manufacture, 
and  which  require  very  accurate  examination  before  they  can  be  properly  described 
by  the  metallurgist.  The  beautiful  workmanship  of  the  vessels  which  Mr.  Layard 
believes  to  have  been  used  in  religious  ceremonials,  is  especially  deserving  of  atten- 
tion, and  demonstrates  the  skill  of  the  Assyrians  in  their  treatment  of  bronze. 

“ One  specimen  particularly  deserves  attention.  It  was  a thin  hollow  casting  in 
bronze,  which  was  attached  to  the  end  of  one  of  the  arms  of  the  throne.  This  cast- 
ing had  evidently  been  chased,  and  for  that  purpose  must  have  been  filled  with  some 
soft  material,  such  as  pitch,  which  is  used  at  the  present  time.  In  the  interior  there 
was  some  black  matter,  which,  on  examination,  I found  to  burn  like  pitch,  and  leave 
an  earthy  residue,  so  that  probably  a mixture  of  asphaltum  and  earth  had  been  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  mentioned. 

“ Glass. — I have  only  examined  one  of  the  specimens  of  glass  in  Mr.  Layard’s  col- 
lection. It  was  a fragment  from  a vase,  the  surface  of  which  was  dull  and  green, 
as  though  encrusted  with  green  carbonate  of  copper.  This  color  was  quite  super- 
ficial, and  the  glass  itself  was  opaque,  and  of  a fine  sealing-wax  red  color,  due  to  sub- 
oxide of  copper.  The  external  green  coating  was  caused  by  atmospheric  action  on 
the  surface  of  the  glass,  and  the  consequent  conversion  of  the  suboxide  into  green 
carbonate  of  copper.  This  specimen  is  interesting  as  showing  the  early  use  of  sub 
oxide  of  copper  as  a coloring  agent  for  glass.  The  ancients  were  in  the  habit  of  em- 
ploying several  substances  in  their  glass  and  colored  glazes  for  bricks,  of  which  I have 
not  yet  found  any  account  published.  We  have  evidence  to  show  that  they  were 
acquainted  with  the  use  of  oxide  of  lead  as  a flux  in  their  vitreous  glazes,  and  with 
Naples  yellow  and  stannic  acid  as  coloring  agents.” 


Mr.  Vaux,  of  the  British  Museum,  has  added  the  following  interesting  note  on  the 
metallurgy  of  the  ancients  : — 

“ 1.  The  earliest  form  of  metal  work  appears  to  have  been  employed  in  the  orna- 
mentation of  sacred  vessels,  for  temples,  &c.,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  idols  for  the 


574 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Appendix 


services  of  religion.  This  was  called  SatSaAAetv.  Thus  Hesiod  (E.  152.)  speaks  of 
X<i\ Kea  n'ei/  Teuxea  xaA/teoiSe  re  oIkoi.  Probably  this  was  little  more  than  wood  cov- 
ered with  thin  plates  of  copper  or  bronze  (see  also  Horn.  Odys.  iv.  72. ; vii.  86.) ; and 
for  the  use  of  ivory  [though  this,  I imagine,  is  of  later  introduction].  (Eurip.,  Iph. 
Aul.  583.,  who  speaks  of  i\t(pam68eToi  86p.oi.) 

“ Occasionally  the  foundation  or  rather  floor  of  some  temples  was  of  brass  : thus 
X<^oceos  ov8bs  (Soph.  (Ed.  Col.) ; perhaps,  like  the  room  at  Delphi  called  \divos  ov86s, 
itself  also  a treasury. 

“ In  Homer  the  use  of  metal  was  general  wherever  peculiar  splendor  was  required. 
Thus  Odysseus’s  bed  (Od.  xxiii.  200.) ; the  chair  made  for  Penelope  by  the  tcktuv 
Ikmalius.  (Od.  xix.  56.) 

“ The  wood  vessels  were  hewn  out  of  the  rough  block  by  an  axe  (jeicralveiv,  ve\- 
eKe?v)  and  smoothed  with  finer  instruments  few),  and  ornaments  of  gold,  silver,  ivo- 
ry, or  amber  were  inlaid  in  the  bored  or  depressed  portions  (diuovv  iAe<pavn  kcH  a p- 
yvp<j)  SaiSoAAetv). 

“ Later  than  Homer  the  same  system  of  inlaying  wood  continued.  (Vide  descrip- 
tion of  the  chest  of  Cypselus,  Dio.  Chrys.  xi.  p.  325.  ed.  Reiske.  Paus.  v.  17.) 

“ 2.  Manufacture  of  cups,  goblets,  cauldrons,  &c.  Of  these  Homer  repeatedly 
speaks,  and  we  may  therefore  fairly  presume  that  they  were  common  in  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  b.  c.,  and  that  their  manufactures  commenced  a century  or  two 
earlier  still.  Cf.  tripods  of  Hephaestus  (II.  xviii.  374.) ; Nestor’s  cup  with  two  bot- 
toms and  four  handles  (Asclep.  irepl  N earopldos,  Bottiger  Amalthea,  iii.  25.) ; the  Cyp- 
rian coat  of  mail  and  the  rest  of  Agamemnon’s  armour  (II.  xi.  17.,  k.t.a.)  ; the  shield 
of  .Eneas  (111.  xx.  270.) ; an  Egyptian  spinning  basket  (Od.  iv.  125.) ; Sidonian  era 
ters  (II.  xxiii.  743.  Od.  iv.  616.) ; and  the  notice  of  Laertes,  a xaAjcet/y  and  xPv<ro 
Xo6s,  who  gilds  the  horns  of  the  bulls  in  Od.  iii.  425.  (Vide  also  the  account  of  the 
shield  of  Heracles  in  Hesiod,  and  for  further  details  of  the  various  instruments  used 
in  fashioning  the  metals,  Millin,  Mineral.  Homer.  2d.  ed.  1816,  p.  65.,  and  Clarac,  Mus 
de  Sculpt,  i.  p.  6.). 

“ It  is  clear,  from  Homer’s  description  of  the  shield  of  Achilles,  that  large  compo 
sitions  with  numerous  figures  were  known  at  that  time  ; and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  mode  of  work  was  this, — the  metal  after  being  softened  and  hammered  into 
plates  was  wrought  up  with  sharp  instruments,  and  then  fastened  to  the  ground  with 
nails  and  studs. 

“ The  technical  name  for  such  hammered  \wks  was  a<pvp^Aara.  The  joinings  of 
the  different  pieces  were  effected  by  mechanical  means  (deo-poi,  II  xviii.  379. ; ^ Aoi , 
II.  xi.  634.  ; w ep6vai,  Kevrpa,  Paus.  X.  16.). 

“ 3.  Previous  to  Homer  no  trace  of  casting  has  been  discovered,  while  it  is  express- 
ly stated  that  this  art,  as  well  as  that  of  soldering,  were  inventions  a little  subse- 
quent to  his  time.  The  discovery  of  the  first  is  attributed  to  Rhcecus  and  Theodoras, 
both  Samians.  (Paus.  viii.  14. ; ix.  41.  Plin.  xxxv.  12.  43.) 

“ Theodorus  is  especially  noticed  as  a worker  in  metals,  who  made  for  Croesus 
(01.  55 — 58.)  a large  silver  crater,  enchased  a ring  for  Polycrates  the  Samian,  and 
made  a golden  ring  for  the . palace  of  the  Persian  kings,  which  is  still  to  be  seen. 
(See  full  details  of  both  in  Sillig.  Diet,  of  Artists,  sub  nom.) 

“ The  second  invention,  that  of  soldering  ( aiS'fjpov  ^AA-qais),  is  attributed  to  Glaucus 
of  Chios.  (Herod,  i.  25.) 

“ Pausanias  (x.  16.)  gives  a particular  account  of  the  wroKpTiTrjplSiov,  which  he  made 
by  these  means.  Plutarch  (Defect.  Orac.)  mentions  another  invention  of  his,  the 
alternate  hardening  and  softening  of  iron  aibijpov  <tt 6/xuais  ko)  /xdAa^is.  (See  also 
Sillig.)” 


NOTES  ON  ASSYRIAN  GLASS. 


575 


Appendix.] 

To  Sir  David  Brewster  I am  indebted  for  the  following  very  interesting  and  val- 
uable notes  on  the  Ancient  Glass  found  at  Nineveh : — 

“ The  different  kinds  of  glass  in  common  use  consist  of  sand  or  silex  combined,  by 
fusioh,  with  earths,  or  alkalies,  or  metals,  which  either  act  as  fluxes,  or  communicate 
different  colors  or  different  degrees  of  lustre,  or  refractive  power  to  the  combination. 
In  quartz,  or  rock  crystal,  which  is  pure  silex,  and  in  other  regularly  crystallised  bod- 
ies, their  molecules  or  atoms  unite  in  virtue  of  regular  laws,  the  pole  of  one  atom 
uniting  with  the  similar  pole  of  another.  Such  substances,  therefore,  do  not  decom- 
pose under  the  ordinary  action  of  the  elements.  The  lens  of  rock  crystal,  for  exam- 
ple, found  by  Mr.  Layard  at  Nineveh,  is  as  sound  as  it  was  many  thousand  years  ago, 
when  in  the  form  of  a crystal. 

“ In  the  case  of  glass,  however,  the  silex  has  been  melted  and  forced  into  union 
with  other  bodies  to  which  it  nas  no  natural  affinity  ; and,  therefore,  its  atoms,  which 
have  their  poles  lying  in  every  possible  direction,  have  a constant  tendency  to  recover 
their  original  positions  when  in  the  state  of  silex.  For  the  same  reason  the  earths, 
or  alkalies,  or  metals,  with  which  the  atoms  of  silex  have  been  constrained,  by  fusion, 
to  enter  into  union,  all  tend  to  resume  their  primitive  state,  and  separate  themselves 
from  the  silex. 

“ Owing  to  the  manner  in  which  melted  glass  is  cooled  and  annealed,  whether  it  is 
made  by  flushing,  or  blowing,  or  moulding,  the  cohesion  of  its  parts  is  not  the  same 
throughout  the  mass,  and  consequently  its  particles  are  held  together  by  different 
degrees  of  force,  varying  in  relation  to  points,  lines,  and  surfaces.  No  atom  of  the 
flux,  or  other  ingredient,  may  be  less  firmly  united  to  an  atom  of  silex  in  one  place 
than  in  another,  depending  on  the  degree  of  heat  by  which  they  were  united,  or  upon 
the  relative  position  of  the  crystalline  poles  of  the  atoms  themselves  when  combined 
There  are  some  remarkable  cases  where  flint  glass,  without  any  rude  exposure  to  the 
elements,  has  become  opaque  ; and  we  have  seen  specimens  in  which  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  same  kind  of  glass  has  commenced  a few  years  after  it  was  made.  In 
general,  however,  the  process  of  decomposition  is  very  slow,  excepting  in  stables, 
where  the  presence  of  ammonia  hastens  the  decomposition,  and  produces  upon  its 
surface  all  the  beautiful  colors  of  the  soap  bubble. 

“ It  is,  however,  from  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  buildings  that  glass  is  found  in 
all  the  stages  of  disintegration  ; and  there  is,  perhaps,  no  material  body  that  ceases 
to  exist  with  so  much  grace  and  beauty,  when  it  surrenders  itself  to  time  and  not  to 
disease.  In  damp  localities,  where^  acids  and  alkalies  prevail  in  the  soil,  the  glass 
rots,  as  it  were,  by  a process  which  it  is  difficult  to  study.  It  may  be  broken  between 
the  fingers  of  an  infant,  and  in  this  state  we  generally  find  in  the  middle  of  it  a frag- 
ment a thin  fibre  of  the  original  glass  which  has  not  yielded  to  the  process  of  decay. 

“ In  dry  localities,  where  Roman,  Greek,  and  Assyrian  glass  has  been  found,  the 
process  of  decomposition  is  exceedingly  interesting,  and  its  results  singularly  beauti- 
ful. At  one  or  more  points  in  the  surface  of  the  glass  the  decomposition  begins.  It 
extends  round  that  point  in  a spherical  surface,  so  that  the  first  film  is  a minute  hem- 
ispherical one  of  exceeding  thinness.  Film  after  film  is  formed  in  a similar  manner 
till  perhaps  twenty  or  thirty  are  crowded  into  the  tenth  of  an  inch.  They  now  resem- 
ble the  section  of  a pearl  or  of  an  onion ; and,  as  the  films  are  still  glass,  we  see 
brilliant  colors  of  thin  plates  when  we  look  down  through  their  edges,  which  form 
the  surface  of  the  glass.  These  thin  edges,  however,  being  exposed  to  the  ele- 
ments, decompose.  The  particles  of  silex  and  the  other  ingredients  now  readily  sep- 
arate, and  the  decomposition  goes  on  downwards  in  films  parallel  to  the  surface  of 
the  glass,  the  crystals  of  silex  forming  a white  ring,  and  the  other  ingredients  rings 
of  a different  tint.  As  the  particles  previously  combined  have  now  separated,  the 
hemispherical  cup  occupies  a larger  space,  and  rises  above  the  general  level  of  the 
glassy  surface. 


576 


NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 


[Appendix. 


Such  is  the  process  of  decomposition  round  one  point ; but  it  commences  at  many 
points,  and  generally  those  points  lay  in  straight  lines,  so  that  the  circles  of  decom- 
position meet  one  another  and  form  sinuous  lines.  When  there  are  only  two  points, 
the  circles,  when  they  meet,  surround  the  two  points,  like  the  rings  round  two  knots 
of  wood,  so  that  when  there  are  many  points,  and  these  points  near  each  other,  the 
curves  of  decomposition  must  unite,  as  already  mentioned,  and  form  sinuous  lines. 
When  the  decomposition  is  uniform,  and  the  little  hemispheres  have  nearly  the  same 
depth,  we  can  separate  the  upper  film  from  the  one  below  it,  the  convexities  of  the 
one  falling  into  the  concavities  of  the  other. 

“ When  the  decomposition  has  gone  regularly  on  round  a single  point,  and  there 
is  no  other  change  than  a division  of  the  glass  into  a number  of  hemispherical  films, 
like  a number  of  watch  glasses  within  one  another,  the  group  of  films  exhibits  in  the 
polarising  microscope  a beautiful  circle  of  polarised  light  with  a black  cross.  The 
edges  of  the  hemispherical  films  give  to  the  figure  the  colors  of  thin  plates,  and  we 
imagine  we  have  before  us  a circular  crystal  with  its  fine  system  of  polarised  rings. 
The  colors,  however,  are  only  those  of  thin  plates,  and  the  light  is  light  that  has  been 
depolarised  cylindrically,  as  it  were  by  refraction,  in  passing  obliquely  through  the 
hemispherical  cups.  When  a drop  of  water,  alcohol,  or  oil  is  applied  to  this  or  any 
other  specimen,  the  fluid  enters  between  the  films,  and  the  polarised  light  and  the 
splendid  colors  immediately  disappear. 

“ In  salt  water  the  decomposition  of  glass  goes  on  very  rapidly,  as  is  proved  by 
the  state  of  the  bottles  brought  up  from  the  wreck  of  the  Royal  George  ; and  M. 
Braeme  of  Paris,  having  seen  a notice  of  the  decomposed  glass  from  Nineveh-  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  upon  glass,  in  a very  short  time,  regular  and  irregular  circles  of 
decomposition,  in  the  centre  of  which  there  was  always  a small  cavity,  or  a small 
nucleus  This  effect  was  obtained  by  plunging  fragments  of  thick  glass  into  a mix- 
ture of  fluoride  of  calcium  and  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  exposing  them  to 
the  vapor  of  fluorhydric  acid.* 

* “ See  Comptes  Rendus  des  Stances  de  l’Academie  des  Sciences,  Nov.  2.  1852,  and  Report  of  Brit. 
Assoc.,  vol.  xx.  p 5.” 


Ivory  Ornament,  from  NimroucL 


TcTutirttr ' 


'faujyerd 


Q3£vlim 


Uptmisch  CAr/ueh 


I tmyh  in 


.Lake 
| \Erchck 


°Enirakum 


Eckerik 


Ruined-  Kh 


Ersiit^au 


Stf. — o Z cm  eslan\ 
f Kou'-oO 


Ruined  Khm 


Mi'i  use,.!  ni 


JUtincd  Kht/iL 

Khdinicrchiuy) 


n,rchi°k 

1/ dlley  of  Khawasan 


dahe 

lAkKli 


denude 


\ta-drtda,\ 

« >t  X 

, ’>//()//  iy.v 

• Khan  M thinouds 


Kfut  il  Mahmuutl. yl 
Castle 

Arpett 
R tiuied  C/i  .’tptfL 


^ & Shot  ale 

tins  or  Khan.  Bridge  A*  Castle 


Khanakdut 


Kasir 


ridge 

Jied  Kha  ri. 


'bird  JChan 
^Minardi 


K ha  tl  Re  r 


K/uinda  Kilissa, 


•dtje  oCS  Ar 


Superstitious*  Rock 


- fJew% 


liptlLClLt , 


Asp  tin  re-  £ 
W or  Alan 


Washing  c 
Kaurawas 


KeranL 


Jeb  Moo.su. 


Govacanish  is&. 
CharchclaiB  o^vf^ 

^ 7tel*n'a0\<, 


Hamlet 


(i  n\rf (in/ 


i ^hoshdnit 
CV  ore  R\ 


llv  camp  nun  it  of  Hodja  nan.  Kurds' 

Chai^Resh- 


Kasul 


igoSsiitAi 


rted&et* 


y 

tea 


CMlek.AU  Rmiuni 


■ lie/luk 


Rail  a 


Sei$?/ 


far/hit  id l 


Rtdurtp  « 


Hojomowe 

\MinT" 

j Orey 


HJalitOi  SI  ream  L / 


Zer/i 

Shapnax 


dc,at  *£331, 


Chaat 


MullUhStc 

Veruudc  o. 


ICMYATOS  JOURNIES  IN 


ieliftjfth. 


Mdlthayidh 


°Kotidah, 


a a i/i  n if 


g KohUt 


J/erm 


y Summit  'Wn. f 

°DostaMfau 


oKois  A had 


Sheik.  Hana. 


I ; ° Rena ni. 

'opiris 


Ko/uik- 


jSheiWiAilt  ^ 


Hat  tar 


Gu/uluky 


. ^ flock  Sctdpl  an 

ft  in  His  °l  or  Day  in  u 


\° Sherahbtf, , 


Ras\tlAr1tL 


I * Bulbul  Habeslu 


Dyanu*' 


WuretJChaiP* 


Kid idikin 


KcndiL 


ru.  Village 
Karan  as 


Seidkluin 

Raashie 


rf’elkci/'. 


h'/ioj/t  Klut/ik 


. litO/Wciy.if 


^Sheikh.Mah run  tried 


HHr  Milan, 


llamaydat 


•np'-yll 

h “""/a,.  / 


Rrsh'tdi 


Jubbarah, 


RarMla 


Jfassnd, 


irk  an 


Mar  Elias « 


finkoula 


A bou  Cubbah 


o(}i  edits  beer 


Vld  KelUk 


r”«ih 


El  Kasro[ 


Genial 


Jedaila 


0 •Jalff/tantnl 


r Khaloon 


' Rps/tJcA 


j ^Karalt  Kbuymdt. 


Lith  of  Sarony  Sc  ..  Major  J&uA  ’ork 


\ 


A meera  o A 

yogray  ° 

huS\. 

6’injar  o — : . . \g 


^ O 

Jedudtv 


#lf'v 


m 


30 


K/uiforuy  aJt^ 


Abou.  Khfuntxt 


IV 


?• 


o 


* 

« 

rp 

j£W* 

\ 

-•-V- 

ERRATA. 

Page  95,  line  13,  insert  “ is”  before  “ consequently.” 

“ 112,  “ 16,  for  “ are”  read  “ is.” 

“ 118,  “ 8,  “ or  rather  High  Priest”  to  be  in  brackets. 

“ 121,  “ 15,  after  “ Egyptians”  insert  “ and.” 

“ 145,  “ 7 from  bottom,  dele  “ of  Kurdistan.” 

“ 166,  note  f,  insert  “and”  before  “have.” 

“ 182,  line  1,  for  “scraped”  read  “scarped.” 

“ 226,  “ 24,  for  “ Tiayri”  read  “ Tiyari.” 

“ 241,  note  t,  for  “ Serong”  read  “ Seroug.” 

“ 264,  line  28,  dele  “ partition and  for  “ similar”  read  “ smaller.” 
“ 270,  note  t,  line  1,  insert  “ of’  after  “ year.” 

“ 279,  “ *,  for  “ Koheylch”  read  “ Koheyleh.” 


INDEX 


A. 

Aide  Agha , 47. 

Abde  Pasha,  408,  410,  564. 

Abd-ul-Azeez,  mound  of,  190.  Hills  of,  226, 
266. 

Abd-ul  Mejid,  Sultan,  9. 

Abd-ur-rahman,  Sheikh,  82. 

Abou-Jerdeh  mound,  189. 

Abou-Khameera,  ruins  of,  205,  206. 

Abou- Maria,  excavations  at,  285. 

Abou-Salman  Arabs,  82. 

Abou- Sheetha,  mound  of,  143,  191. 

Abraham  thrown  into  the  furnace  by  Nimrod, 
424. 

Adrammelech,  name  of,  according  to  Rawlin- 
son,  525. 

Adremit,  village  of,  353. 

A Ethiopia , mentioned  in  inscriptions,  121. 

Afaij,  visit  to  tribe  of,  464.  Their  boats,  469. 
Their  huts,  471.  Bazar  of,  483. 

Agab,  Sheikh  of  the  Afaij,  471. 

Agammi  river,  123,  499. 

Agayl , tribe  of,  418. 

Ahaz,  sundial  of,  425,  note. 

Ajel,  Sheikh  of  the  Montefik,  anecdote  of,  406, 
note. 

Akhlat,  village  of,  19. 

Akhtamar,  patriarch  of,  354,  356.  Visit  to  the 
island  of,  354.  Church  of,  354.  Cuneiform 
inscriptions  at,  355. 

Akka,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  307. 

Akkari,  sea  of  the  Mediterranean,  307. 

Akker-Kuf,  ruin  of,  407. 

Akko,  a Yezidi  chief,  35. 

Akra,  town  of,  317. 

Alabaster,  jars  in,  166,  170. 

Albanian,  an,  328. 

Alexander  the  Great , 176,  193.  Wish  to  un- 
cover ruins  of  Temple  of  Belus,  449.  To  re- 
build it,  454.  To  restore  canals,  456. 

Ali-Baba,  mountains,  11. 

Ali-Hlahi,  sect  of,  184,  note. 

Allak,  village  of,  465. 

Altars  discovered  at  Khorsabad,  111.  At  Nim- 
roud,  302,  311. 

American  missionaries,  their  establishments, 
327,  348,  349,  and  note.  Their  schools  at 
Ooroomiyah,  350.  Intercourse  with  Nesto- 
rians,  364. 


Amikh,  vilage  of,  351. 

Amran,  mound  of,  414.  Discoveries  in,  434. 

Amulets,  Jewish,  442,  note. 

Ana,  town  of,  mentioned  in  inscriptions,  306. 

Anana,  ruin  and  village,  462. 

Angels,  Chaldaean  names  of,  on  bowls,  441, 
445,  447,  and  note. 

Antioch,  Egyptian  monument  at,  306,  note. 

Arab  workmen,  84.  Instances  of  honesty  in, 
493. 

Arabs.  See  Bedouins. 

Aramceans  defeated  by  Sennacherib,  119. 

Arapkha,  a city  under  Sennacherib,  120. 

Ararat,  name  of  Armenia,  346.  View  of 
mount,  362. 

Araxes  river,  12.  Mentioned  in  inscriptions, 
180. 

Arban,  arrival  at,  228.  Description  of,  233. 
Excavations  at,  235.  Departure  from,  258. 

Arbela,  battle  of,  176. 

Arch  at  Nimroud,  139. 

Architecture , Armenian,  7,  27.  Assyrian,  100, 
119.  Babylonian,  451,  452.  Early  Persian, 
485.  Comparison  between  Assyrian  and 
Jewish,  547. 

Arghistis,  name  of  Armenian  king,  342,  344, 
345. 

Armenia,  villages  of,  12,  333.  A bishop  of,  16, 
25,31,  337.  Ploughs  in,  18.  Religious  cer- 
emonies, 39.  Church  differences,  337.  In- 
scriptions of  kings  at  Wan,  341.  Ancient 
dynasties  of,  346.  Schools  in,  347.  Reform 
in  church,  348.  Books  in  language  of,  350. 
Ignorance  of  Christians  in,  352.  Dress  of 
women,  354. 

Armour,  parts  of,  discovered,  153, 164.  Worn 
by  Bedouins,  256. 

Arms  in  iron  and  bronze  discovered,  164. 

Arrows,  heads  of,  discovered,  164.  At  Baby- 
lon, 429. 

Art,  Assyrian,  of  lower  period,  393. 

Arvad,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  307. 

Ascalon,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  121. 

Ashayansk,  village  of,  356. 

Ashik,  a ruin,  402,  492, 

Ashtoreth,  or  Astarte,  the  moon,  303,  and  note. 

Ashur,  the  supreme  god  of  the  Assyrians,  54  3, 
and  note. 

Ashurakhbal.  See  Sardanapalus. 


578 


INDEX. 


4ss,  a wild,  228,  and  note.  White,  of  Bagh-  j 
dad,  404,  and  note. 

Assordanes,  name  in  inscriptions,  386. 

Assurnadin,  son  of  Sennacherib,  123,  529. 

Assyria , computation  of  time  in,  181.  Hebrew 
letters  from,  435.  Greek  coin  of,  502. 
Name  of,  on  Egyptian  monuments,  539,  540. 
Records  of,  compared  with  Jewish,  540. 
Nature  of  government,  541.  Bounds  of  em- 
pire, 542. 

Athele,  a tree  at  Babylon,  432. 

Athur  or  Assur,  mound  of,  140. 

Awai,  the,  398. 

Azeez  Agha , a young  Sheikh,  416,  417. 

B. 

Baashiekhah,  village  of,  112,  174. 

Baazani,  village  of,  112. 

Babel,  mound  of,  413,  419.  Excavations  and 
discoveries  in,  428.  Small  objects  from,  430. 
Tradition  connected  with,  431. 

Babylon  taken  by  Sennacherib,  118,  180,  529. 
In  possession  of  early  Nimroud  king,  305. 
Name  of,  in  Wan  inscriptions,  343,  346. 
Approach  to  ruins  of,  413.  Excavations 
commenced  at,  418.  Walls  of,  not  traced, 
419,  421.  Dimensions  of  walls,  420.  Gen- 
eral plan  of,  421.  Hanging-gardens  of,  425. 
Temple  of  Belus,  425.  Painted  walls  at, 
432.  Deities  of,  433.  Jews  of  the  captivity 
at,  445.  Building  materials  of,  450.  His- 
tory of,  453.  Destruction  of,  455, 459.  Com- 
merce of,  454,  456.  Fabrics  of,  457.  In- 
habitants impaled  by  Darius,  307,  note. 
Common  origin  of  inhabitants  with  Assyri- 
ans, 452.  Cupidity  of  their  priests,  454. 
Commerce  and  roads  of,  456.  Corruption 
of,  459.  Cylinders  and  gems  of,  516. 

Badger,  the  Rev.  Mr.,  his  intercourse  with  the 
Nestorians,  364,  note. 

Baghdad,  pashalic  of,  divided,  186,  note.  De- 
parture for,  398.  Entrance  to,  403.  De- 
scription of,  406.  Departure  from,  488. 

Baiandour,  Sultan,  the  tomb  of,  20. 

Bairakdar , the,  83,  204. 

Bairam,  Mussulman  feast  of,  347. 

Baradost,  district  of,  323. 

Bash-kalah,  castle  of,  330. 

Batnaiun,  name  of,  on  bowls,  437,  446. 

Bats,  262. 

Battering-rams,  126. 

Bavian,  sculptures  of,  176.  Inscriptions  of, 
179,  524. 

Baz,  district  of,  372. 

Beauchamp,  M.  de,  discoveries  at  Babylon, 
432. 

Beavers  of  the  Khabour,  252. 

Bedouins,  customs  of,  with  regard  to  captured 
horses,  187.  On  seeing  a stranger,  207.  On 
approaching  tents,  221.  Their  women,  222.  j 


Their  bread,  245.  Their  hospitality,  246 
Their  food,  ib.  Diseases  amongst,  248. 
Their  Cadis,  259.  Their  marks,  263.  Love- 
making  of,  268.  Laws  of  Dakheel,  or  pro- 
tection, 269.  Their  poetry,  271.  Their  sa- 
gacity, 274.  Their  horses,  280.  Their  hon- 
esty, 494. 

Belad,  ancient  district  of,  98,  99. 

Belib,  made  king  of  Babylon,  119,  529. 

Bell,  Mr.,  drowned,  181,  note. 

Bellino’s  cylinder,  118,  note,  296. 

Bells  discovered  at  Nimroud,  150.  Analyses 
of  copper  of,  161. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  his  description  of  Baby- 
lon, 423.  Of  tomb  of  Ezekiel,  427.  Of 
tomb  of  Ezra,  428,  note.  Account  of  captive 
Jews,  445. 

Beth  Khumri,  or  Samaria,  523. 

Biaynee,  ancient  name  of  Armenia,  347. 

Bimerstein,  Dr.,  337,  note. 

Birch,  Mr.,  note  on  Egyptian  seals,  133.  On 
Egyptian  scarabs,  239. 

Birs-’Nimroud,  the,  422,  423.  Restoration  of, 
424. 

Bishi  country  conquered  by  Sennacherib,  119. 

Bitlis,  town  of,  29. 

Bitumen  pits  fired,  172.  Used  for  cement, 
450. 

Blood-revenge  among  Bedouins,  260. 

Boars,  wild,  represented  in  bas-relief,  91. 

Boats  of  Afaij,  469. 

Borsippa,  the  Birs  Nimroud,  426. 

Bowen,  the  Rev.  Mr.,  314,  334,  350. 

Bowls  of  bronze  from  Nimroud,  154.  Earth- 
enware with  Hebrew  inscriptions,  434,  446. 
Date  of,  447. 

Brant,  Mr.,  7. 

Bread,  Arab  mode  of  baking,  245.  Unlawful 
to  see  among  Afaij,  482. 

Breicster,  Sir  D.,  note  on  lens,  167.  On  glass, 
575. 

Bricks,  painted,  at  Khorsabad,  111.  At  Nim- 
roud, 140,  141.  Babylonian,  426,  432,  452, 
453. 

Bronzes,  discovery  of,  150.  Analysis  of,  161, 
571.  Origin  of,  162,  163. 

Buffalos  of  Arabs,  481. 

Bukra,  village  of,  214. 

Bulls,  winged,  transport  of,  represented  in 
bas-reliefs,  86,  98,  99.  At  gateway,  101. 
In  facade  of  Kouyunjik,  117.  At  Arbau, 
235. 

Burckhardt,  his  account  of  the  Bedouins,  204, 
note,  260,  note,  270. 

Bustard,  the,  209.  Hawking  the,  411. 

C. 

Calah,  ancient  name  of  Nimroud,  306,  545, 
note. 

i Caldrons,  discovery,  at  Nimroud,  150.  Value 


INDEX. 


579 


of,  among  ancients,  154.  Represented  in 
bas-relief,  500. 

Camanus  mountain.  See  Kamana. 

Camels  of  Nimroud,  28.  Abstinence  from 
water,  219.  note.  Represented  in  bas-re- 
liefs, 495. 

Canals  of  Babylonia,  455,  456. 

Canning , Sir  S.,  3,  4.  Protects  reformed  Ar- 
menians, 349. 

Captives  in  bas-reliefs,  with  feathers  in  their 
heads,  140.  With  feathered  head-dress, 
196. 

Captivity , Prince  of  the,  427,  446.  Relics  of 
Jews  of  the,  435.  The  history  of  the  Jews 
of  the,  445.  Three  of  the  Jews,  542. 

Car,  for  war,  represented  in  sculptures,  382. 
383. 

Caravanserais,  description  of,  409,  note. 

Carchemish,  199,  242,  244,  305.  Mentioned  on 
Egyptian  monuments,  538. 

Cavalry,  Turkish  irregular,  272. 

Cavern,  a natural,  261.  Artificial,  at  Wan, 
344. 

Cedar-wood  brought  by  Assyrians  from  Leb- 
anon, 307,  550.  Discovered  at  Nimroud, 
308.  Employed  in  palaces,  555. 

Centre  Palace,  Nimroud,  builder  of,  526.  State 
of,  559. 

Ckaal,  district  of,  373. 

Chaldceans  defeated  by  Sennacherib,  119, 123. 
Marshes  of,  379.  Ancient  astrologers,  435. 

Chariot,  an  Assyrian,  127.  For  war,  383,  384. 
Royal,  385. 

Ckark,  a hawk  used  by  Bedouins,  410. 

Charms,  ancient  Jewish,  436,  442.  Eastern, 
447. 

Chellek,  village  of,  42. 

Cherubim  of  Jews  compared  with  Assyrian 
figures,  549. 

Chesney,  Col.,  expedition  under,  405. 

Chinese  bottle  discovered  at  Arban,  238. 
Vases  in  church  of  Jelu,  371. 

Cis,  the  Armenian  patriai-chate  of,  338. 

Claudiopolis,  name  of  Nineveh  in  a Roman 
colony,  49. 

Cock,  image  of,  on  Babylonian  gems,  458. 

Coffins  of  earthenware  at  Arban,  241.  At 
NifFer,  474.  Of  wood,  at  Babel,  428. 

Colonies,  Assyrian,  542. 

Colors  on  pottery,  113.  On  bricks,  140,  and 
note,  432. 

Columns  not  found  at  Babylon,  452.  Used  at 
Nineveh,  554. 

Commerce  of  Babylon,  456. 

Convent,  a Nestorian,  326.  An  Armenian, 
354. 

Cooper,  Mr.,  2,  84.  Returns  to  England,  353. 

Copper,  used  in  colors,  308. 

Corinthian  capital,  198. 

Cowley,  Lord,  protects  the  Armenians,  349. 


Ctesiphon,  ruin  of,  485.  Tradition  connected 
with,  486. 

Cuneiform,  progress  in  deciphering,  522. 

Cuth,  country  of,  458,  and  note. 

Cylinders,  of  Sennacherib,  135.  Babylonian, 
458,  516,  517.  Assyrian,  514,  515.  Phoeni- 
cian, 517.  Persian,  518.  Used  as  seals,  519. 

Cyprus,  discovery  of  silver  bowls  in,  164,  note- 
Assyrian  tablet  found  in,  528. 

Cyrus,  description  of,  376.  Takes  Babylon, 
454,  and  note. 

D. 

Dagon,  representec  in  bas-reliefs,  294,  301. 

Dakheel,  the  law  of,  among  Bedouins,  269. 

Dam,  building  at,  410. 

Damlamajeh,  spring  of,  564. 

Darius,  cylinder  of,  518. 

Deloul.  See  Dromedary. 

Denarii  found  at  Kouyunjik,  502. 

Dereboun,  village  of,  47. 

Dereh  Beys,  the,  9. 

Dervish,  a Persian,  24. 

Desert,  the,  described,  208,  209,  256. 

Divanubar,  name  of  Assyrian  king,  525. 

Diz,  district  of,  366. 

Dizza,  town  of,  328. 

Doubleday,  Mr.,  154. 

Dromedary,  the,  200,  note,  248,  283. 

Drum,  a,  represented  in  bas-relief,  388 
Played  by  Agayls,  409. 

Ducks,  in  marble,  &c.,  used  as  weights,  510, 
513,  and  note. 

Dudjook  tribes,  7,  8. 

Dujail,  canal  of,  490,  491. 

Dura,  plain  of,  401. 

E. 

Ear-ring  of  gold  from  Kouyunjik,  506,  507. 
Moulds  for  casting,  507. 

Eclipse,  Eastern  prejudice  concerning,  470, 
and  note. 

Effiendi,  the,  a Yezidi  chief,  210. 

Egypt,  seal  of  king  of,  132.  Bronzes  of  Egyp- 
tian character,  155,  159.  Relics  of,  discov- 
ered at  Kouyunjik,  505,  506,  and  note.  Con- 
quered by  Essarhaddon,  529. 

Egyptians,  mode  of  transport  of  great  stones, 
97.  Defeated  by  Sennacherib,  121.  An- 
tiquities of,  at  Antioch,  306,  note.  Weights 
used  by,  514. 

Ekron,  name  in  inscriptions,  121. 

Elam,  ancient  name  of,  123,  386,  note.  Con- 
quest of,  180,  304,  382,  383,  496.  Dress  of 
people  of,  384. 

Ellis,  Mr.  Thos.,  translation  of  inscriptions  on 
bowls,  434. 

Elulceus,  king  of  Tyre,  mentioned  in  inscrip- 
tions, 120. 

Embossing  on  bronze  vessels,  155,  and  note. 


580 


INDEX. 


Enamel,  Assyrian,  167,  308, 312.  Babylonian, 
432,  and  Appendix,  No.  3. 

Enoch,  book  of,  447,  and  note. 

Erzeroom,  roads  to,  4.  City  of,  7. 

Eski  Baghdad,  ruins  of,  402. 

Eski  Mosul , ruins  at,  285. 

Essarhaddon,  name  of,  135.  Cylinder  of,  296. 
Name  at  Nebbi  Yunus,  508.  His  monu- 
ments, 529.  His  palace  at  Nimroud,  558. 

Essarhaddon’ s son,  his  bas-reliefs,  381.  His 
name,  386.  His  palace  at  Shereef-Kkan, 
509.  His  monuments,  530. 

Etruscan  bronzes,  Assyrian  character  of,  161. 
Engraved  shells,  314. 

Eulveus  river,  124. 

Eunuch , represented  in  bas-relief,  386. 

Euphrates  river,  16.  Represented  in  bas-re- 
liefs, 377.  Banks  of,  deserted,  400.  Navi- 
gation of,  405.  State  of,  406.  Changes  in 
its  course  at  Babylon,  420.- 

Eusebius  describes  Sennacherib’s  war  against 
Babylon,  529. 

Evemerus,  king  of  Parthia,  sends  Babylonians 
to  Media,  455. 

Evil  Spirit , the,  represented  in  bas-reliefs, 
299. 

Eyes  in  marble  and  enamel,  308. 

Ezekiel , tomb  of,  427. 

Ezra,  tomb  of,  428,  note. 

F. 

Facade  of  Kouyunjik  palace,  115. 

Falcons.  See  Hawking. 

Far  as,  Sheikh  of  the  Tai,  145,  146 

Fawaz,  a hawk,  228. 

Fergusson,  Mr.,  remarks  on  Assyrian  cornice, 
110.  Restoration  of  Assyrian  palaces,  548, 
550,  552,  555,  556. 

Ferhan,  son  of  Sofuk,  283. 

Ferry-boat  at  Mosul,  314. 

Fish-god.  See  Dagon. 

Footstool  of  bronze  discovered,  169. 

Ford,  the  Rev.  Mr.,  202. 

Fountain,  an  Assyrian,  182. 

Funduk,  village  of,  43. 

Futhliyah,  village  and  mound  of,  111. 

Fynyk,  rock  sculptures  at,  45. 


G. 

Galleys  represented  in  bas-reliefs,  195,  295. 
Gate  of  Eastern  cities,  47.  Of  Nineveh,  101. 
Of  palace,  556.  None  discovered  at  Nim- 
roud, 559. 

Gaugamela,  battle  of,  176. 

Gaza,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  121. 

Gazelle,  hawking  the,  411. 

Ghaour,  district  of,  327. 

Ghazir  river,  the,  147,  317. 

Gherara,  mound  o£  excavated,  407. 

Gherdi,  district  ofi  322.  Chief  of,  324. 


| Glass  bowls,  166.  Vase  ofSargon,  166.  From 
Babel,  429.  From  Kouyunjik,  504,  507. 
Analysis  of,  573,  575. 

Gods,  the  twelve  Assyrian,  302,  544.  Table 
of,  537. 

Gold  inlaid  in  bronze,  166.  Brought  to  Baby 
Ion,  457.  Mask  of,  503.  Laid  over  figures 
in  temples,  555. 

Gomel  river,  176. 

; Greek  art,  resemblance  to  Assyrian,  393.  Re- 
mains at  Kouyunjik,  503,  504. 
j Greyhound,  Persian,  40. 

Gubal,  name  of,  in  inscription,  307. 

; Gula  Shailu  lake,  16. 
j Guli,  village  of,  9. 

| Gumpach,  M.  Von,  conjecture  as  to  sundial  of 
f Ahaz,  425,  note. 

Gunduk,  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  at,  318. 

Guzelder,  village  of,  36. 

H. 

i Hadj,  the,  or  caravan  to  Mecca,  460. 

Hagarenes,  conquered  by  Sennacherib,  119. 

Hakkiari,  pashalic  of,  327. 

Hall,  great,  in  palace  of  Kouyunjik,  380. 

Hamki , village  of,  33. 

Hammum  Ali,  mound  of,  398. 

Hanging  gardens,  198,  425. 

Hangings  of  silk  in  Babylonian  palace,  451. 
At  Nineveh,  556. 

Harba,  ruin  of,  491,  note. 

! Harisa,  an  Arab  dish,  72. 

I Haroun,  mound  of,  466. 
j Haips  represented  in  bas-reliefs,  388,  389. 

Hartushi  Kurds,  361. 

| Hatem  Tai,  anecdote  of,  146,  'note. 

Hawking,  224,228,254.  Falcons,  how  bought, 
283,  410.  Training,  411. 

Hazad,  king  of  Syria,  mentioned  in  inscrip- 
tions, 523. 

Hebar.  See  Khabour. 

} Hebrew  characters  on  bowls  from  Babylon,  434. 
| Heeren  on  the  commerce  of  the  Babylonians, 
456,  note. 

! Hercules,  the  Assyrian,  115,  181,  506,  508,  516. 
j Herki,  tribe  of,  186,  322,  326. 

Hermus,  river,  mentioned  in  inscriptions,  306. 

' Hezekiah,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  121.  W ars 
| of  Sennacherib  with,  122. 

Hillah,  arrival  at,  414.  Governor  of,  415,  416. 
Built  of  Babylonian  bricks,  431. 

; Hincks,  the  Rev.  Dr.,  translations  of  inscrip- 
tions, 99,  118,  179,  304.  Discovery  of  name 
of  Sennacherib,  117.  Of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
117,  note.  Of  syllabarium,  296.  Discov- 
eries, 522.  On  Wan  inscriptions,  342,  343, 
345.  Translation  of  inscription  of  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  451. 

Hindiyah  canal  and  marshes,  408,  409,  421. 

Hittites,  the,  name  of  Syrians,  120.  Tribute 


INDEX. 


581 


of,  305.  Name  of,  on  Egyptian  monuments, 
539. 

Hooks,  bronze,  discovered,  150.  Analysis  of, 
Appendix  3. 

Horses , trappings  of,  152.  Pedigrees  of  Be- 
douin, 187.  Bedouin,  220.  Turkish,  272. 
Arab  breeds,  278.  Represented  in  bas-re- 
liefs, 291,  384.  Clothed  in  armour,  384. 
Howar,  Sheikh  of  the  Tai,  144,  186. 

Hymer,  the  ruins  of,  462. 

I.  J. 

Jays,  tribe  of,  253. 

Ibn  Reshid,  Sheikh  of,  Nedjd,  460. 

Idols  of  Assyrians  carried  away,  181.  Taken 
by  Assyrians,  194,  498. 

Jehesh , tribe  of,  205. 

Jehu,  name  of,  on  obelisk,  523. 

Jelu,  mountains  of,  327,  363,  368.  Valley  of, 
368.  Ancient  church  in,  370.  Bishop  of, 
371. 

Jerraiyah,  mound  of,  78. 

Jews  represented  in  bas-reliefs,  128,  389. 
Dress  of,  129,  and  note,  388.  Captives  on 
the  Chebar  (Habor),  241,  389.  Families  in 
Kurdistan,  323.  Nomades,  331.  On  Per- 
sian frontiers,  333.  Pilgrimage  to  Ezekiel's 
tomb,  427.  Relics  of,  from  Babylon,  434. 
Given  to  astrology,  435.  Belief  in  evil  spir- 
its, 436.  Their  amulets  and  charms,  443, 
note.  Their  history  after  the  captivity,  445. 
Ancient  political  state  of,  compared  with 
Assyria,  541,  542. 

Illibi,  a country  conquered  bv  Sennacherib, 
120. 

Impalement , 307. 

India , overland  road  to,  401.  Intercourse  of 
Babylonians  with,  457.  Dogs  of,  brought  to 
Babylon,  457.  Political  state  of,  compared 
with  Assyria,  542. 

Inclined  way  discovered,  394. 

Inclosures  of  Nimroud  and  Kouyunjik,  545, 
656. 

Inlaying,  art  of,  known  to  Assyrians,  166. 
Inscriptions  deciphered,  98,  99.  Progress 
made  in,  522. 

Jones,  Capt.,  recovers  stranded  lion,  174.  Sur- 
veys Mesopotamia,  404,  note.  Conduct  to- 
wards Arabs,  481.  Survey  of  Kouyunjik, 
560,  note. 

Ionic  ornament  in  Assyria,  100,  380,  552,  and 
note. 

Jonah , tomb  of,  507.  Excavations  in  mound 
of,  508.  His  preaching,  540,  and  note. 
Jovian,  retreat  of,  402. 

Iron , bronze  cast  over,  162.  Objects  discov- 
ered in,  164,  308,  507. 

Ishpuinish,  name  of  king  at  Wan,  344,  345. 
Judi  mountain,  ai-k  rested  on,  529.  Tablet  at 
foot  of,  529. 


Julamerik , town  of,  365. 

Jumjuma.  See  Amran. 

Ivory,  objects  in,  discovered,  164,  308,  312. 
Izzet  Pasha,  330. 

K. 

Kadesia , site  of  battle,  403. 

Kalah-Sherghat,  excavations  at,  497. 
Kamana,  mountain  of,  mentioned  in  inscrip- 
tions, 307. 

Karachok , hills  of,  188. 

Karagol , village  of,  14. 

Kar-Duniyas,  a city  of  Chaldsea,  118,  180, 
306. 

Karboul,  Sheikh,  466. 

Karnaineh  Khan,  492. 

Karnessa  ou  Daoleh  mountain,  362. 

Kasr,  the,  of  Rich,  431.  See  MujelibA 
Kathimain,  tombs  of,  403,  404,  490. 

Kazail,  Arab  tribe  of,  427,  461. 

Kemball,  Captain,  405. 

Keshaf,  mound  of,  186. 

Keswak,  village  of,  28. 

Khabour  river,  46,  50.  Journey  to,  200.  Ar- 
rival at,  227.  Discoveries  on,  235.  Ancient 
condition  of  country  on,  241.  Course  of,  262. 
Sources  of,  265.  Mentioned  in  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions, 306. 

Khan-i-resh,  village  of,  323. 

Khan  Mahmoud,  a Kurdish  chief,  337,  357. 
Kharareh,  subdued  by  Sennacherib,  119. 
Kharkhar,  a country  conquered  by  Senna- 
cherib, 120. 

Khatouniyah , lake  of,  275. 

Khauser,  the  river,  64,  99,  180. 

Khazana  Kapousi,  tablet  at  Wan,  342. 
Khelath.  See  Akhlat. 

Kherimmi  conquered  by  Sennacherib,  119. 
Khoraif,  a Bedouin,  200. 

Khorkhor,  name  of  gardens  at  Wan,  341. 
Khorsabad,  discoveries  at,  109.  Builder  of, 
125.  Inclosure  of,  560. 

Kiamil  Pasha , 64. 

Kifil,  tomb  of  Ezekiel,  427. 

King,  bas-relief  of,  at  Nimroud,  302.  On  bas- 
relief,  385.  Table  of  names,  531. 

Kirikor,  an  Armenian  monk,  354. 

Kochers,  or  nomades,  186,  322. 

Kochhanes,  village  of,  363. 

Kordereh,  stream,  189. 

Kormawor,  inscription  in  church  of,  351. 
Kosh-ab,  castle  of,  332. 

Kosli,  village  of,  13. 

Koukab,  volcanic  hill  of,  233,  261,  274. 
Kouyunjik,  discoveries  at,  55,  62,  99,  Ac. 
General  description  of,  63.  Excavations  re 
newed  in,  80,  85.  Grand  entrance  discov- 
ered, 115.  Descending  passage,  288.  Res 
ideuce  at,  314.  Extent  of  ruins  excavated, 
501.  Small  objects  from,  504,  506,  507.  Res 


•55*2 


IXTEX. 


toration  of  palace,  550,  656.  In  closure  and  ' 

defences,  560,  562. 

Kurdistan,  journey  into,  320.  Dialects  of, 
323.  Chiefs  of,  413. 

Kurds,  chief  of  43,  3*23,  3*24.  Character  of, 
320.  Fanaticism,  3*25. 

L. 

Lackisk,  siege  of  represented,  126.  Name 
of  on  bas-reliefs,  1*28,  129,  note. 

Lajard,  conjecture  as  to  triad.  135,  note. 

Lak.  mounds  of  109. 

Latif  Agha,  S3. 

Lead  found  in  ruins,  308. 

Lebanon,  cedar  wood  from,  300,  303.  Con- 
quered by  Sardanapalus,  312.  Cedar  wood 
of  in  8 aby Ionian  palaces,  307. 

Ledjmiyat,  encampment  at,  253. 

Lens  of  reck  crystal,  166, 167. 

Levers  used  by  Assyrians,  96. 

Lessen , district  of  362. 

Limestone  in  palace  of  Koayunjik.  381. 
Lindky,  Dr.,  notes  on  oaks,  31,  567. 

Lion  (headed)  figure,  395. 

Lions  brought  as  tribute,  116.  Statue  of,  at 
Arban,  237.  Found  on  tbe  Khaboar,  251. 
Colossal  statues,  at  Nimroud,  310.  Tame, 
at  Hiliah.  415.  Found  in  marshes  of  Baby- 
lonia. 481.  Mode  of  capturing,  481,  482. 
Bronze  weights,  511,  513,  and  note . 

Lions  rtcinged  , removal  of  137,  171.  Sent  to 
B aghdad,  173.  Colossal,  discovered  at  Nim- 
roud.  299. 

Locusts  represented  in  bas-reliefs,  239. 

Loft  us.  Mr.,  discoveries  at  Niffer  and  W ark  a, 
429,  463,  475,  476,  478. 

Lutibri.  name  of  king  at  Wan,  345. 


M. 

Madaktn,  a district  of  Soriana,  386. 
Makmoudiyah,  valley  and  town  of  331. 

Maid  an  Arabs.  461,  480. 

Makkoul  bills,  492. 

Makloub  bills.  316. 

Malan , Bev.  Mr.,  314. 

Malatiyak , cuneiform  inscriptions  at,  339,  note. 
Matnanli , tribe  of  15. 

Mansouriyah , village  of  46. 

Marduk,  a god  of  tbe  Babylonians,  451. 

Mar  Skamoun , 363,  364. 

Marshes  represented  in  bas-reliefs,  379,  497, 
498.  Of  tbe  Hindiyah,  421,  422.  Of  the 
Afaij.  471.  Of  Southern  Mesopotamia,  430. 
Mecca,  return  of  caravan  from,  460. 

Median  Wail,  403,  491. 

Mediterranean  Sea  mentioned  in  inscriptions, 
307. 

Meher  Kapousi , inscription  of  343 
Mehemet , Pasha  of  W an,  335. 

Mdek  Tcums  of  Yezidis,  39. 


Menakem,  discovery  of  name,  526. 

Merodack  Baladan , his  name  in  inscriptions. 
118, 123, 180.  W ar  against,  represented  iu 
bas-reliefs,  379.  W ar  against,  described  by 
Eusebius,  529. 

Meroc.  See  -Ethiopia. 

Mencanen,  village  of  361. 

Mesopotamia,  tribute  from,  305.  Ancient  state 
of  215,  308,  340,  347,  543.  Journey  into 
Southern,  463.  Present  state  of,  480. 
Mespiia , walls  of.  381. 

Metallurgy  of  Assyrians,  162. 

MijweO,  a Bedouin  chief,  259. 

MtUdduris,  name  of  king  at  W an,  344,  345. 
Milli  Kurds,  264,  266. 

1 Mineral  spring,  329. 

Mi  nnas,  name  of  Armenian  king,  342,  345, 351. 
Mirage , remarkable  effect  of  486. 

; Miriam,  village  of  212. 

Mirza  Agha,  a Yezidi  chief,  37. 

' Moghamis , Sheikh,  255. 

Mohammed E min.  Sheikh,  200,  234.  His  tents. 

227,  *242,  283. 

Mokkamonr,  ruins  of,  187. 

Monoliths  at  Nimroud,  304,  311. 

» Montefii  Arabs,  461. 

Moses  of  Chorene,  description  of  W an,  336. 
Mosul,  arrival  at,  49. 

Motassem  Billah,  palace  of  at  Samarrah,  402. 
Moulds  for  ear-rings  discovered,  506,  507. 
Mound,  building  represented,  93. 

Mousa  Bey , a Kurdish  chief  324. 

; M'oxoene.  See  Mukus. 

MujelibS,  mound  of,  413.  Discoveries  in,  431, 
433.  Painted  walls  and  basalt  lion,  432. 
Tree  on,  432,  433. 

Mukus,  pass  into,  357.  District  of  353. 

Mule  ridden  in  battle,  382.  By  kings,  354. 

note. 

Museef,  or  guest-tent,  482. 

Music,  instruments  of,  represented  in  bas-re- 
liefe,  383-390. 
j Musseiyib,  village  of,  409. 

I 

A abatkotans.  conquered  by  Sennacherib.  119 
Xadir-Shah,  his  encampment  at  Koayunjik 
j 315. 

• Xaghit , cities  of  123. 

Xahiri,  tribute  of  305,  340.  Name  of  in  in 
scriptions  of  W an,  346.  See  Mesopotamia 
Xahancan,  canal,  402. 

Xahr-el-Kelb , tablets  of  Sennacherib  at,  179. 
Xahum,  tomb  of  507,  note. 

, Xames,  Assyrian  royal,  124. 

Xamet  Agha,  chief  of  Zibari,  320. 

Xamo,  a Jacobite  chief  36. 

Xarek , village  and  church  of,  356. 

| X asr.  Sheikh,  63. 

. Xarkur,  plain  of  317. 


INDEX. 


583 


Nazi,  a Yezidi  chief,  37. 

Nazik,  lake  of,  17. 

Nebbi  Yunus.  See  Jonah. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  name  of,  117,  note.  His  gold- 
en image  at  Dura,  401.  Bricks  and  stones 
bearing  his  name,  423,  428,  430,  431.  Re- 
built Babylon,  426,  453.  Tablet  of,  451. 

Nedjd,  road  to,  286.  Present  state  of,  460. 

Neel,  Shat-el,  a great  canal,  465,  468. 

Nees,  a fabulous  animal,  482. 

Negoub,  tablet  from  tunnel  of,  525,  526. 

Nergal,  an  idol,  458. 

Nerib,  a city  taken  by  Assyrians,  305. 

Nestorian  villages  near  Akra,  318,  484.  F am- 
ilies  in  Gherdi,  323.  Bishop  of  Shemisden, 
326.  Districts,  361.  Patriarch,  363.  Turk- 
ish oppression,  366, 372,  373.  A bishop,  370- 
372.  A church,  371. 

Nevobold,  Captain,  83,  note. 

Niebuhr,  remarks  on  Greek  art,  393. 

Niffer,  first  view  of,  467,  468.  Description  of, 
468.  Excavations  at,  472.  Coffins  discov- 
ered, 474. 

Night  monsters,  Jewish  belief  in,  437,  and 
note. 

Nimroud,  return  to,  81.  Discoveries  at,  104. 
Flood  at,  299.  Small  temples  at,  299,  310. 
Account  of  building  of  north-west  palace  in 
inscriptions,  306.  Small  objects  from,  308, 
309.  Restoration  of  platform,  556. 

Nimroud  Dagh  mountains,  28. 

Nineveh,  Roman  coins  of,  502.  Its  founder, 
according  to  Rawlinson,  524.  Name  of,  on 
Egyptian  monuments,  524,  538,  note.  Ex- 
tent of,  546,  548.  Described  by  old  En- 
glish travellers,  564. 

Ninos,  castle  of,  on  site  of  Nineveh,  501. 

Nisroch,  the  eagle-headed  god,  543,  note. 

Noah,  a temple  to,  509,  note. 

Nourdooz,  district  of,  360. 

Nur  Ullah  Bey,  murderer  of  Schulz,  329, 
330. 

Nuvaki,  ancient  name  of  Susiana  or  Elam, 
123,  304,  386. 

o. 

Oaks,  of  Kurdistan,  31,  567. 

Oannes.  See  Dagon. 

Obelisk,  from  Nimroud,  by  whom  raised,  522. 
Name  of  Jehu  on,  523. 

Omri,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  523. 

Ooroomiyah,  American  schools  at,  350. 

Opis,  site  of,  403. 

Ormuzd,  form  of,  518. 

Orontes,  river  mentioned  in  inscriptions, 
306. 

Ossofa,  village  of,  216. 

Oxus,  river,  supposed  to  be  mentioned  in  in- 
scriptions, 527. 

Ozair  Agha,  208. 


P. 

Padan-Aram,  mentioned  on  Egyptian  mon- 
uments, 538. 

Pahlou,  cuneiform  inscription  at,  339,  note, 
347,  note.  * 

Palace  at  Nimroud  built,  305.  Of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 451.  Assyrian  mode  of  lighting, 
551,  552.  More  than  one  story,  555.  In- 
ternal decorations,  555. 

Palmyra,  letters  on  ruins  of,  435. 

Parasang,  its  length,  49. 

Partridge,  of  Kurdistan,  331 . 

Patnos,  cuneiform  inscription  at,  339,  note. 

Patriarch  of  Akhtamar,  354,  356.  Bodies  of 
Chaldaean  patriarchs  discovered,  238,  note. 

Pearls  brought  to  Babylon,  456. 

Pedestals  discovered  at  Kouyunjik,  501. 

Percy,  Dr.,  notes  on  bronze  and  other  sub 
stances  from  Assyria,  161,  571. 

Persia,  frontiers  of,  332.  Costume  of  ancient 
kings  of)  376,  384.  A prince  of)  409.  Con 
quest  of  Babylon,  454.  Relics  of)  at  Kou- 
j yunjik,  505. 

| Persian  Gulf  navigated  by  Babylonians,  456, 
457.  Cylinders,  518.  Houses  compared 
with  Assyrian,  553. 

Phoenician  seals,  131.  Scarab,  157.  Letters 
on  bronze,  159.  Workers  in  metal,  162. 
Coast  conquered  by  Assyrians,  195.  Trib- 
ute to  Assyrian  king,  307.  Letters  on  Bab- 
ylonian bricks,  453.  Trade  with  Babylon. 
457.  Cylinders,  517. 

Pine-apple  in  bas-reliefs,  289. 

Pipes,  the  double,  represented  in  bas-reliefs, 
388,  390. 

Plaster  on  walls  of  palaces,  450,  555. 

Plough,  Armenian,  18,  329,  351. 

Poetry  of  Bedouins,  271. 

PoUedrara,  bronzes,  &c.,  from,  compared  with 
Assyrian,  161. 

Poole,  Mr.  Stuart,  note  on  denarii,  503.  Sug- 
gestions as  to  weight,  514,  note. 

Posikeah,  name  of,  on  bowls,  442,  446. 

Pottery  from  Babylon,  429.  From  Kouyun- 
jik, 504. 

Priest,  Assyrian,  sacrificing,  194. 

Protestant  religion,  extension  of,  in  Turkey, 
349. 

Propylceum  at  Khorsabad,  111. 

Pul,  monuments  of,  526. 

Pyramid  at  Nimroud,  excavations  in,  104. 

a. 

Quarries  of  alabaster,  112. 

Quintus  Curtius,  description  of  Persian  king, 
376. 

R. 

Rafts  of  skins,  196,  377,  397. 


584 


INDEX. 


Rahwanduz,  mountains  of,  322. 

Ras-al-Ain,  source  of  the  Khabour,  265. 

Rassam,  Mr.  Hormuzd,  84. 

Rathaiyah,  the  wife  of  Suttum,  223,  227. 

Ratclinson,  Col.,  83,  Sculptures  purchased  by 
111.  Discovery  of  annals  df  Sennacherib,  j 
117  ; of  name  of  father  of  Sargon,  298,  note. 
On  the  Wan  inscriptions,  346,  note.  Theory  : 
as  to  Babylon,  426  ; as  to  Wurka  and  Ur,  1 
477,  note;  as  to  tablets  from  Wurka,  479. 
Discoveries,  522,  526,  note. 

Records,  chamber  of,  296.  Of  early  Nimroud 
king,  304,  311.  Nature  of  Assyrian,  540. 

Rediff,  meaning  of  term,  200. 

Redtcan,  town  of,  36. 

Reshid  Pasha , 7. 

Rich,  Mr.,  description  of  Babylon,  419,  note, 
420.  Sketch  of  the  Birs  Nimroud,  424. 
Discoveries  at  Babel,  428. 

Rishwan,  an  Arab  Sheikh,  219. 

Roads,  Turkish,  4.  Babylonian,  456. 

Rollers  used  by  Assyrians,  96. 

Romaine,  Mr.,  398. 

Roman  relics  discovered  at  Kouyunjik,  502,  | 
504. 

Ropes,  Assyrian,  96,  and  note. 

Ross,  Dr.,  405. 

Rubbiyah,  tribe  of,  481. 

S. 

Sabaco,  seal  of,  132,  and  note. 

Sabcean  letters  and  dialect  on  Babylonian 
bowls,  436,  446. 

Sahiman,  brother  of  Suttum,  220,  489,  493. 

Saklawiyah  canal,  408. 

Saladin,  birth-place  of,  399. 

Samaria,  name  in  inscriptions,  523. 

Samarrah,  town  of,  402,  492. 

Sand-hills,  moving,  465. 

Sandwith , Dr.,  2,  353. 

Sardanapalus,  or  Ashurakhbal,  his  tomb,  108.  ! 
Name  read  by  Col.  Rawlinson,  304.  His  j 
records,  304,  311.  Builds  a city  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, 305.  Campaigns  of,  306.  Small 
statue  of,  312.  His  records,  522,  525. 

Sargon,  name  of,  125,  and  note.  Name  on 
glass  vase,  166.  His  cotemporary  at  Wan, 
346.  Name  on  bricks  of  Shereef-Khan,  509. 
Monuments  of,  528. 

Sassanian  ruins,  403. 

Saulcy,  M.  de,  investigations  of,  522. 

Saw  of  iron  from  Nimroud,  165. 

Scarabs  on  bronzes,  157, 166.  Egyptian,  dis- 
covered at  Arban,  239.  At  Nineveh,  505, 
note. 

Sceptre  of  ivory  found  at  Nimroud,  165. 

Schools,  Armenian,  at  W an,  347.  In  Turkey, 
349. 

Schulz  murdered,  329,  and  note.  His  account 
of  W an,  337. 


Seals,  Assyrian,  discovered,  130.  Phoenician 
and  Egyptian,  130.  Of  king  of  Egypt,  132 
Importance  of,  in  East,  519,  note. 

Seleucia,  ruins  of,  485. 

Seleucus  founded  Seleucia,  454. 

Seleucidce,  remains  of  period  of,  at  Kouyun- 
jik, 503. 

Semil,  village  of  47. 

Semiramis  founded  W an,  336. 

Sennacherib  superintending  transport  of  co- 
lossi, 98.  His  annals  discovered,  117.  Name 
of,  124.  Image  of,  127,  376,  379.  His  sig- 
net, 135.  His  sculptures  at  B avian,  177. 
His  buildings  at  Shomamok,  189,  190.  His 
sons  found  dynasties  in  Armenia,  346,  note. 
Name  at  Shereef-Khan,  509.  Date  of  ac- 
cession, 524.  His  monuments,  528,  555. 

Sert,  river  of,  32. 

Seven  Sleepers,  the  cave  of,  175. 

Shabbak,  sect  of,  183. 

Shahan  Bey,  9. 

Shaheen,  a falcon,  410. 

Shalmaneser,  name  of,  125,  and  note.  Name 
on  monuments,  528. 

Shammar,  tribe  of,  divisions,  220,  note. 

Gebel,  present  state  of,  460. 

Sharutiuian,  the,  306.  The  Shairetana  of  the 
Egyptians,  306,  note. 

Shattak,  district  of,  359. 

Shat-el-Arab.  See  Euphrates. 

Shell,  engraved,  from  Wurka,  479. 

Shemdeena,  district  of,  324.  Nestorian  bishop 
of,  326. 

Shemshani . mound  of,  254. 

Shamas-adar,  name  of,  according  to  Col.  Rav,-- 
linson,  525. 

Sheikh  Adi,  67.  Ceremonies  at,  70. 

Shepherds’  Gate,  tradition  of.  at  W an,  343 

Shereef-Khan,  excavations  at,  509. 

Shields  of  bronze  discovered,  164. 

Shincan,  district  of,  322. 

Shomamok,  plain  of,  146.  Excavations  in, 
185.  The  Kasr,  189.  The  Gla,  190. 

Shushan,  city  of,  represented,  386.  Name  of. 
in  inscriptions,  387. 

Sidon,  name  of,  in  inscriptions,  120, 307.  Mar- 
iners of,  employed  by  Sennacherib,  123. 
Workers  in  metal  of,  162. 

Singara,  coin  of,  211.  See  Sinjar. 

Sinjar,  the,  208,  211,  224,  276,  278. 

Skins  used  for  rafts,  and  to  cross  rivers,  377. 

Snake-charmer,  a,  217. 

Sockets  of  gates  of  palace,  138. 

Solomon,  bronze  vessels  of,  162.  Jewish 
kingdom  under,  542.  His  buildings  com- 
pared with  Assyrian,  548,  549.  Form  of  his 
house,  554. 

South-east  Palace,  Nimroud,  genealogy  from, 
510.  Builder  of,  530.  State  of,  558. 

Stags,  represented,  91. 


INDEX. 


5 35 


Statue,  an  entire,  discovered,  312. 

Steamer,  English,  on  Tigris,  405. 

Stewart,  Mr.,  Babylonian  bowls  from  his  col- 
lection, 434. 

Storms,  206,  250,  315.  On  Lake  Wan,  356. 

Studs , in  mother  of  pearl  and  ivory,  150. 

Subhan  mountain,  13,  14,  331. 

Suleiman  Agha,  visit  to,  258,  264. 

Summaicliah,  village  of,  490. 

Summer,  in  Assyria,  315. 

Sumsion,  Mr.,  repairs  bas-reliefs  from  Kou- 
yunjik,  396,  note. 

Sundial  of  Ahaz,  425,  note. 

Susiana,  conquest  of,  123,  124.  Rivers  of, 
387.  See  Elam. 

Susubira,  king  of  Chaldaea,  123,  499. 

Suttum,  a Bedouin  Sheikh,  200, 202,  207.  His 
mare,  218.  His  encampment,  221.  Rathai- 
yah,  his  wife,  223,  233.  Adla,  his  wife,  250. 
His  hawk,  254.  His  honesty,  493.  His 
death,  493,  note. 

Syria,  conquered  by  Sennacherib,  120. 

Syriac  characters  on  Babylonian  bowl,  443, 
444. 

T. 

Tablets,  set  up  by  Sennacherib,  120.  At  Ba- 
vian,  177.  At  Nahr-el-Kelb,  178,  179,  note. 
Inscribed  clay,  295, 309.  Of  Assyrian  kings, 
304,  318.  At  Wan,  338.  From  Wurka, 
479.  With  cylinder  impressed,  519. 

Tadwan,  village  of,  28. 

Tai,  tribe  of,  attack  on  Nimroud,  142.  Visit 
to,  144. 

Talent,  the  Babylonian,  513,  note. 

Talmud,  the,  445. 

Tartan,  a title,  125,  note. 

Tatar,  tombs,  20. 

Taylor,  Col.,  his  cylinder,  118,  note,  296. 

Tekrit , town  of,  399,  492. 

Tel-Anu,  name  of  Niffer,  473,  note. 

Tel  Ermah,  mound,  206. 

Tel  Kef,  village  of,  48. 

Temple  of  Jerusalem,  compared  with  Assyri- 
an palaces,  548,  553. 

Tent,  an  Assyrian,  127,  and  note.  An  Arab, 
144,  221. 

Thief,  a Bedouin,  251.  Tracing,  274. 

Thistles , grown  for  oil,  351. 

Threshing-floors,  14. 

Throne,  a,  127.  Discovery  of,  167. 

Tiglath  Pileser,  monuments  of,  526.  His  an- 
nals said  to  be  discovered,  526,  note. 

Tigris,  the  river,  39,  41,  204.  Changes  in 
course  of,  64,  note.  Sources  of  Eastern 
branch,  357.  Head  waters  of,  360,  361.  De- 
scription of  banks  of,  399.  Navigation  of, 
405. 

Tilleh,  village  of,  41. 

Timour  Mirza,  409. 


Tin,  mixed  with  bronze,  161.  With  colors. 
140,  note. 

Tkhoma,  district  of,  372. 

Tokkari,  conquered  by  Sennacherib,  123, 196. 

Tombs,  in  the  rock,  22.  At  Bavian,  176. 
Mussulman,  317.  At  Wan,  340,  345.  At 
Kouyunjik,  503. 

Tortures , represented,  383,  390,  391. 

Tower  at  Nimroud  discovered,  104.  Tomb  in, 
106. 

Trajan , visits  house  in  Babylon  in  which 
Alexander  died,  455,  note. 

Treasure  chamber  discovered,  149. 

Trebizond,  4. 

Tripod,  stands  of  bronze,  152. 

Trumpet,  speaking,  in  bas-reliefs,  90. 

Tulip,  the  origin  of  an  Assyrian  ornament, 
156. 

Turkey,  reforms  in,  9.  State  of  frontiers,  332. 

Turks,  destructive  policy  of,  145,  401,  406,  480. 

Turtle,  a,  taken  in  the  Khabour,  251. 

Tusks,  elephants’,  discovered  at  Nimroud, 
165. 

Tyre,  mariners  of,  employed  by  Sennacherib, 
123.  Name  of,  in  inscriptions,  307. 

U.  V. 

Varzahan , ruins  at,  6. 

Vastan,  village  of,  354. 

Vault  at  Nimroud,  138. 

Vaux,  Mr.,  notes  on  metallurgy  of  the  an- 
cients, 573. 

Venus,  the  Assyrian,  images  of,  408. 

Um-Jerjcli,  encampment  at,  265. 

Volcano.  See  Koukab. 

W. 

Wali  Bey,  a Turcoman  chief,  147,  189. 

Walls  represented,  196.  Of  Kouyunjik,  563. 

Walpole,  Hon.  F.,  314,  318. 

Wan,  fish  in  lake  of,  17.  First  view  of,  18. 
331.  Jewish  families  taken  there  by  Ti- 
granes,  331.  Arrival  at,  334.  History  ol, 
336.  Inscriptions  at,  345.  List  of  kings 
from  monuments  of,  345.  Language  of 
inscriptions  of,  345.  Rising  of  the  lake, 
350. 

Wararad,  ancient  name  of  Armenia,  346. 

Weights,  Assyrian,  discovered  at  Nimroud, 
510. 

Well,  a,  at  Kouyunjik,  59.  At  Nimroud,  149. 

Wine-strainer  of  bronze,  153. 

Wolf,  a,  193. 

Women,  Arab,  their  dress,  222.  Of  the  Milli 
tribe,  267.  Singing,  represented  in  bas-re- 
liefs, 388,  389. 

Wurka,  coffins  discovered  at,  474,  475. 

X. 

I Xenophon,  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  re- 


* 


586 


INDEX. 


marks  on,  41,  44,  note,  49, 191.  Description 
of  Cyras,  376. 

Xerxes,  inscription  of,  at  Wan,  338, 345.  De- 
stroyed the  temples  of  Babylon,  449. 

Y. 

Yasubirablai,  country  conquered  by  Senna- 
cherib, 119. 

Yavan,  the  Greek  islands,  120.  Mariners  of, 
employed  by  Sennacherib,  123. 

Yedi  Klissia,  convent  of,  351.  Cuneiform  in- 
scriptions at,  352. 

Yezidip,  state  of,  3.  Reception  by,  33,  36. 
Bronze  bird  o£  39,  40.  A meeting  with,  48. 
Sacred  ceremonies  o£  68.  A book  of  the, 
74.  Their  chants,  77,  and  Appendix  2. 


Customs  of,  77.  Visit  from  chiefs,  109.  A 
marriage,  174.  Of  the  Sinjar,  211.  Their 
houses,  214.  Their  dress,  215.  On  Persian 
frontiers,  333. 

Yusuf  Causal,  2, 33, 174.  His  father’s  tomb,  216. 
Z. 

Zab  river,  143,  147,  186,  321,  329,  366. 

Zaid,  an  Arab,  418. 

Zerga , plain  of,  204. 

Zibari  Kurds,  320.  Chiefs  of,  320. 

Zibbliyah,  ruin  of,  484. 

Zidkaha,  king  of  Sidon,  121. 

Zobeide,  tomb  of,  404.  Tribe  of,  414,  461. 

Zunz,  Dr.,  Essay  on  Jewish  Literature,  445 
note. 


THE  END. 


1 1 


% 


\ 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 

VflHL  6342 


